Index
A
Absaroka Thrust
compressional tectonics, 465–466
discontinuity of structure with depth, 474–475
fault bend folds, 589
Absolute depth uncertainty
vertical and deviated wells, 58–59
Accuracy
delta d/d plots, 787
downthrown stratigraphic section prediction, 698–699
GPS surveys, 50
workstation-based interpretations, 480
Active axial surfaces
backsliding, 663
fault bend folds, 593–594, 596
fault propagation folds, 598
growth structures, 701, 711–713
hanging wall anticlines, 638–641
imbricate structures, 617
interference structures, 632
listric faults, 689
master synthetic faults, 654
pregrowth structures, 696
strike-ramps, 668
Actual relative displacement, 279
Additive property of faults, 299, 408–410
Admissible interpretation in structural balancing, 554
Ages
faulted surfaces, 43
intersecting fault patterns, 306
Aguaclara Fault and ramp
compressional tectonics, 470
Alamitos horizon, 745
Aliasing seismic data, 168
Aliso Canyon disaster, 60
Allan sections in fault-seal analysis, 265, 267
Almond Formation, 258
Along hole depth (AHD)
log measurements, 82
reservoir pressure, 80
vertical wells, 51
Angle assumptions for strike-slip faults, 730–731
Angular unconformities
framework horizons, 517
infill strategies, 525
Animated models in structural balancing, 551
Annotating
log correlation techniques, 150–154
well information, 171
Anschutz Ranch Field, 465
Anticlines
compressional tectonics, 465–466
contour maps, 361
cross sections, 221
fault bend folds, 592
flat thrust faults, 322
hanging wall. See Hanging wall anticlines
hydrocarbon traps, 452
interference structures, 632
manual integration of fault and structure maps, 389
strike-slip fault tectonics, 462–464
Antilistric faults
compaction effects, 672, 680, 687
extensional faulting, 297
fault surface maps, 288
Antithetic direction dips, 649
Antithetic faults
master synthetic faults, 656
Appalachians
cross-section consistency, 569–571
fault bend folds, 592
fault propagation folds, 599–600, 613
fold-and-thrust belts, 315
Apparent Coulomb collapse angle, 765–766
Apparent relative displacement, 279
Apparent throw
contours, 375
cross-sections across faults, 239–240
fault surface sections, 266–267
interpretation errors, 279
seismic data, 327–330, 411–413
Aquifers
tilted hydrocarbon/water contacts, 875–878
Arbitrary lines
autotracking methodology, 521–523
strike-ramps, 670
well projections, 239
Area accountability, 544
Asymmetric folds. See Fault propagation folds
Asymmetric structures, 605
Atwater-Miller sand compaction formula, 686
Austin Chalk, 62
Autogenerated fault gaps, 528
Automatically retrodeform fault bend folds, 594
Autotracking methodology
depth conversion, 533
fault interpretation, 490
fault reconnaissance, 495–496, 498
horizon interpretation, 518–522
Axial surfaces
active. See Active axial surfaces
backsliding, 663
dip spectral analysis, 623–624
hanging wall anticlines, 640–641
kink method, 580
Azimuth
deviated wells, 146
fault maps, 284
B
B-axes
compressional structures, 221
Balanced cross sections
bed length consistency, 544
compressional tectonics, 466
imbricate structures, 620
Philosophical Doctrine, 6
ramps, 559
strike-slip faults, 748–749, 753–754
Balanced tangential directional surveys, 69
Balancing
classical techniques. See Classical balancing techniques
compressional structures, 540–541
nonclassical techniques. See Nonclassical balancing techniques
Bally, A. W., 554
Base-of-Unit structure maps
multisurface stacking, 33, 35–36
Basemaps
contours, 30
directional well plots, 73
fault surface maps, 43, 45–46, 291–292, 348
fence diagrams, 246
well bores, 70
Basins in chronostratigraphic sections, 272–274
Bayou Jean La Croix Field, 203–205
Bed boundaries
electric log correlation for horizontal wells, 123–125
stratigraphic depth method, 128
TVT correction, 854
Bed dips
compressional folding, 756–757
discontinuities, 758
downthrown stratigraphic section prediction, 688
fault traces, 392–394, 398, 400, 402
kink method, 575
log correlation pitfalls, 99
normal faults, 368
strike-slip extensional folding, 760–761, 771
vertical faults, 418
vertical thickness determinations, 851, 855
Bed length
compressional structures, 544–548
imbricate structures, 617
nonclassical balancing techniques, 587, 594
Bed offsets
bifurcating patterns, 300
fault-seal analysis, 263
Bedding planes
box and lift-off structures, 626
fault propagation folds, 598
master synthetic faults, 656
Bend forward, 598
Bends, 724
fault bend folds. See Fault bend folds
strike-slip faults, 733, 736–747
Bethel Dome, 460
Bifurcating fault systems
area accountability, 544
contours, 43
Bir Zrir fault, 737
Blank paper problem, 587
Blind fault fault-propagation fold models, 565
Blind thrusts, 598
Bocono fault, 739
Boomerang fault, 666
Borehole breakouts, 730
Bottomhole assembly (BHA) for vertical well depth, 52, 54
Bottomhole location (BHL) for directionally drilled wells, 62, 64
Bottomwater reservoirs
tilted hydrocarbon/water contacts, 877–878
top of porosity mapping, 863
top of structure mapping, 863
Bow Valley, 557
Bows in cross structures, 666–667
Bradenhead flange (BHF) in vertical wells, 51
Branch normal faults, 763–765, 767–768
Branch points
fault propagation folds, 598, 602
kink method, 575
Brazos Ridge
compaction effects, 672
Coulomb collapse theory, 637
dip angles, 680
downthrown stratigraphic section prediction, 716–717
fault origins, 655
hanging wall anticlines, 642–644
Bridges, 167
Bright spot analysis, 685
Brunei
backsliding, 663
detachment faults, 338
downward-dying growth faults, 814
Buck Ridge fault, 738
Buckling drill pipe, 57
Build rate for directionally drilled wells, 61–62
Bulk rock volume (BRV)
bottomwater reservoirs, 824–825
edgewater reservoirs, 832
fault wedges, 867
hydrocarbon wedge contouring, 839
net pay isochore maps, 832–834
top of porosity, 865
C
Calculations
downthrown stratigraphic section prediction, 702–704
volumetric reserves, 819
Canadian Rocky Mountains, 554–555, 557, 559–560
Carpathian Mountains, 451
Central Luzon Valley-Llocos Basins, 734
Central Sumatra Basin
half-graben structures, 644–645
Cereza Peak, 760
Chaotic zones, 305
Checkshots
converting time to depth, 191
fault propagation folds, 601
Chosen references for contour maps, 9, 14, 355
Chronostratigraphic sections, 272–274
Chuhuangkeng Anticline, 627
Chutes in cross structures, 666–667
Circle method for fault traces, 394–404
Classical balancing techniques, 541
area accountability, 544
bed length consistency, 544–545
overview, 543
volume accountability rule, 543–544
Closed structural lows on contour maps, 361
Closely spaced horizons for contour compatibility, 421–423
Closest point algorithm, 292–295
Cognac “A” Platform in the Mississippi Canyon Block 194 plot, 78
Coherency data for strike-ramps, 669
Combined vertical separation
intersecting faults of different ages, 447
Committee on the Nomenclature of Faults, 277
Common extensional growth patterns, 783–785
Compaction effects along growth normal faults
Compartmental strike-slip fault tectonics, 461
Compensating faults
block models, 304
extensional faulting, 297
origins, 654
Complex growth structures, 808–811
Composite logs, 86
Compressional faulting, 313–317
Compressional folding, 748–758
Compressional growth structures
VS/d plots, 808
Compressional inversion structures, 811
Compressional restraining bends, 733
Compressional structures
classical balancing techniques, 543–550
computer-aided structural modeling and balancing, 548, 551–559
cross-section consistency, 567–572
cross-section construction, 572–584
depth-to-detachment calculations, 585–586
mechanical stratigraphy, 541–543
nonclassical balancing techniques. See Nonclassical balancing techniques
strike-slip faults, 725
structural geology and balancing, 540–541
thrust faults on dip and strike lines, 557, 560–567
Compressional tectonics
reverse faults, 466–469. See also Decollements
Computer-aided structural modeling and balancing for compressional structures, 548, 551–559
Computer-based contouring
conformable geology and multisurface stacking, 29, 33–39
overview, 23
surface modeling, 24
triangulation technique, 27–31
Computer-based fault-seal analysis, 269–272
Computer-based log correlation, 129
transition from paper-based, 129–130
unconformity identification, 131–133
Computer-based mapping programs
fault surface maps, 292–295, 297, 348
true stratigraphic depth method, 126–128
Computer-based technology
fault bend folds, 592
fault interpretation, 490
horizon interpretation, 518
Conformable geology, 29, 33–39
Conformable gridding, 36
Conjugate fault systems, 295
Conservation of fault size, 408–410
Conservation of vertical separation, 408–410
Constant dip domain method, 575–577
Constant-thickness folds in kink method, 579–581
Contemporaneous intersecting faults, 305–306
Contour license, 361
Contour maps and contouring techniques
across reverse faults, 377–378
additive property of faults, 408–410
bifurcating fault patterns, 436, 439
closely spaced horizons, 421–423
compatibility across faults, 423–428
compensating fault patterns, 430–434
compressional tectonics, 466–469
computer-based. See Computer-based contouring
fault traces, 379–383, 392, 394–400
faulted surfaces, across normal faults, 366–369
faulted surfaces, checking structure maps, 371–375
faulted surfaces, legitimate contouring of throw, 375–376
faulted surfaces, overview, 363–365
faulted surfaces, throws across faults, 370–371
lines, 9
manual integration of fault and structure maps, 379–380, 382–391
net pay isochore maps, 824, 827–831, 834–837
seismic data, 167
strike-slip fault tectonics, 463
subsurface structure maps, 355–362
three-dimensional perspective, 10–13
vertical faults, 418
vertical thickness determinations, 855
Control points
structure maps, 413
three-dimensional reservoir analysis model, 250, 252
Converting time to depth, 191–195
Cordilleran belt, 315
Correction factors
deviated wells, 146, 857, 859–861
interval isopach maps, 882–885
measured log thickness, 849–850
vertical and directionally drilled wells, 107, 110
vertical separation, 351
vertical thickness determinations, 121, 123, 847, 849–857
Correlation accuracy in Philosophical Doctrine, 5
Correlation cross sections
computer construction of, 257
Correlation data in delta d/d plots, 788–789
Correlation markers in fence diagrams, 248–249
Correlation problems
growth faults, 780
log. See Log correlation
Corsair fault
dips, 656
downthrown stratigraphic section prediction, 716–717
hanging wall anticlines, 642
Coulomb collapse
downthrown stratigraphic section prediction, 688–689, 694–696
hanging wall anticlines, 636–640, 644–646
strike-slip extensional folding, 764–766
Coulomb shear surfaces and forces in backsliding, 656–658, 661
Council of the Geological Society of America, 277
Coyote Creek fault, 738
Crests
projecting large growth faults to depth, 651
tying seismic data, 170
Critical rollover failure angle in backsliding, 657
Cross-fault drainage in cross sections, 221
Cross sections
bottomwater reservoirs, 823
chronostratigraphic sections, 272–274
compressional structures, 221–222
computer construction of, 256–262
consistency in compressional structures, 567, 572–584
correlation sections, 215–217, 257
description, 7
diapiric salt structures, 219–221
directional well plots, 77
extensional structures, 219–220
faults, 288
finished illustration, 207–215
growth structures, 805
introduction, 197
isometric projections, 250
planning, 198
seismic lines, 239
strike-slip faulted structures, 221–223
three-dimensional reservoir analysis model, 250–256
three-dimensional views, 245–256
vertical exaggeration, 223–227
vertical thickness determinations, 847–848
Cross structures in three-dimensional effects, 664–668
Crossing contour lines, 14
Crosslines
autotracking methodology, 521–523
three-dimensional space, 480, 482
Crystal deformation, 542
Curved dip domain method, 573
Cutoff angles
box and lift-off structures, 626
fault propagation folds, 598, 603
fold-thrust belts, 543
imbricate structures, 617, 619
interference structures, 632
D
Dahlstrom’s rule
fault-propagation fold models, 565
nonclassical balancing techniques, 588
thrust faults, 557
Dakota Formation
Dasht-e Bayaz fault, 737
Data extraction
converting time to depth, 191–195
Data-first, models-second approach for strike-slip faults, 773
Data inclusiveness in Philosophical Doctrine, 4
Data optimization for three-dimensional seismic data, 480–481
Data points
computer-based gridding contouring, 27
Data sets for computer-based triangulation contouring, 29–32
Databases for surface location uncertainty, 50
Dead Sea Rift, 737
Decollements
bed dips, 630
box and lift-off structures, 625–626
compressional faulting, 315
compressional structures, 542, 588, 590, 630
correlation type logs, 90
fault bend folds, 592, 594, 596
fault propagation folds, 598, 604
growth faults, 338
imbricate structures, 616
MBPA, 798
pin lines, 546
Deep marker beds, 649
Deep-water Nigeria fold-thrust belt
fault propagation folds, 615
Deepwater Horizon Macondo well, 60
Deformation
causes, 541
compaction effects, 680
contouring, 30
cross structures, 666
dip spectral analysis, 623–625
fault propagation folds, 598
hanging wall anticlines, 637, 643
interference structures, 632
quantitative methods for determining structural styles, 606
strike-slip extensional folding, 763, 769–770
triangle zones, 630
Delaunay triangles in computer-based gridding contouring, 26–29
accuracy, 787
common extensional growth patterns, 783–785
log correlation problem, 791–792
stratigraphic interpretation, 793–794
strike-slip timing growth structures, 795–797
Dependent geometric properties for folds, 602–603
Depth
dip data extrapolation, 572
dip data extrapolation, Busk method, 572–574
dip data extrapolation, kink method, 575–584
projecting large growth faults to, 647–654
stratigraphic depth method, 126–129
vertical wells. See Vertical wells
Depth conversion
quality control, 533
three-dimensional seismic data, 530–534
Depth position (Z)
Depth-to-detachment calculations, 585–586
Derrick floor (DF)
log measurements, 82
vertical wells, 51
Detachment faults, 338
Detail requirements in Philosophical Doctrine, 4–5
Deviated wells
correlation with vertical wells, 105–107
faults, 290
repeated sections from normal faults, 138–143
vertical thickness and fluid contacts in, 857–862
Deviation angle in directional surveys, 69
Deviation surveys, 553. See also Directional surveys
Dewatering process compaction effects, 674
Diapiric salt structures
correlation type logs, 86, 89–90
Diapiric salt tectonics
contouring salt surfaces, 453–454
salt/fault intersections, 456
salt/sediment intersections, 456–458
Dickinson method for intersecting fault patterns, 441–445
Dip angles
box and lift-off structures, 626
compaction effects, 685
delta d/d plots, 787
downthrown stratigraphic section prediction, 688, 691, 695
horizontal wells, 122
imbricate structures, 617, 619
multibend model, 711
strike-slip faults, 765, 769–771
tangent method, 394
vertical exaggeration, 223–224
Dip data in compressional folding, 752–753
Dip data to depth extrapolation, 572
Dip lines
thrust faults on, 557, 560–567
Dip panels
triangle zones, 630
Dip profiles
line-length balancing, 546–550
strike-ramps, 670
Dip sections
cross sections, 219–221, 226–227
description, 197
Dip slip
quantitative methods for determining structural styles, 606
strike-slip faults, 796
Dip spectral analysis, 620–625
Dipping beds
faults, 289
nonclassical balancing techniques, 588
well log data, 286
Dipping planes in contours, 10–11
Dips
bed. See Bed dips
box and lift-off structures, 626
combined vertical separation, 309
compaction effects, 672, 677–682, 685
compressional faulting, 314–315
compressional folding, 756–757
cross sections, 201
cross structures, 664
depth conversion, 537
downthrown stratigraphic section prediction, 708–712
fault bend fold models, 566
fault-propagation fold models, 565
fault traces, 392–395, 398–402
interference structures, 632
quantitative methods for determining structural styles, 607
reverse faults, 377
seismic data, 327
step-up angle, 543
structural balancing, 553, 557
structural vs. stratigraphic, 567
throw contouring, 375
vertical faults, 418
Direct computer-based contouring, 24, 27–31
Direction of deviation in directional surveys, 69
Directional survey frequency, 68
Directional surveys
Directional tools
magnetic surveys, 68
nonmagnetic surveys, 68
overview, 65
Directionally drilled wells, 60
application, 60
correlation with vertical wells, 105–120
electric log correlation, 102–105
terminology, 62
vertical separation, 351
Disconformities
delta d/d plots, 788–789, 793–795
structure maps, 414
Discontinuities
bed dips, 758
fault bend fold models, 566
fault-propagation fold models, 565
reconnaissance, 495
strike-slip faults, 725, 729–731
Discontinuous reflections in compressional folding, 757
Discovery wells, 677
Displacements
cross-section consistency, 568–570
quantitative methods for determining structural styles, 607
stratigraphic units in strike-slip faults, 729–730
Distortion
fault surfaces, 265
isometric projections, 250
missing sections, 138
retrodeformation, 554
seismic sections, 164
vertical exaggeration, 223
Documentation
log correlation techniques, 150–153
strike-slip faults, 746
three-dimensional seismic data, 490
Dolomite in hydrocarbon traps, 453
Domal structures
contour maps, 361
hydrocarbon traps, 452
Down building diapiric salt tectonics, 451
Downlines, 177
Downthrown blocks
compensating fault patterns, 430–434
contouring across normal faults, 366, 368–369, 373
cross-sections across faults, 240, 243
deviated wells, 146
electric log correlation, 92
fault surface maps, 290
growth faults, 448–451, 777–778
linear growth, 692
manual integration of fault and structure maps, 378–388
normal faults, 366, 382, 384–385
restored tops, 143–149, 338–339
reverse faults, 467
strike-slip extensional folding, 763–764
tangent method, 398
throws across faults, 371
velocity problems, 192
vertical wells, 144
Downthrown stratigraphic section prediction
calculations and examples, 694–696
growth sedimentation, 705
growth structure and calculations, 699–702
large growth, multibend structures, 711–713
pregrowth structure and calculations, 696–698
syndepositional growth models, 702–705
well log data, 719
Downward-dying growth faults, 811–814
Drain hole wells, 62
Drop rate for directionally drilled wells, 62
Dry Creek Thrust, 759
Dunlap fault propagation folds, 613
Duplex in imbricate structures, 617–618, 620
Dying with depth, 333
E
Eagle Ford
autotracking methodology, 520–522
dip lines, 491
fault interpretation strategy, 502–510
horizon interpretation, 517–520
strike lines, 493
three-dimensional seismic data, 481–483, 485
East Cameron Block 270 Field, 450
East Painter Reservoir Fields, 221–222
East Texas Oil Field, 414, 416
Echelon faults and offsets
compression faults, 317
fold-thrust belts, 571
Edgewater reservoirs
perched contacts, 878
tilted hydrocarbon/water contacts, 878
El Furrial Fault-Bend Fold
dip lines, 609
fault bend fold example, 589–590
El Pilar fault, 739
Elastic dislocation models for strike-slip faults, 729
Electric logs
correlation, cross sections, 257
correlation, directionally drilled wells, 102–105
correlation, horizontal wells, 122–128
correlation, procedures and guidelines, 83–86
correlation, vertical wells, 90–101
cross sections, 198, 202–204, 215
cross-sections across faults, 240
faults, 289
growth faults, 346
reverse faults, 313
seismic data, 327
throw data, 285
type logs, 86
Elevations on contour maps, 16
Elliot’s rule for cross-section consistency, 568
Elsinore fault, 738
En echelon structures
strike-slip faults, 729–731, 733–734, 736, 745
Equal-spaced contouring, 20–22, 363–365
Equivalent points for restored tops, 144–146
Error analysis for structure maps, 371–375
Evenly distributed impermeable rock in hydrocarbon wedge contouring, 837–839
Expansion faults in VS/d plots, 806
Expansion index for growth faults, 777–780
Extensional faulting, 295, 297–298
Extensional folding along strike-slip faults, 758–772
Extensional releasing bends, 733
Extensional structures
compaction effects along growth normal faults, 672–687
downthrown stratigraphic section prediction. See Downthrown stratigraphic section prediction
hanging wall anticlines. See Hanging wall anticlines
projecting large growth faults to depth, 647–654
three-dimensional effects and cross structures, 664–668
Extensional tectonics
bifurcating fault patterns, 436–441
combined vertical separation, 447
compensating fault patterns, 430–435
compressional tectonics, 465–473
diapiric salt tectonics, 451–461
intersecting fault patterns, 440–447
strike-slip fault tectonics, 461–465
Extensional terranes in line-length balancing, 548
F
Failure to loop-tie fault surfaces, 167
Fast velocity function, 327
Fatigue Wash fault, 666
Fault bend folds
compressional faulting, 315
compressional folding, 752
fault propagation data, 610–612
triangle zones, 630
Fault data
Fault dips. See Dips
Fault displacement
problems, 327
Fault gaps
bifurcating fault patterns, 436, 439
compensating fault patterns, 431
vs. fault heaves, 404
fault traces, 392–395, 398–399
logs, 135
manual integration of fault and structure maps, 383–386, 388, 527–530
normal faults, 368
three-dimensional seismic data, 527–530
volume accountability rule, 544
Fault heave
definition, 278
vs. fault gaps, 404
measurement limitations, 280
Fault identification (ID)
computer-based log correlation, 133–138
fault data, 322
seismic data, 322
Fault interpretation
synthetic seismograms, 499–500
Fault maps
bifurcating fault patterns, 299–301
combined vertical separation, 306–312
compensating fault patterns, 302–305
compressional faulting, 313–318
extensional faulting, 295, 297–298
fault surface map construction, 288–295
intersecting fault patterns, 305–306
manual integration with structure maps, 378–391
ramp and flat thrust faults, 318–322
relationship of throw to vertical separation, 280–284
structure maps, 391
Fault overlaps
fault traces and gaps, 391
reverse faults, 377–378, 388–391
volume accountability rule, 544
Fault patterns
combined vertical separation, 306–312
compressional faulting, 313–318
extensional faulting, 295, 297–298
Fault polygons for faulted surfaces, 40–42
Fault propagation data
fault propagation folds, 612–614
Fault propagation folds, 589
box and lift-off structures, 626
fault propagation data, 612–614
kink method, 578, 580, 584, 601
quantitative methods for determining structural styles, 608
Fault ramps
imbricate structures, 619
seismic data, 167
Fault-seal analysis
Fault shape in fault bend folds, 596
Fault slicing in fault-seal analysis, 265
Fault surface maps, 275
compressional folding, 748
seismic and well data integration, 329, 499–501
seismic data, 167, 169–171, 173
Fault surfaces
computer-based contouring, 39–48
seismic interpretation and mapping, 501–511
VS/d plots, 806
Fault traces
bifurcating fault patterns, 436
compensating fault patterns, 431
compressional tectonics, 466
contouring, 366
cross sections, 221
intersecting fault patterns, 440–447
seismic data, 166
Fault traps from strike-ramps, 671
Faults
compressional tectonics, 467–473
contour compatibility across, 423–428
cross-sections across, 239–245
depth and missing section, 94–97
gaps. See Fault gaps
origins, 654
overlap. See Fault overlaps
plunge projections, 230
slip. See Slip
strike projections, 234
structural balancing, 551
structural cross sections, 259–263
tying seismic data, 175–176, 501–506
vs. variations in stratigraphy, 94
wedges. See Wedge zones
Field production history in reservoir engineering, 881–882
Fingerprints in growth faults, 777
Finished illustration cross sections, 207–215
Flanks
fault bend fold models, 567
fault-propagation fold models, 565
Flap maps, 473
Flat-lying structures
fractures, 542
static mis-ties, 181
stratigraphic thickness, 883
TVD logs, 851
vertical separation, 327
Flats in compressional faulting, 315
Floor thrusts, 628
Fluid contacts. See Hydrocarbon/water contact
Fluvial channel sands, 63
Fold-and-thrust belts
compressional faulting, 315
compressional tectonics, 465–466
plunge projections, 228
Folds
fault bend. See Fault bend folds
fault propagation. See Fault propagation folds
structural balancing, 551
tying seismic data, 177
Footwall blocks. See Upthrown blocks
Footwall restored tops, 143–149
Forcing correlations in tying seismic data, 174–175
Formation tops in depth conversion, 530–534, 537
Formation volume factor (FVF) in gas reserves estimation, 880–881
Forward dips in dip spectral analysis, 621
Forward model for imbricate structures, 616–618
Fossil Basin
compressional tectonics, 466
fault surface maps, 318, 320–321
Fossil triangle zones, 628
Four-dimensional problem, strike-slip deformation as, 723
Four-way closures in hanging wall anticlines, 644
Fractional recovery in gas reserves estimation, 880–881
Fracture porosities
fault bend folds, 594
interference structures, 632
Framework horizons, 518–520, 523
Framework horizons, selecting, 511
Framework interpretation and mapping, 487–488
Frazier Mountain Thrust, 759
Free gyros, 68
Frictional deformation, 541–542
Frictional failure in backsliding, 656
Frictional stress in strike-slip faults, 730
Full-thickness areas
net pay isochore maps, 827–828, 831–832
walking wells, 840
G
Gamma ray (GR) curves in electric log correlation, 85
Gamma ray (GR) logs
correlation sections, 215
three-dimensional seismic data, 488
true vertical depth cross sections, 124, 128
Gas reserves estimation, 880–881
Gas/water contact. See Hydrocarbon/water contact
Gas wells
cross sections, 201
net effective sand, 822
Geodesy, 50
Geometric properties in nonclassical methods balancing, 602–603
Geoscientist role in three-dimensional seismic data, 488–489
Glenwood Syncline, 749–750, 752–753
Goguel’s law of volume conservation, 762
Golden Meadow Field
combined vertical separation, 310
net sand isochore maps, 819–821
Good Hope Field, 88
GPS survey accuracy, 50
Graben structures
diapiric salt tectonics, 452
hydrocarbon traps, 452
intersecting fault patterns, 306
lateral displacements, 737–739
Grand Isle Ash, 458
Grand Isle Block 16 Field, 458
Grane Field, 475
Graphic scales on contour maps, 16
Graphs for downthrown stratigraphic section prediction, 702–704
Gravitational collapse
hanging wall anticlines, 636–640
Great Glen Fault, 734
Grid intersections in three-dimensional reservoir analysis model, 252–255
Grid nodes in computer-based gridding contouring, 24–27
Grid size in computer-based gridding contouring, 27
Gridding algorithms
horizon interpretation, 525–526
Gridding technique in computer-based contouring, 24–27
Ground level (GL) in vertical wells, 51
Ground truth, 173
Groups of contour lines, 16–17, 357–358
Growth axial surfaces
downthrown stratigraphic section prediction, 708–716
syndepositional growth models, 702–703
Growth compressional style in delta d/d plots, 795
Growth faults, 297
extensional tectonics, 448–451
fault surface maps, 292
overview, 338
surface map construction, 345–346
Growth inversion structures, 776
Growth model study for downthrown stratigraphic section prediction, 712
Growth normal faults, compaction effects along. See Compaction effects along growth normal faults
Growth reverse faults
growth structures, 776
Growth sedimentation
downthrown stratigraphic section prediction, 705
Growth strike-slip faults, 776
Growth structures and calculations
analysis accuracy, 787
delta d/d plot examples, 787–797
downthrown stratigraphic section prediction, 699–702
Growth thrust faults, 776
Growth variations in downthrown stratigraphic section prediction, 705–707
Guadalupe Mountains, 793
Gulf of Elat, 737
Gulf of Mexico
backsliding, 663
bifurcating fault patterns, 439, 441
bows, 666
compaction effects, 672, 674–675
computer-based log correlation, 130–131
contour compatibility across faults, 424, 426
Coulomb collapse angle, 688–689
detachment faults, 338
diapiric salt tectonics, 454, 458–459
dip angles, 680
directional well plots, 78
directionally drilled wells, 62
downward-dying growth faults, 814
fault surface maps, 348
growth sedimentation, 641
hanging wall anticlines, 642–644
intersecting fault patterns, 306
listric growth faults, 647
normal faults, 288
rollover structures, 651
salt domes, 451
seismic data, 161
tilted hydrocarbon/water contacts, 875, 878
wireline and LWD logs, 53
Gyroscope surveys
tools, 68
uncertainties, 71
H
Hachured lines on contour maps, 16, 357
Half-graben structures, 644–645
Hand construction
fault surface sections, 265–269
Hanging wall anticlines
Coulomb collapse theory, 636–640
Hanging wall blocks. See Downthrown blocks
Hanging wall restored tops, 145–149
Haynesville
downthrown stratigraphic section prediction, 717–718
fault interpretation strategy, 512–513
Height in surface modeling, 24
Helical buckling drill pipe, 57
High-angle faults
reverse, 465
thrust, 315
Hogsback ramp
fault surface maps, 323
flat thrust faults, 318
Holstein Field, 475
Horizon dips
cross-sections across faults, 243–244
fault-propagation fold models, 565
Horizon interpretation
autotracking methodology, 518–522
framework horizons, 511
interpretation strategy, 518–523
three-dimensional seismic data, 517–527
Horizons
autotracking methodology, 519
backsliding, 659
bifurcating fault patterns, 436
combined vertical separation, 306, 309
compensating fault patterns, 431–432
compressional folding, 755–757
compressional tectonics, 469–470
contour compatibility, 421–423
converting time to depth, 191–192
depth conversion, 530
downthrown stratigraphic section prediction, 687, 696–704, 708–709, 711–717
fault bend fold models, 566–567
fault interpretation, 494
fault propagation folds, 601–602
growth faults, 338–340, 343, 780–781
intersecting fault patterns, 305, 441
manual integration of fault and structure maps, 378–380, 384–387
nonclassical balancing techniques, 605–607
normal faults, 369
Philosophical Doctrine, 6
reverse faults, 290
strike-ramps, 668
strike-slip extensional folding, 762
structural balancing, 554
three-dimensional seismic data, 487–488
tying seismic data, 176–181, 511, 517–518
Horizontal beds
fault data, 286
Horizontal crests, 651
Horizontal displacements
horizontal wells, 62
strike-slip faults, 723–725, 733, 736, 746
vertical faults, 418
Horizontal distance
heave, 278
Horizontal resolution of seismic sections, 163
Horizontal scales
three-dimensional seismic data, 481
Horizontal slice method for reservoir volume, 874
Horizontal velocity gradients in converting time to depth, 192
Horizontal wells
directionally drilled wells, 102–103
electric log correlation, 122–128
planning and drilling in 3D, 484
Horses
dip spectral analysis, 624–625
Hungry Valley Fault
strike-slip extensional folding, 759–760, 762, 766–771
Huntington Beach Field Anticline, 794–795
Hybrid fault bend folds, 601
Hydrocarbon/water contact
bottomwater reservoirs, 823–825
fault wedges, 866
horizontal wells, 123
net pay isochore maps, 827–828, 832–833
TVT of net pay, 862
Hydrocarbon wedge contouring
reservoirs with shale intervals, 843–847
I
Idealized fold shapes, 594
Illusions of geometry in seismic data, 337
Imperial fault, 738
Implied fault strike, 333, 435
Implied fault surface maps, 333, 336
Inactive axial surface
hanging wall anticlines, 639–640, 643
Inadmissible interpretation in structural balancing, 554
Incorrect assumptions in seismic sections, 161–163
Indigo Bayou area, 295
Indirect technique for computer-based contouring, 24–27
Indonesia, 688
Inference in fault recognition, 289
Infill strategies
depth conversion, 530
horizon interpretation, 525–527
Inner limit of water (ILW)
deviated wells, 862
fault wedges, 867
net pay isochore maps, 827–828, 831–832
walking wells, 840
Integration of geophysical data
assumptions and limitations, 157
Philosophical Doctrine, 6, 480
subsurface interpretations, 156
validation and interpretation, 160–188
Interference structures, 632–634
Interpolation
horizon interpretation, 525–526
surface modeling, 24
triangulation, 27
Interpretation
contours, 22
fault surface maps, 290–291, 295
intersecting fault patterns, 305
Philosophical Doctrine requirements, 4–6
strike-slip faults, 725–726, 728–730
structural balancing, 540–541, 554
structure maps, 353–354, 473–475
three-dimensional seismic data, 481–490
tying seismic data. See Tying seismic data
Interpretive contouring, 21, 363
Intersecting faults, 297
combined vertical separation, 308–309
compressional, 316
horst-graben, 306
Intersecting seismic displays, 503
Intersection in bifurcating patterns, 299
Intersection lines in compressional faulting, 317
Interval isopach maps, 882
true stratigraphic thickness, 882–885
Intervals on contour maps, 16
Inverse models
imbricate structures, 616
Inversion structures in VS/d plots, 808–811
Inverting fault dips for compaction effects, 680–682
Isochore maps
bottomwater reservoirs, 822–824
contouring hydrocarbon wedge, 837–847
depth conversion, 533
fault-seal analysis, 270
reservoir engineering, 879–882
sand–shale distribution, 822
three-dimensional seismic data, 487
tilted hydrocarbon/water contacts, 875–878
top of structure mapping, 862–865
vertical thickness and fluid contacts in deviated wells, 857–862
vertical thickness determinations, 847–857
volumetric configuration of reservoirs, 873–874
Isochron maps
depth conversion, 533
three-dimensional seismic data, 487
Isometric projections, 250
Isopach maps
sand–shale distribution, 822
Ivanhoe Field, 297
J
Jean d’Arc Basin, 441
Jura Mountains
box and lift-off structures, 625
depth-to-detachment calculations, 585
fold-and-thrust belts, 315
Jurassic Louann Salt, 778
K
Keystone blocks in backsliding, 661, 663–664
Kick-off points (KOPs) for directionally drilled wells, 62, 64
Kinks and kinks method
dip data to depth extrapolation, 575–584
dip spectral analysis, 623
fault maps, 176
fault propagation folds, 578, 580, 584, 602
interference structures, 617, 632
strike-slip faults, 725
L
L-shaped holes for directionally drilled wells, 60–61, 102–103
Lacustrine sediments in strike-slip extensional folding, 762
Large growth faults, projecting to depth, 647–654
Large growth, multibend structures, 711–713
Lateral displacements in strike-slip faults, 733–746
Lateral ramps
fault bend fold models, 566
three-dimensional models, 565–567
Lateral uncertainty in directional surveys, 71, 74–75
Lateral velocity changes in converting time to depth, 192
Latitude position (X)
importance, 49
vertical wells, 50
Least squares gridding algorithm, 292
Lewis Formation
cross sections, 258
unconformity identification, 131–133
Light Well, 796
Limestones
fractures, 542
hydrocarbon traps, 453
volume pressure, 543
Limitations on restoring faulted surfaces, 43–44
Limited data, maps based on, 2
Limited well control in hydrocarbon wedge contouring, 837–839
Line-length exercise in classical balancing, 546–550
Linear growth in downthrown stratigraphic section prediction, 692–694
Lines, tying for seismic data, 176–181
Lines of bifurcation
strike-slip faults, 764
Lines of intersection
compensating faults, 302
compressional faulting, 316
contouring, 375
intersecting fault patterns, 440–442
reverse faults, 469
salt/fault intersections, 456–459
strike-slip faults, 765
three-dimensional perspective, 11–12
Lines of termination
compensating faults, 302–303, 430–432
salt/fault intersections, 456
Listric faults
Listric growth faults, 338
backsliding, 656
hanging wall anticlines, 647–648
Listric normal faults
contour compatibility across faults, 424
contour maps, 360
downthrown stratigraphic section prediction, 688
hanging wall anticlines, 636, 640
Listric shape for growth faults, 448–449
Lithology logs in structural balancing, 553
Little Sulphur Creek Basin, 771–772
Local restoration for strike-slip faults, 736–739
Log correlation
annotation and documentation, 150–154
electric log correlation, directionally drilled wells, 102–105
electric log correlation, horizontal wells, 122–128
electric log correlation, procedures and guidelines, 83–86
electric log correlation, vertical wells, 90–101
introduction, 81
log measurement terminology, 82
vertical and directionally drilled wells, 105–120
Log correlation plans
directionally drilled wells, 102–105
Logger’s depth, 51
Logging while drilling (LWD)
absolute depth uncertainty, 58–59
pressure, 878
relative depth uncertainty, 56–57
true vertical depth cross sections, 125
Loma Prieta epicentral zone, 748–751
Long Beach Anticline, 742–743, 745
Long-radius horizontal wells, 62
Longitude position (Y)
importance, 49
vertical wells, 50
Loop-tied fault surface maps, 745–746
Loop-tied profiles, 724
Loop tying
fault surfaces maps for strike-ramps, 672
M
Magnetic surveys
description, 68
uncertainties, 71
Manual processes
integration of fault and structure maps, 378–391
interpretation methodology, 518–523
line picking for horizon interpretation, 525–526
Marcellus
fault interpretation strategy, 514–516
Marchand-Timbalier-Caillou Island Salt Massif, 451, 453
Marker beds
depth-to-detachment calculations, 585–586
projecting large growth faults to depth, 649
Master faults
extensional faulting, 295, 297
listric faults, 338
strike-slip faults, 731
Master synthetic faults
backsliding, 657
Maximum control areas in fault surface maps, 292
Mean sea level (MSL) for vertical wells, 51–52
Measured depth (MD)
directional surveys, 69
log measurements, 82
vertical thickness determinations, 851
vertical wells, 51
Measured log thickness (MLT)
conversion to TVT, 111–122, 847, 857
directionally drilled wells, 105
log correlation techniques, 120–122
Measured values in downthrown stratigraphic section prediction, 702–703
Measurement-while-drilling (MWD) surveying, 68
Mechanical contouring
Mechanical stratigraphy, 541–543
Medina Anticline, 470
Melin Anticline, 614
Mentors and mentoring, 7
Merging
contour lines, 14
Metamorphic belts, 541
Mid-trace method for fault wedges, 867–868
Midland Basin
depth conversion, 531–532, 534–536
synthetic seismograms, 500
three-dimensional seismic data, 481, 484–487
Migration mis-ties in tying seismic data, 183–188
Minimum distance projection method, 228, 235, 239
Miocene Middle Cruse Sand Member, 245–246
Mis-picked horizons in tying seismic data, 176
Mis-ties in tying seismic data, 181–188
Miscorrelations in three-dimensional seismic data, 488
Missing section
cross-sections across faults, 240–241
fault determinations, 94–97, 287
fault maps, 290
growth faults, 338–339, 343, 785
manual integration of fault and structure maps, 384
seismic data, 327
stratigraphic cross sections, 259
structure maps, 371
unconformities, 150
Modeled lateral ramps in fault-propagation fold models, 565
Moose Mountain sheet, 557
Morrowan Sandstones, 204
Motagua fault, 737
Mount Tobin Thrust Fault, 470
Multibend models and structures
growth structures, 700
Multilobed reservoirs in horizontal wells, 63
Multiple Bischke Plot Analysis (MBPA)
accuracy, 787
common extensional growth patterns, 783–785
Multiple horizon mapping
Philosophical Doctrine, 6
structure maps, 473
Multishot surveys, 68
Multisurface stacking in computer-based contouring, 29, 33–39
N
National Geodetic Vertical Datum (NGVD), 52
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 52
Natural neighbors in computer-based gridding contouring, 26
Navarro Formation, 528
Nearest “n” neighbors in computer-based gridding contouring, 25–26
Neighbors
computer-based gridding contouring, 24–26
computer-based triangulation contouring, 27
Neogene fold axes, 726–728, 730
Neotectonic fold axes, 730
Net gas isochore maps
reservoirs with shale intervals, 843–847
Net hydrocarbon isochore maps
reservoirs with shale intervals, 843–844
Net oil isochore maps
bottomwater reservoirs, 823
fault wedges, 866
Net pay isochore maps, 819
oil and gas reservoirs, 832–837
sand–shale distribution, 822
single-phase reservoirs, 827–832
tilted hydrocarbon/water contacts, 878
vertical thickness determinations, 853
Net sand isochore maps
hydrocarbon wedge contouring, 836–837
single-phase reservoirs, 827–828
Net sand to gross interval ratio, 837–839, 845–846
Newport-Inglewood Trend
sequence boundaries, 794
Niger Delta, 338
Nigeria
fault propagation folds, 614–615
normal faults, 288
Niobrara, 557
Nodosaria Marker, 439
Nonclassical balancing techniques
box and lift-off structures, 625–628
dip spectral analysis, 620–625
fault propagation data, 610–615
fault propagation folds, 598–605
interference structures, 632–634
qualitative and quantitative techniques, 602–609
structural balancing, 541
Suppe’s assumptions and Dahlstrom’s rules, 588
triangle zones and wedge structures, 628–631
Nongrowth faults, 295
vertical separation, 351
Nonmagnetic surveys, 68
Nonreservoir-quality rock in top of porosity maps, 419–420
Normal faults
contouring faulted surfaces across, 366–369
cross-sections across, 240–243
manual integration of fault and structure maps, 378–383
throw and vertical separation, 280–281
Normal-to-the-line projection method for seismic lines, 239
North American Vertical Datum (NAVD), 52
North Anatolian fault, 738
North Sea
directional surveys, 71
tilted hydrocarbon/water contacts, 875
O
Oblique sections, 197
Offset zoned diapirs, 734
Oil and gas reservoirs
estimation, 881
net pay isochore maps, 832–837
Oil fields with gas caps, 876–877
Oil/water contact. See Hydrocarbon/water contact
Oil wells
cross sections, 201
reservoir pressure, 80
Olinghouse fault, 739
On-screen computer-based log correlation, 130–131
One-way times in converting time to depth, 191
Onlaps
stratigraphic cross sections, 258, 260
well log correlation, 151
Open-ended contours, 291
Optimistic contouring, 358
Optimization
three-dimensional seismic data, 480–487
workstation-based interpretations, 480
Orientation in cross sections, 198
Orinoco heavy oil belt, 62
Osito Canyon, 760
Out-of-sequence thrusts in imbricate structures, 616
Overhangs
Overthrust faults, 315
Overthrust paradox, 541
P
Pacific Plate compressional folding, 749
Pads, description, 488
Painter Reservoir Field
compressional tectonics, 465
discontinuity of structure with depth, 474–475
Parallel contouring, 19–21, 363–365
Parallel folds in kink method, 579
Paran fault, 737
Parasequence correlations in delta d/d plots, 787–788
Passive back thrusts, 628
Pay logs, 86
Peace Valley formation, 759
Pecos Country, 758
Pencils for contour maps, 358
Pennsylvanian Anvil Rock Sandstone, 206–207
Perched water and contacts
edgewater reservoirs, 878
Peripheral cross sections, 219
Permeable intervals in fault-seal analysis, 265, 269
Permo-Pennsylvanian strata, 555–556
Perpendicular orientation assumptions for seismic sections, 165
Pessimistic contouring, 358–359
Phantom horizons, 517
Phantoming, 161
Philippine Fault, 727, 730–732, 734–735
Philosophical Doctrine of accurate subsurface interpretation and mapping
autotracking methodology, 523
documentation, 490
multiple horizons, 487
subsurface data, 523
workflows, 489
workstations, 480
Picking in data extraction, 188–191
Pierce Field, 876
Piercing points in strike-slip faults, 733–734
Pin lines in classical balancing, 546–547
Pine Mountain thrust region, 592
Pipe-conveyed logs (PCL) for vertical well depth, 53, 55
Pitfalls
directional wells, 348
fault traces and gaps, 391–404
log correlation techniques, 99–101
Planimeters, 874
Plans and planning
cross sections, 198
directionally drilled wells, 64–67
log correlation in directionally drilled wells, 102–105
Philosophical Doctrine, 4
three-dimensional seismic data, 488–490
vertical well depth, 52
Pleistocene Pico Formation, 794
Pliocene Lower Wilber horizon, 745
Pliocene sediments, 760
Points on contour lines, 14
Polochic fault, 737
Porosity in compaction effects, 673–675
Porous caprocks in hydrocarbon traps, 453
Post-depositional faults and folds
fault displacement mapping, 331
kink method, 580
vertical separation, 338
Postage stamp maps, 14
Posting
subsurface map process, 158–159
Prealps box and lift-off structures, 626
Pregrowth structure and calculations
downthrown stratigraphic section prediction, 688–692, 694–698
piercing point evidence, 733–734
Pressure, reservoir, 80
Pressure measurement precision, 878
Prestack depth migration (PSDM), 188, 190
Prestack time migration (PSTM), 188
Principal plane of stress in strike-slip faults, 730
Problem-solving cross sections, 206, 208
Projected slope algorithm in fault surface maps, 295
Projecting large growth faults to depth, 647–654
seismic lines, 239
Proof of correctness, loop-tying as, 167–170
Pull-apart maps
compressional tectonics, 473
manual integration of fault and structure maps, 390–391
Pure-time maps, 192
Q
Qualitative and quantitative techniques for nonclassical methods balancing risk reduction, 602–610
Quality control for depth conversion, 533
Quality of subsurface structural and mapping methods, 2–3
Quantitative relationship for vertical separation and throw, 283–284
R
Rabbit Island Field, 719
Rabbit Island Salt Spine, 451–452
Radial cross sections, 219
Ram-Powell Field, 477
Ramp angle for directionally drilled wells, 62
Ramp faults
quantitative methods for determining structural styles, 606
Ramp wells for directionally drilled wells, 60–61, 102–103
Ramps
compressional faulting, 315
contour compatibility across faults, 424
fault bend fold models, 566
fault surface maps, 323
flat thrust faults, 318
imbricate structures, 617, 619
interference structures, 632
quantitative methods for determining structural styles, 609
seismic data, 167
three-dimensional models, 565–567
Rangely Dome, 226
Rate gyros, 68
Raton Basin, 629
Realism in contour maps, 359
Realistic interpretation in contouring, 22
Reasonable interpretation in contouring, 22
Reasonableness tests for faulted surfaces, 42
Reconnaissance
three-dimensional interpretation, 481, 484
Recovery factor in gas reserves estimation, 880–881
Reference horizons
fault displacement, 279
Reference lines for static mis-ties, 181–182
Reference planes
structure maps, 52
Reference wells
vertical wells, 146
References in contour maps, 14
Reflections
compressional folding, 757
migration mis-ties, 186
seismic data, 171
seismic sections, 161
Regional dips in contour maps, 358
Regional restoration in strike-slip faults, 734–736
Related dips in dip spectral analysis, 622
Relative age principle for growth structures, 775
Relative depth uncertainty
Relative displacement in faults, 279
Releasing bends
compressional folding, 748
extensional faulting, 758–759, 763–764
lateral displacements, 745
strike-slip faults, 724, 733, 736–741
Relief in top of porosity maps, 420
Repeated sections
compressional faulting, 313
log correlation techniques, 83, 138–143
nonclassical balancing techniques, 605–609
seismic data, 327
Repeated values on contour lines, 14–15
Reservoir engineering, 879
field production history, 881–882
reservoir characterization, 879
Reservoir pressures, 80
Reservoir rock
backsliding, 659
fault-seal analysis, 270
net sand isochore maps, 819
Reservoirs
hydrocarbon wedge contouring, 843–847
volumetric configuration, 873–874
Resistivity log for vertical well depth, 53
Resource plays, 488
Restoration for strike-slip faults, 734–737
Restore commands for faulted surfaces, 43
Restored surface method for faulted surfaces, 40–41
Restored tops
computer mapping, 388
growth faults, 338–339, 343–344
log correlation techniques, 143–149
manual integration of fault and structure maps, 384–388
Restraining bends
compressional structures, 748–752
extensional faulting, 758–759, 763–764
extensional folding, 759
scaling factors, 747
strike-slip faults, 724, 736–739, 741–746
Retrodeformation
fault bend folds, 594
strike-slip extensional folding, 769
Reverse faults
combined vertical separation, 309
compressional faulting, 313–317
compressional tectonics, 466–469
contour compatibility across faults, 427
cross-sections across, 243–244
definition, 313
intersecting fault patterns, 305, 309–311
manual integration of fault and structure maps, 388–391
quantitative methods for determining structural styles, 607
Revisions in cross sections, 204
Ridge Basin
geology, 765
strike-slip extensional folding, 758–763, 765–772
Rig floor (RF)
log measurements, 82
vertical wells, 51
Rocky Mountain thrust front, 628
Rollover anticlines
Coulomb collapse theory, 636–640
Rollovers
Coulomb collapse angles, 652–654
downthrown stratigraphic section prediction, 687–688
extensional folding, 759
growth axial surface, 708
projecting large growth faults to depth, 647–654
Romania, 451
Rotary table (RT)
log measurements, 82
vertical wells, 51
Rotation in strike-slip extensional folding, 763
Ryckman Creek Field, 465
S
S-shaped holes for directionally drilled wells, 61–62, 102–103
S vergences, 632
Sabine Uplift, 414
Sag correction for directional surveys, 73
Salient offsets, 734
Salt domes and diapirs
area accountability, 544
contouring, 441, 446, 453–454, 456–457
cross sections, 212
diapiric salt tectonics, 451–452
fault traces, 221
log correlation problem, 791–792
Salt/fault intersections in diapiric salt tectonics, 456
Salt occurrences and structures
correlation type logs, 86, 89–90
cross sections, 212–214, 219–221
diapiric salt tectonics, 451–461
Salt/sediment intersections in diapiric salt tectonics, 456–458
Sample data sets for computer-based triangulation contouring, 29–32
San Andreas Fault
characteristics, 738
compressional folding, 748–753
stress measurements, 730
strike-slip extensional folding, 760, 762
strike-slip faults, 726–727, 734
San Gabriel Fault
strike-slip extensional folding, 766–769, 771
Sand
backsliding, 659
cross sections, 212–213, 215–217
deviated wells, 857
downthrown stratigraphic section prediction, 687
electric log correlation, 92–94
fault-seal analysis, 263–264, 270–271
fault surface sections, 265–268
horizontal wells, 63
log maps, 245
net pay isochore maps, 827–831, 835–836
net sand isochore maps, 819–821
reservoirs with shale intervals, 843–847
three-dimensional reservoir analysis model, 252–255
vertical thickness determinations, 851, 853
Sand/shale ratios
isochore maps, 822
Sandstone
stratigraphic cross sections, 204–207
Savanna Creek Duplex, 552
Scales
contour maps, 16
directionally drilled wells, 65, 67
fault surface sections, 265
strike-slip displacements, 746–747
three-dimensional seismic data, 481
true stratigraphic depth method, 126–127
Second-order tensors in strike-slip faults, 728–729
Section lines in bifurcating patterns, 300
Sediments
diapiric salt tectonics, 454
downthrown stratigraphic section prediction, 693
growth faults, 782
growth structures and changes in growth, 775–776. See also Multiple Bischke Plot Analysis (MBPA)
hanging wall anticlines, 641–646
strike-slip faults, 731
unconformities from, 413
Seismic data
benefits, 156
downthrown stratigraphic section prediction, 701–702
fault propagation folds, 602
interpretation. See Interpretation
interval isopach maps, 885–886
limitations, 157
projecting large growth faults to depth, 649
strike-ramps, 666
structural balancing, 551
subsurface interpretations, 156–157
subsurface map process, 158–160
summary, 195
three-dimensional. See Three-dimensional seismic data
throw, 375
tying. See Tying seismic data
well data integration, 329
Seismic lines in cross sections, 239
Seismic reflection analysis for box and lift-off structures, 626
Seismic sections
triangle zones and wedge structures, 628–629
Sequence boundaries
compressional growth structures, 794–795
cross sections, 577
linear growth, 693
seismic data, 171
stratigraphic interpretation, 793–794
Setchell's equation
measured log thickness, 849
vertical thickness determinations, 854–857
Shales
area accountability, 544
compaction effects, 675, 678, 680–686
cross sections, 215
downthrown stratigraphic section prediction, 687, 719–720
electric log correlation, 85
fractures, 542
geoscientist role, 488
hydrocarbon wedge contouring, 843–847
three-dimensional reservoir analysis model, 255
Shear
hanging wall anticlines, 638, 640, 642–643
interference structures, 632–633
lift-off folds, 626
strike-slip faults, 726, 728, 730
Shear fault bend folds, 606, 610–612
Short-radius horizontal wells, 62
Sideswipe, 159
cross structures, 664
description, 156
Signal Hill Promontory, 742, 744–745, 795
Single compressional faults, 316
Single-phase reservoirs in net pay isochore maps, 827–832
Single-shot magnetic surveys, 68
Single-well method for growth faults, 339–345
Sinusolidal buckling drill pipes, 57
Sliding
growth sedimentation, 641, 643–644
hanging wall anticlines, 637, 640
TVD effects, 68
Slip
backsliding, 656–657, 659, 663–664
cross-section consistency, 567–568
dip spectral analysis, 624
downthrown stratigraphic section prediction, 690, 695
fault bend folds, 567, 594, 597
fault propagation folds, 598, 601
imbricate structures, 616–617, 619
interference structures, 632–633
line-length balancing, 548
master synthetic faults, 656
measurement limitations, 279
quantitative methods for determining structural styles, 606–607
strike-slip faults. See Strike-slip faults
Slow velocity function, 327
Snakehead structures, 598
Soledad Basin
strike-slip extensional folding, 770
strike-slip faults, 734
South Marsh Island (SMI), 329
Southern Appalachians, 599–600
Southern Louisiana rollover, 713–716
Southern Permian Basin, 451, 456
Space sections, 163
Sparse data sets in computer-based gridding contouring, 27
Speed of workstation-based interpretations, 480
Splicing method for compaction effects, 675
Spontaneous potential (SP) curves, 85
Spontaneous potential (SP) logs
compaction effects, 675–679, 682–683
correlation sections, 215
Spraberry-Wolfcamp play, 499
St. Charles Ranch, 671
Stacked Multiple Bischke Plots, 797, 802–804
Stacks
computer-based contouring, 29, 33–39
faulted surfaces, 43
Step-up angle for ramps, 543
Stepovers
releasing bends, 739
strike-ramps, 666
strike-slip faults, 729, 731, 736
Straight-line method
directional well plots, 73, 76
Straight-line segment models, 689
Straight reverse fault segments, 313
Strain ellipse model for strike-slip faults, 726–728
Strain in strike-slip faults, 724–726, 729–731
Straley, H. W., 277
Stratigraphic cross sections
computer construction of, 257–262
correlation sections, 215
vertical exaggeration, 223
Stratigraphic depth method, 126–129
Stratigraphic dips, 567
Stratigraphic fence diagrams, 248–249, 251
Stratigraphic interpretation in delta d/d plots, 788, 793–794
Stratigraphic intervals
correlation sections, 215
growth faults, 448
kink method, 577
seismic time profiles, 579
stratigraphic depth method, 126
Stratigraphic relationships
strike projections, 232
vertical well log correlation, 101
Stratigraphic sections
bed boundaries and fluid contacts, 123
compressional faulting, 315
downthrown. See Downthrown stratigraphic section prediction
faults, 289
growth faults, 338
missing sections, 111–112, 278
repeated sections, 138
restored tops, 338
single-well method, 339
TVD cross sections, 124
vertical well log correlation, 99–101
Stratigraphic thickness
contouring, 421
correlation sections, 215
cross sections, 579
growth faults, 338
lateral displacements, 734
TST. See True stratigraphic thickness (TST)
variations, 94
vertical exaggeration, 226–227
vertical well log correlation, 99–101
Stratigraphic type logs, 86–88
Stratigraphic units
mapping techniques, 414
Stratigraphic variations
electric log correlation, 97–98
vs. faults, 94
Stress in strike-slip faults, 724, 728–731
Strike
bifurcating fault patterns, 439–440
intersecting fault patterns, 442
manual integration of fault and structure maps, 378–383
normal faults, 368
structure maps, 371
throw contouring, 375
throws across faults, 370
vertical faults, 418
Strike lines
cross structures, 664
fault bend folds, 589
seismic data, 171
thrust faults on, 557, 560–567
Strike projections
Strike sections
description, 197
Strike-slip faults
compressional folding, 748–758
contour compatibility across faults, 424
extensional folding along, 758–772
growth, 776
interpretation, 725–726, 728–730
lateral displacements, 733–746
restraining bends, 736–739, 741–746
surface features, 733
Structural cross sections
computer construction of, 259–262
electric log sections, 202–204
strike sections, 204
Structural dips
contouring, 537
dip spectral analysis, 622, 624
vs. stratigraphic, 567
strike projections, 233
vertical wells, 101
Structural geology and balancing in compressional structures, 540–541
Structural highs and lows in contour maps, 361
Structural interpretation in fault surface maps, 288
Structural noses in contour maps, 361
Structural relief
downthrown stratigraphic section prediction. See Downthrown stratigraphic section prediction
nonclassical balancing techniques, 605–609
Structural styles
qualitative observations for determining, 605–606
quantitative methods for determining, 607–609
Structure maps
additive property of faults, 408–410
compressional tectonics, 465–473
contour, 14
contour compatibility across faults, 423–428
contour compatibility with closely spaced horizons, 421–423
contouring across normal faults, 366–376
contouring across reverse faults, 377–378
contouring guidelines, 355–362
contouring hand methods, 362–363
discontinuity of structure with depth, 473–475
extensional tectonics. See Extensional tectonics
fault traces and gaps, 391–404
fault wedges, 866
integration of seismic and well data, 411–413
legitimate contouring of throw, 375–376
manual integration with fault maps, 378–391
mapping across vertical faults, 418
multisurface mapping, 473
net pay isochore maps, 827–829
tectonic habitats overview, 427–428
three-dimensional seismic data, 527–530
top of porosity, 419–420, 862–865
top of structure mapping, 862–865
top of structure vs. top of porosity, 419–420, 862–865
Subfault deformation, 666
Subnormal stress, 730
Subsea true vertical depth (SSTVD)
directionally drilled wells, 62
log measurements, 82
MBPA, 781
Subsurface interpretations
Subsurface maps
compressional structures. See Compressional structures
contouring. See Contour maps and contouring techniques
cross sections. See Cross sections
description, 7
directionally drilled wells. See Directionally drilled wells
electric logs, 83
extensional structures. See Extensional structures
fault maps. See Fault maps
growth structures. See Growth structures and calculations
isochore maps. See Isochore maps
isopach maps. See Isopach maps
log correlation techniques. See Log correlation
mentors and mentoring, 7
Philosophical Doctrine of accurate subsurface interpretation and mapping, 3–7
seismic data. See Seismic data
strike-slip faults. See Strike-slip faults
structure maps. See Structure maps
three-dimensional seismic data. See Three-dimensional seismic data
types, 7
vertical wells. See Vertical wells
Sun Schmidt Well, 770
Superposition principle for growth structures, 775
Suppe’s assumptions, 588
Surface bed dips
strike-slip compressional folding, 751
strike-slip extensional folding, 760–761
Surface dip data in compressional folding, 752
Surface location uncertainty in vertical wells, 50–51
Surface modeling in computer-based contouring, 24
Symmetric folds. See Fault bend folds
Synclinal axial surfaces
fault propagation folds, 600–601
strike-slip faults, 752
thrust faults, 560
triangle zones, 630
Synclines
fault bend folds, 592
mis-ties, 195
Syndepositional faults
electric log correlation, 92
Syndepositional growth models, 702–705
Synthetic direction dips, 649
Synthetic seismograms
T
Tadpole dips, 584
Tangent method for fault traces, 394–400
Tangential directional surveys, 68–69
Taranaki Basin, 590
Target maps in depth conversion, 536–538
Techniques in Philosophical Doctrine, 5–6
Tectonic habitats
extensional. See Extensional tectonics
Templates for three-dimensional seismic data, 490
Tenneco Oil Company directional survey uncertainties study, 72
Thick-skinned strike-slip environments, 731
Thick-skinned vertical faults, 746
Thickness
contour lines, 16
MLT. See Measured log thickness (MLT)
stratigraphic. See Stratigraphic thickness
vertical. See Vertical thickness
Thickness downthrown and upthrown in expansion index, 777
Thickness intervals in log correlation techniques, 120–122
Thin-skinned compressional environments, 424, 731
Thin-skinned deformations, 592
Thin-skinned extensional environments, 424
Thin-skinned low-angle faults, 746
Three-dimensional analysis for strike-slip faults, 746
Three-dimensional coherency data for strike-ramps, 669
Three-dimensional correction factor for dipping beds, 115–120
Three-dimensional effects for cross structures, 664–668
Three-dimensional interpretation for Waha Field, 560–565
Three-dimensional models
Three-dimensional perspective for contouring, 10–13
Three-dimensional reservoir analysis model for cross sections, 250–256
Three-dimensional seismic data
documenting, 490
framework interpretation and mapping, 487–488
horizon interpretation, 517–527
interpretation optimization, 481–487
interpretation workflow, 489
philosophical doctrine relative to workstations, 480
subsurface interpretations, 156–157
work environment, 481
workstation projects, 489
Three-dimensional spherical coordinate systems for dipping beds, 116–117
Three-dimensional validity in Philosophical Doctrine, 4
Three-dimensional views for cross sections, 245–256
Throw
combined vertical separation, 306
compressional faulting, 314
downthrown stratigraphic section prediction. See Downthrown stratigraphic section prediction
mathematical relationship to vertical separation, 280–284
measurement limitations, 280
vertical faults, 418
Thrust faults
compressional faulting, 315
compressional tectonics, 470–473
contour compatibility across faults, 424
on dip and strike lines, 557, 560–567
dip spectral analysis, 621, 623–624
fault-propagation folds, 565, 598, 600
quantitative methods for determining structural styles, 609
Thunder Horse North Field, 458
Tied vertical sections, 501
Tiehchanshan Anticline, 610
Tight zones
sand–shale distribution, 822
top of structure mapping, 862–863, 865
Tilted hydrocarbon/water contacts, 875–878
Time-depth pairs, 551
Time-depth tables, 191
Time profiles in kink method, 580
Time requirements in Philosophical Doctrine, 4
Time-stratigraphic correlations
correlation sections, 215
growth faults, 780
unconformities, 131
Time-to-depth conversion, 191–195, 322
Top of porosity maps, 419–420, 862–865
Top of structure maps
Top-of-Unit structure maps
Totco tools
fault surface maps, 348
Tough logging conditions logs, 53
Traces. See Fault traces
Transfer structures in cross-section consistency, 567–568
Transfer zones in compressional faulting, 317
Transpressional deformation, 742
Transverse structures, 664–668
Trapezoidal directional surveys, 68–69
Triangles
Triangulation technique in computer-based contouring, 24, 27–31
True along hole depth (TAH), 51, 82
True dip lines, 185
True stratigraphic depth (TSD)
electric log correlation for horizontal wells, 126–128
relationships, 126
TVD cross sections, 125
True stratigraphic thickness (TST)
interval isopach maps, 882–886
log correlation pitfalls, 99–101
log correlation techniques, 120–122
relationships, 126
TVD cross sections, 125
TVD method, 127
True vertical depth thickness (TVDT)
log correlation techniques, 120–122
True vertical depth (TVD)
depth uncertainty, 49
directionally drilled wells, 105
interval isopach maps, 882
log correlation techniques, 121–122
log measurements, 82
relationships, 126
vertical wells, 51
True vertical thickness (TVT)
deviated wells, 146–148, 858–862
fault-seal analysis, 267
interval isopach maps, 882–885
isochore maps, 817–819, 847–851
log correlation pitfalls, 99–101
log correlation techniques, 120–122
relationships, 126
TVD cross sections, 125
2D Conformal Mapping (2DCM), 37–39
Two-dimensional correction factor for dipping beds, 114–115, 117–120
Two-dimensional data in subsurface interpretations, 156–159
Two-way time-to-depth conversion, 191–194, 322
Tying seismic data
annotating well information, 171
checkshot information, 172–173
picking reflections, 171
synthetic seismograms, 173–175
Tying wells
U
Uncertainties in directional surveys, 71–73
Unconformities
computer-based log correlation identification, 131–133
correlation type logs, 86
framework horizons, 517
hydrocarbon traps, 413–417, 453
log correlation techniques, 149–152
Unevenly distributed impermeable rock, 839–843
Uniform sedimentary loading, 693
Uniform thicknesses
quantitative methods for determining structural styles, 607
Up-dip pinchouts, 453
Up-dips
compensating fault patterns, 431
fault traces, 401
Uplifts
contour maps, 358
depth-to-detachment calculations, 585–586
domal structures, 361
linear growth, 693
unconformities from, 413
Upper Triassic Nugget Sandstone, 221–222
Upthrown blocks, 145
compensating fault patterns, 430, 432–434
contouring across normal faults, 366, 368–369
cross-sections across faults, 240, 243
directional wells, 349
electric log correlation, 92
expansion index, 777
fault traces, 392, 398–399, 404
growth faults, 338–340, 777–778
lateral displacements, 739
manual integration of fault and structure maps, 378–388
normal faults, 366, 378–379, 382
repeated sections, 138. See also Decollements
restored tops, 143–149, 338, 384–385
reverse faults, 467
structure maps, 406
throws across faults, 370
Upthrown traces
fault gaps, 404
throws across faults, 370
Upward-listric fault surfaces, 548
V
Valencia fault, 739
Variations in stratigraphy
electric log correlation, 97–98
vs. faults, 94
Velocity function
downthrown stratigraphic section prediction, 697
seismic lines, 239
Velocity problems in converting time to depth, 191–193
Velocity trends in synthetic seismograms, 499
Venezuela
VERTCON program, 52
Vertical displacements in strike-slip faults, 733
Vertical distance in deviated wells, 146
Vertical exaggeration (VE)
cross sections, 198, 201, 223–227
three-dimensional seismic data, 481, 485
Vertical faults in structure maps, 418–419
Vertical planes
fault-propagation fold models, 565
fault-seal analysis, 265
Vertical points for directionally drilled wells, 62
Vertical resolution in seismic sections, 161–163
Vertical scales
fault surface sections, 265
three-dimensional seismic data, 481
Vertical sections
fault interpretation, 501
seismic sections, 163
Vertical seismic displays (VSD), 481
Vertical seismic profiles (VSPs)
depth conversion, 530
diapiric salt tectonics, 453–454
tying seismic data, 175
Vertical separation
bifurcating fault patterns, 300, 440
compensating fault patterns, 302–303, 430–431
compressional faulting, 314, 316–317
contouring, 366
contours across fault, 423, 427
cross-sections across faults, 240, 243
directionally drilled wells, 351
extensional tectonics, 447
fault additive property, 408–410
fault surface maps, 295
manual integration of fault and structure maps, 382, 384
mathematical relationship to throw, 280–284
nonclassical balancing techniques, 605–608
seismic data, 327–328, 331–332
strike-slip fault tectonics, 463
throw contouring, 375
vertical faults, 418
Vertical separation maps, 329, 331–332
Vertical slice method for reservoir volume, 874
Vertical thickness
isochore maps, 817–819, 847–857
kink method, 579
multisurface stacking, 30
TVT. See True vertical thickness (TVT)
Vertical uncertainty in directional surveys, 71–72
Vertical wellbores in log measurements, 82
Vertical wells, 50
absolute depth uncertainty, 58–59
correlation with directionally drilled wells, 105–120
electric log correlation, 90–101
log correlation pitfalls, 99–101
relative depth uncertainty, 56–57
repeated sections, 139
surface location uncertainty, 50–51
wireline depth measurements, 54
without directional surveys, 79–80
Visualization techniques in fault-seal analysis, 269–270
Volume accountability rule, 543–544
Volume-balanced models for fault bend folds, 594
Volume conservation in strike-slip extensional folding, 765
Volumetric configuration
tilted hydrocarbon/water contacts, 877–878
Volumetric reserve calculations, 819, 879–881
VS/d plots
complex growth structures, 808–811
downward-dying growth faults, 811–814
W
Walkaways, 453
Walking wells method
hydrocarbon wedge contouring, 839–845
net pay isochore maps, 824
Water coning in horizontal wells, 63
Wedge zones
net pay isochore maps, 827–828, 832–837
nonclassical balancing techniques, 628–631
top of structure mapping, 863
Weight on bit (WOB) for vertical well depth, 54–55, 57
Well control in fault interpretation, 499–501
Well data
integration in structure maps, 411–413
seismic data integration, 329
South Marsh Island, 329
Well depth for vertical wells, 51–53
Well logs
compressional faulting, 314
cross sections, 198
downthrown stratigraphic section prediction, 719
growth faults, 338
three-dimensional seismic data, 488
true stratigraphic thickness, 883–885
Well planning, 488
West Cameron Block 192 Field, 236, 238
Wharton method for net hydrocarbon isochore maps, 826–837
Wheeler Ridge, 631
White Castle dome, 458
Whitney Canyon Field, 465
Wireline depth measurements for vertical wells, 54
Wireline logs for vertical well depth, 53
Work environment for three-dimensional seismic data, 481
Workflows for three-dimensional seismic data, 489
Workstations
Philosophical Doctrine relative to, 480
three-dimensional seismic data, 489–490
Wyoming-Utah backarc, 465
X
X-Y graphic scale on contour maps, 356
XYZ data for faulted surfaces, 42
Y
Y-O Buckle, 758
Z
Z vergences, 632
Zagros Mountains
compressional structures, 465–466
salt domes, 451
Zayante Fault, 796
Zero contour lines, 824, 827–828
Zero depth in vertical wells, 51
Zone of combined throw, 306