Index
A
Abbot, Gilbert, 78
actinomycetes, 156
active immunity, 131
acute paranoid schizophrenia, 194–196, 218
adenine, 182
albinism, 178
alkaptonuria, 177
alprazolam (Xanax), 215
alternative medicine
AMA battle against quackery, 240–242
Ayurvedic medicine, 228
chiropractic medicine, 238–240
explained, 4–5
homeopathy, 236–238
increasing popularity of, 226
integrative medicine, 246–249
meditation, 223–224
NCCAM (National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine), 243
rediscovery of, 242–243
top 15 CAM practitioner visits, 244–246
traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), 227
treatment failures, 223–224
American Medical Association (AMA), 241
American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), 197
The Anatomy of Melancholy (Burton), 199
Anderson, W. French, 190
anesthesia
action on nervous system, 87–88
chloroform
initial observation of anesthetic properties, 79–80
research into administration, dosing, and effects, 81–83
use in obstetrics, 80
early methods, 68
effect on mind, 84–86
ether
demonstration of Letheon by William Morton, 77–79
dismissal by medical establishment, 77
first recorded medical uses, 75–77
observation of anesthetic properties, 75
recreational use, 75
future of, 88
modern advances in, 86–88
nitrous oxide
euphoric effects, 73
initial observations of anesthetic properties, 70–74
recreational use, 75
operations performed without anesthesia, 69–70
religious and social factors inhibiting development of, 70–72
stages of anesthesia, 82
anti-anxiety drugs, 214–216
anti-manic drugs, 206–208
anti-vaccination movement, 136–137
antibiotic-resistant bacteria, 160–161
antibiotic contamination of food in ancient Rome, 140–142
antibiotic contamination of food of ancient Nubians, 162
categories of antibiotics, 159
initial observations of bacteria-inhibiting properties of mold, 143–145
mis-use of antibiotics, 159–162
penicillin
Alexander Fleming’s discovery of, 145–148
first patient saved by, 154–155
first successful (but forgotten) cures, 148–149
production of, 151–154
rise of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, 160–162
streptomycin, 156–158
sulphonamide drugs, 149–151
therapeutic use of mold in folk medicine, 143
antidepressants, 210–213
antipsychotic drugs, 208–210
antiseptic techniques, 57–59
antitoxin vaccines, 130–131
antitoxins, 130
anxiety
early attempts to understand, 200
treating with anti-anxiety drugs, 214–216
Artaxerxes, 12
aseptic surgery, 57–59
Asklepieion of Kos, 8
Asklepieios, 11
Austen, Jane, 69
Avery, Oswald, 181
Ayurvedic medicine, 228–229
B
Bacillus anthracis, 59–60
barbiturates, 215
Barnes, John, 28
Baron, John, 123
barriers to understanding and treating mental illness, 196–198
Barry, Martin, 168
Bateson, William, 177
Beadle, George, 182
Beddoes, Thomas, 72–74
Behring, Emil von, 130
benzodiazepines, 216
Berger, Frank, 214
Beston, Emma de, 199
Bethlem hospital, 202
Bini, Lucio, 205
BMJ (British Medical Journal)
choices for top 15 medical breakthroughs, 3
on discovery of X-rays, 98
on integrated medicine, 248
Boorstin, Daniel J., 251
Boveri, Theodor, 177
Breaths (Hippocrates), 23
Brünn Natural Historical Society, 172
Buchan, William, 167
Bumstead, John, 154
Burney, Fanny, 69–70
Burton, Robert, 199
C
Candotti, Fabio, 190
cardiazol, 204
cathode rays, 95
Cattell, Henry, 104
cell biology, 173–174
The Cell in Inheritance and Development (Wilson), 175
Cerletti, Ugo, 205
Chadwick, Edwin, 30–31
invention of modern sanitation, 40–42
On the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain, 40–41
passage of Public Health Act of 1848, 41–42
passage of Public Health Act of 1875, 42
role in creating 1834 Poor Law Amendment Act, 38–39
Chain, Ernst, 151–153
Chargaff, Erwin, 182
Cheselden, William, 68
chicken cholera, 127
childbed fever, 46–51
childbirth
childbed fever, 46–51
use of anesthetics for, 80
chiropractic medicine, 238–240
chloroform
initial observation of anesthetic properties, 79–80
research into administration, dosing, and effects, 81–83
use in obstetrics, 80
chlorpromazine, 208–210
cholera
chicken cholera, 127
discovery of contagious nature of, 33–35
discovery of relationship with poor sanitation, 32–33
family of V. cholerae bacteria, 44
hog cholera, 129
modern sanitation failures and spread of cholera, 43–44
prevalence during Industrial Revolution, 28–30
research into cholera vaccine, 129
chromosomes
Thomas Hunt Morgan’s research into relationship of genes/chromosomes, 179–180
Clarke, William, 75
clinical medicine, creation of, 15–16
Coates, M. M., 73
code of ethics (Hippocratic Oath), 16–17
codons, 186
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 73
Colton, Gardner, 76
computed tomography (CT), 112–113
Conner, Lewis A., 235
consumption. See tuberculosis
Coolidge tube, 109–110
Coolidge, William, 109–110
Copernicus, Nicolaus, 231
Cormack, Alan, 113
Corpus Hippocraticum, 11, 19–22
Correns, Carl, 176
cortex, 87
Corynebacterium diptheriae (diphtheria), 130
cowpox, use in development of smallpox vaccine, 119–126
Cox, Joseph Mason, 202
CT (computed tomography), 112–113
Cunning, Tolson, 102
Curie, Marie, 103
cystic fibrosis, 188
cytosine, 182
D
Dally, Clarence, 107
De Humani Corporis Fabrica (Vesalius), 231
De Motu Cordis (Harvey), 232
Delay, Jean, 209
Delbrück, Max, 183
Deniker, Pierre, 209
deoxyribonucleic acid. See DNA
depression
early attempts to understand, 199
treating with antidepressants, 210–213
Despeignes, Victor, 106
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), 197
diazepam (Valium), 215
Die Presse, 97
diphtheria vaccine, 130–131
DNA. See also genetics
discovery by Friedrich Miescher, 174–176
discovery of codons by Marshall Nirenberg and J. Heinrich Matthaei, 185–187
discovery of double helix model by James Watson and Francis Crick, 183–184
gene therapy, 190–191
genetic testing, 188–190
modern milestones and discoveries, 187–188
rediscovery by Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty, 180–183
Domagk, Gerhard, 150–151
dominant traits, discovery by Gregor Mendel, 171
doshas, 229
double helix model (DNA), 183–184
drug treatments for mental illness
anti-anxiety drugs, 214–216
antidepressants, 210–213
chlorpromazine and other antipsychotic drugs, 208–210
lithium, 206–208
need for supporting services, 217–219
transformative effect on prejudice and misconceptions about mental illness, 216–217
DSM-IV (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders), 197
E
ECT (electroconvulsive therapy), 205
Edison, Thomas, 99–100, 107, 110
Egan, Robert, 112
1834 Poor Law Amendment Act, 38–39
1848 Public Health Act, 41–42
1875 Public Health Act, 42
Eisenberg, David M., 242
Electrical Engineer, on discovery of X-rays, 98, 101–102
Electrical World, on discovery of X-rays, 98, 101
The Electrician, on discovery of X-rays, 102
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), 205
electrons, 95
Enders, John, 134
Epidemics 3, 15
Epidemics 1, 230
epidemiology, 35–38
Esquirol, Jean Etienne Dominique, 200
ether
demonstration of Letheon by William Morton, 77–79
dismissal by medical establishment, 77
first recorded medical uses, 75–77
initial observation of anesthetic properties, 75
recreational use, 75
ethics, code of (Hippocratic Oath), 16–17
Exhaustion theory of vaccines, 131
extrapyramidal side effects of antipsychotics, 210
F
Faraday, Michael, 75
fermentation, 53–55
fertilization process, 167–168
Fleming, Alexander, 2, 145–148, 253
Flemming, Walther, 174
Florey, Howard, 151–153
fluoroscope, 96
fluoxetine, 212
Flynn, J. E., 158
folate antagonists, 159
fractional vaccines, 135
Frankfurter Zeitung, on discovery of X-rays, 98
Freud, Sigmund, 200
Freund, Leopold, 105
Fuller, Ray, 212
Fulton, John, 154
G
G-22355, 212
GABAA, 88
Garrod, Archibald, 177–179
Gaudoin, M., 106
Gelsinger, Jesse, 190
gene maps, 180
gene therapy, 190–191
General Electric Research Laboratory, 109
genetically engineered vaccines, 135
genetics
Archibald Garrod’s research into the function of genes, 177–179
beliefs of ancient Greeks, 164
discovery of fertilization process, 167–168
discovery of number of human chromosomes, 185
DNA. See DNA
doctrine of maternal impression, 164–167, 191
dominant/recessive traits, 171
early belief in pangenesis, 166
explained, 164–166
gene therapy, 190–191
genetic testing, 188–190
Gregor Mendel’s research into laws of genetics, 169–173
Law of Independent Assortment, 172
Law of Segregation, 172
modern milestones and discoveries, 187–188
rediscovery of Mendel’s laws, 176–177
research into cell biology and discovery of chromosomes, 173–174
Thomas Hunt Morgan’s research into relationship of genes/chromosomes, 179–180
germ theory
definition of, 48
invention of antiseptic techniques, 57–59
invention of pasteurization, 55
Koch’s Postulates, 61–62
modern battle against germs, 63–64
modern negligence of hand-washing hygiene, 64–65
pioneering researchers
Antony van Leeuwenhoek, 48
Ignaz Semmelweis, 49–52
Joseph Lister, 57–59
Louis Pasteur, 52–57
Robert Koch, 59–62
theory of spontaneous generation, 55–56
transformation of medical practice, 62–63
“Giovanni” (patient undergoing chlorpromazine treatment), 208–209
Goldmann, Donald, 64–65
Goldstein, David B., 189
Goodpasture, Ernest William, 134
Griffith, Frederick, 180
guanine, 182
H
H1N1 (swine) flu virus, 254–255
Haeckel, Ernst, 174–175
Haffkine, Waldemar, 130
Hahnemann, Samuel, 236
hand-washing protocols, 51–52
HapMap project, 189
Hare, Ronald, 147
Harvey, William, 5, 231–232, 253
Haslam, John, 199
Heatley, Norman, 152
Helmont, Jean-Baptiste van, 53
Herculaneum (Rome), bacterial contamination in diet, 140–142
heredity. See genetics
Hinshaw, Corwin, 157
belief in pangenesis, 166
birthplace, 8–9
creation of clinical medicine, 15–16
discovery of natural causes of disease, 13–14
doctrine of maternal impression, 164, 167
early view of medicine, 11
Hippocratic Oath, 16–17
holistic approach to medicine, 22–24
humoral theory, 198
legends about, 12
list of achievements, 9–10
meeting with Anaxagoras, 10, 13
professionalization of practice of medicine, 17–19
on role of patient, 71
value of philosophy to modern medical practice, 25–26
writings of (Hippocratic Corpus), 11, 19–22
Hippocratic medicine, 229–230
Hippocratic Oath, 16–17
hog cholera, 129
holistic approach of Hippocrates, 22, 24
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 240
homeopathy, 236–238
Hooke, Robert, 173
Hounsfield, Godfrey, 112
Huang Di Nei Jing (Inner Canon of the Yellow Emperor), 227
Huang-Di, 227
Human Genome Project, 187
humoral theory (Hippocrates), 198
Hunter, David J., 190
hypothalamus, 87
I
Imhotep, 143
imipramine, 212
immunology, birth of, 131–134. See also vaccines
Indian Ayurvedic medicine, 228–229
inhibitors of cell wall synthesis (antibiotics), 159
Inner Canon of the Yellow Emperor (Huang Di Nei Jing), 227
An Inquiry into the Causes and Effects of Variolae Vaccinae, or Cowpox (Jenner), 124
insane asylums, history of, 202–203
insulin overdose in treatment of mental illness, 204–205
integrative medicine, 4, 246–249
iproniazid, 211–212
J-K
Jackson, Charles, 78
Janssen, Hans, 168
Janssen, Zacharias, 168
Jefferson, Thomas, 125
Jenner, Edward, 5, 119–126, 251–252
Jesty, Benjamin Jr., 122
Jesty, Elizabeth, 122
Jesty, Robert, 122
Johannsen, Wilhelm, 177
killed vaccines, development of, 129–130
Killiker, Albert von, 175
Kitasato, Shibasaburo, 130
Kline, Nathan, 211
Koch’s Postulates, 61–62
Koch, Robert, 38, 59–60, 129, 132
Koch’s Postulates, 61–62
research into tuberculosis, 60–61
Kohn, Donald B., 190
Kolle, Wilhelm, 129
Kolletschka, Jakob, 50
Kolliker, Rudolph von, 99
Kos, 8–9
Kraepelin, Emil, 200
Kraft, Peter, 190
Kuhn, Roland, 212
L
La Touche, C. J., 147
Laborit, Henri-Marie, 209
lactic acid, 54
Laennec, René, 5, 233–234, 251
Lambeth Waterworks, 35
The Lancet, on discovery of X-rays, 98
Larrey, Dominique-Jean, 68
Laue, Max von, 110–111
laughing gas. See nitrous oxide
Law of Independent Assortment (Mendel), 172
Law of Segregation (Mendel), 172
Leeuwenhoek, Antony van, 48
legislation
1848 Public Health Act, 41–42
1875 Public Health Act, 42
Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834, 38–39
Lenard, Philipp, 95
Letheon, 77–79
Levy, William, 106
Librium (chlordiazepoxide), 215
Lillard, Harvey, 238
lithium, 206–208
lobotomy, 205
London Standard, on discovery of X-rays, 98
Long, Crawford, 76
Longfellow, Fanny, 80
Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 80, 85
luck, making most of, 253
lysozyme, 151
M
Macalyane, Euphanie, 80
MacLeod, Colin, 181
macrophages, 132
malaria, as treatment for syphilis, 203
MAOIs, 212
maternal impression, 164–167, 191
Matthaei, J. Heinrich, 185
Matthews, James Tilly, 199
McCarty, Maclyn, 181
Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity (Morgan), 180
Medical News, on discovery of X-rays, 99
meditation, 223–224
Meduna, Ladislaus von, 204
Meister, Joseph, 128
Memoir on Madness (Pinel), 203
Menard, Maxime, 108
Mendel, Gregor, 2, 169–173, 252
mental illness
barriers to understanding and treating mental illness, 196–198
case study: David Tarloff, 194–196, 218
case study: Emma de Beston, 199
definition of mental illness, 197
drugs
anti-anxiety drugs, 214–216
antidepressants, 210–213
chlorpromazine and other antipsychotic drugs, 208–210
lithium, 206–208
need for supporting services, 217–219
transformative effect on prejudice and misconceptions about mental illness, 216–217
early attempts to understand mental illness, 198–201
first medical treatments
ECT (electroconvulsive therapy), 205
lobotomy, 205
seizures, 204–205
syphilis treatment via malaria, 203
rise of insane asylums, 201–203
meprobamate, 214–215
mercurochrome, 150
Metchnikoff, Elie, 132
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), 160–161
metrazol (cardiazol), 204
miasma, 29
Michelson, Albert A., 110
microscope, invention of, 168
Miescher, Friedrich, 2, 174–175
Miller, Anne, 154–155
MMWR (Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report), “Ten Great Public Health Achievements,” 3
mold. See also antibiotics
initial observations of bacteria-inhibiting properties of mold, 143–145
therapeutic use in folk medicine, 143
Moniz, Egas, 205
Morgan, Thomas Hunt, 179–180, 252
Morton, William, 77–79, 88, 103
MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus), 160–161
N
Nägeli, Carl, 172
NAMI (National Alliance on Mental Illness), 197
natural causes of disease, discovery of, 13–14
NCCAM (National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine), 243
Nelmes, Sarah, 124
NHIS (National Health Interview Survey), 243
Nirenberg, Marshall, 185–186
nitrous oxide
euphoric effects of, 73
initial observations of anesthetic properties, 70–74
recreational use of, 75
Noxious Retention theory of vaccines, 131
Nubia, bacterial contamination of diet in, 162
nuclein (DNA), discovery by Friedrich Miescher, 174–176
nucleotides, 188
nucleus of cells, discovery of, 174
Nutt, A. B., 149
O
obstetrics
childbed fever, 46–51
use of anesthetics for, 80
“On a New Kind of Rays” (Roentgen), 97
On Injuries of the Head (Hippocrates), 21
On Joints (Hippocrates), 21
On Mediate Auscultation or Treatise on the Diagnosis of the Diseases of the Lungs and Heart (Laennec), 234
“On the Mode of Communication of Cholera” (Snow), 34
On the Sacred Disease (Hippocrates), 14
On the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain (Chadwick), 40–41
ophthalmia neonatorum, treatment with penicillin, 149
Orfanos, Constantin, 25
Orser, Beverley A., 88
P
Pacini, Filippo, 38
pain relief. See anesthesia
Paine, Cecil George, 148–149
Painter, Thomas, 185
Palerm, Daniel David, 238–239
Pall Mall Gazette, on discovery of X-rays, 99
pangenesis, 166
Paracelsus, 75
Paré, Ambroise, 233–234
passive immunity, 131
Pasteur, Louis, 53–56
development of rabies vaccine, 128
invention of pasteurization, 55
research debunking spontaneous generation, 55–56
research into chicken cholera, 126
research into fermentation, 52–55
research into vaccine development, 128
work in infectious diseases, 56–57
Pasteurella pestis (plague), 130
pasteurization, 55
penicillin
discovery of, 145–148
first patient saved by, 154–155
first successful (but forgotten) cures, 148–149
production of, 151–154
Penicillium glaucum, 143
Perdiccas of Macedonia, 12
phagocytosis, 132
Pinel, Philippe, 202
plague vaccine, 130
Platter, Felix, 199
Pneumatic Institution for Inhalation Gas Therapy, 72
polysaccharide vaccines, 135
Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834, 38–39
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 249
Pouchet, Felix, 53–55
practice of medicine, professionalization of, 17–19
prakriti, 228
prefrontal leucotomy, 205
Priestly, Joseph, 72
priorities, shift from patient to disease, 224–226, 233–235
production of penicillin, 151–154
professionalization of practice of medicine, 17–19
Program in Integrative Medicine (University of Arizona), 247
protein synthesis inhibitors (antibiotics), 159
Prozac, 213
psychopharmacology. See drug treatments for mental illness
PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder), 249
Public Health Act of 1848, 41–42
Public Health Act of 1875, 42
Q-R
qi gong, 228
quackery, AMA battles against, 240–242
quinolone antibiotics, 159
receptors, 87
recessive traits, discovery by Gregor Mendel, 171
recombinant vaccines, 135
Regimen (Hippocrates), 23
Rhazes (Al-Rhazi), 118
Roberts, William, 144
Royal Research Institute, 105
S
Sakel, Manfred, 204
Salmon, Daniel, 129
Salmonella Typhi (typhoid), 129
Salomon, Albert, 112
Salvarsan, 150
sanitation
definition of, 31
discovery of relationship between poor sanitation and cholera outbreaks, 32–33
importance of, 31
invention of modern sanitation, 40–42
modern sanitation failures, 43–44
On the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain (Chadwick), 40–41
Public Health Act of 1848, 41–42
Public Health Act of 1875, 42
schizophrenia
case study: David Tarloff, 194–196, 218
early attempts to understand schizophrenia, 199
early treatment by induced seizures, 204
treatment with antipsychotic drugs, 208–210
treatment with lobotomy, 205
Schleiden, Matthias, 173
Schwann, Theodor, 174
scientific medicine, shift in focus from patient to disease, 224–226, 233–235
seizures, as treatment for mental illness, 204–205
Semmelweis, Ignaz, 5, 47–52, 252
Semmelweis, Jacob, 2
Shelley, Mary Wollstonecraft, 47
Shinbach, Kent, 194
shock, as treatment for mental illness, 205
sickle cell anemia, 188
single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), 188–189
smallpox (variola virus)
antibodies against, 118
development of smallpox vaccine, 116–126
eradication of, 137
symptoms and disease progression, 117
transmission of, 116
Smith, Theobald, 129
Snow, John, 2, 30–31, 81–84, 89, 252
discovery of contagious nature of cholera, 33–35
discovery of relationship between poor sanitation and cholera, 32–33
invention of epidemiology, 35–38
SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism), 188–189
Soranus of Ephedrus, 198
Southey, Robert, 73
Southwark and Vauxhall Company, 35
spontaneous generation, early belief in, 53
SSRIs, 212
stages of anesthesia, 82
Sternbach, Leo, 215
stethoscope, invention of, 234, 251
Stevens, Nettie, 179
Stevenson, Ian, 191
Streptomyces bacteria, 140–142, 157, 162
streptomycin, 156–158
Sturtevant, Alfred, 180
subunit vaccines, 135
Sudanese Nubia, bacterial contamination of diet in, 162
sulphonamide drugs, 149–151
Sutton, Walter, 177–178
swine flu (H1N1) virus, 254–255
syphilis, 203
T
tai chi, 228
Tatum, Edward, 182
TB. See tuberculosis
TCM (traditional Chinese medicine), 227–228
“Ten Great Public Health Achievements” (MMWR), 3
tetanus vaccine, 130–131
thalamus, 87
Thomas, Lewis, 222
Thomas, Patricia, 157
Thorazine (chlorpromazine), 208–210
Thoreau, Henry David, 85
thymine, 182
Tjio, Joe-Him, 185
Tobin, J. W., 73
Tofranil, 212
Tomes, Nancy J., 62
toxoid vaccines, 135
tradition, facing down, 253–254
traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), 227–228
treatment failures, 222–223
Tschermak, Erich, 176
tuberculin, 62
tuberculosis, 60
and discovery of streptomycin, 156–158
use of X-rays to diagnose, 103
Tyndall, John, 144
typhoid vaccine, 129
U-V
unexpected events, making most of, 253
Unhammad, Najabuddin, 198, 201
Union Medical, on discovery of X-rays, 104
V. cholerae. See cholera
vaccines
active versus passive immunity, 131
advances in twentieth and twenty-first centuries, 134–135
anthrax vaccine, 127
anti-vaccination movements, 136–137
antitoxin vaccines, 130–131
birth of immunology, 131–134
cholera vaccine, 129
concept of killed vaccines, 129–130
diphtheria vaccine, 130–131
plague vaccine, 130
research by Louis Pasteur, 126–128
smallpox vaccine, 116–126, 138
tetanus vaccine, 130–131
typhoid vaccine, 129
Valium (diazepam), 215
variola virus. See smallpox
Venable, James, 76
Vesalius, Andreas, 231–232, 253
Vibrio Cholerae Pacini. See cholera
Victoria (Queen of England), 83
Virchow, Rudolf, 174
viruses
cowpox, 119–126
H1N1 (swine) flu virus, 254–255
variola virus (smallpox)
antibodies against, 118
development of smallpox vaccine, 116–126
eradication of, 137
symptoms and disease progression, 117
transmission of, 116
Vries, Hugo de, 176
Vuillemin, Paul, 144
W
Wagner-Jauregg, Julius, 203
Waldeyer, Wilhelm, 174
Wallace Laboratories, 215
Warren, John, 77–78
Warren, Stafford, 112
“WB” (patient with chronic mania), 206–208, 217–218
Weil, Andrew, 247
Wells, Horace, 76
Whitehead, Henry, 37
Wilkins, Maurice, 183
Willis, Thomas, 202
Wollstonecraft, Mary, 46–47
Wollstonecraft, William, 46
Wong, David, 212
Wright, Almroth, 129
X-Y-Z
X chromosomes, 179
X-rays
applications in modern medicine, 111–114
computed tomography (CT), 112–113
mammography, 112
Coolidge tube, 109–110
dangers of X-rays, 106–108
impact on diagnostic medicine, 101–104
impact on scientific community, 98–99
initial misconceptions and fears by general public, 99–101
research by Max von Laue into nature of X-rays, 110–111
research by Wilhelm Roentgen, 95–97
therapeutic potential of X-rays, 105–106
value of, 92–94
Xanax (alprazolam), 215
Y chromosomes, 179
Yersinia pestis (plague), 130
The Youngest Science (Thomas), 223