Introduction

Digital television and video displays are simultaneously getting larger and smaller (in home flat screens that exceed seven feet in diagonal size and, at the other extreme, tiny screens in head-mounted digital displays such as Microsoft’s Holo-Lens). There is also improved image resolution at both ends of this viewing spectrum. The improvement in video camera quality in mobile phones has led to a global explosion in the number of videos posted online and live online chat sessions. Program delivery is also shifting from over-the-air (OTA) broadcasting and cable television where viewers have content “pushed” to them to an expanding online environment where they “pull” what they want to watch on demand. This global transformation in delivery is affecting every aspect of motion media viewing.

In the United States, this online delivery process is known as Over-The-Top television—with OTT as the obligatory acronym now used in advertising these services. It should more accurately be called over-the-top video as the term refers to on-demand, non-broadcast, Internet-streamed video content viewed on a digital display, but the confusion reflects the blurring of the line between broadcast, cable, and DBS-delivered “linear” television and on-demand streamed content (Seel, 2012). “Over-The-Top” indicates that there is an increasingly popular means of accessing television and video content that is independent of traditional linear OTA television broadcasters and multichannel video programming distributors (MVPDs, which include satellite, cable, and telco content providers). However, much of the content consists of television programs previously broadcast (or cablecast) accessed using services such as Hulu.com—in addition to streamed movies and programs from providers such as Netflix and Amazon, many now available in the immersive 4K Ultra-High-Definition format.

The term “Over-The-Top” is unique to the U.S.—in other regions of the world it is called “Connected” video or television. To move past this confusion, we suggest the introduction of an all-encompassing term: Internet-Delivered Television or I-DTV. The use of this meta-term would subsume all OTT, Connected, and IPTV (Internet Protocol television) streamed programming, and create a clear demarcation between this online delivery and broadcast-cable-DBS transmission.

In the United States, a massive retooling is occurring in broadcast and video production operations as the nation undergoes a second digital television transition. The first ended on June 12, 2009 with the cessation of analog television transmissions and the completion of the first national transition to digital OTA broadcasting using the Advanced Television Systems Committee (ATSC 1.0) DTV standard. (DTV Delay Act, 2009). Development work on improved DTV technology for the U.S. has been underway since 2010, and the Federal Communication Commission voted in November of 2017 for a national voluntary adoption of a new standard known as “ATSC 3.0” over the next decade (2018–2028) (FCC, 2017; Eggerton, 2018). Details about the U.S. ATSC 3.0 standard are outlined in the Recent Developments section.

Most flat-screen displays larger than 42-inches sold globally in 2018 and beyond will be “smart” televisions that can easily display these motion-media sources and online sites such as Facebook and Pinterest. An example is Samsung’s “Tizen” display that offers voice control in accessing a panoply of Internet-delivered and MVPD-provided content. Remote controls for these displays can easily toggle between broadcast, cable, or DBS content and Internet-streamed OTT videos (see Figure 6.1)

Source: Samsung

Digital television displays and high-definition video recording are increasingly common features in mobile phones used by 6.8 billion people of the world’s population of 7.6 billion. Digital video cameras in mobile phones have also become more powerful and less expensive. An example is the $700 Apple iPhone 8 (see Figure 6.3) which records 4K video at 24, 30, and 60 frames/second and has optical image stabilization for tracking shots.

The democratization of “television” production generated by the explosion in the number of devices that can record digital video has created a world where over one billion users watch more than one billion videos each day at YouTube.com. Local YouTube sites are available in more than 88 countries, with content available in 76 languages, and half of all global video viewing is on mobile devices (YouTube Statistics, 2018). The online distribution of digital video and television programming is an increasingly disruptive force to established broadcasters and program producers. They have responded by making their content available online for free (or via subscription) as increasing numbers of viewers seek to “pull” digital television content on request rather than watch at times when it is “pushed” as broadcast programming. Television news programs routinely feature video captured by bystanders, such as the horrific aftermath of the terrorist attacks in Barcelona, Spain in August of 2017. The increasing ubiquity of digital video recording capability also bodes well for the global free expression and exchange of ideas via the Internet. However, it also makes possible the posting of hateful videos from groups seeking to incite fear in online audiences. The expanding “universe” of digital television and video is driven by improvements in highdefinition video cameras for professional production and the simultaneous inclusion of higher-quality video capture capability in mobile phones.

Sources: Arriflex and Apple

Another key trend is the recently completed global conversion from analog to digital television (DTV) technology. The United States completed its national conversion to digital broadcasting in 2009, Japan completed its transition in 2012, India in 2014, and most European nations did so in 2015. At the outset of high-definition television (HDTV) development in the 1980s, there was hope that one global television standard might emerge, easing the need to perform format conversions for international program distribution. There are now multiple competing DTV standards based on regional affiliations and national political orientation. In many respects, global television has reverted to a “Babel” of competing digital formats reminiscent of the advent of analog color television. However, DTV programming in the widescreen 16:9 aspect ratio is now a commonplace sight in all nations that have made the conversion. The good news for consumers is that digital television displays have become commodity products with prices dropping rapidly each year. In the United States, a consumer can purchase a quality 40-inch LCD digital television for $300—far below the $10 per diagonal inch benchmark that was crossed in 2010 (see Table 6.1).

Background

The global conversion from analog to digital television technology is the most significant change in television broadcast standards since color images were added in the 1960s. Digital television combines higher-resolution image quality with improved multichannel audio, and new “smart” models include the ability to seamlessly integrate Internet-delivered “television” programming into these displays. In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC, 1998) defines DTV as “any technology that uses digital techniques to provide advanced television services such as high definition TV (HDTV), multiple standard definition TV (SDTV) and other advanced features and services” (p. 7420).

Digital television programming can be accessed via linear over-the-air (OTA) fixed and mobile transmissions, through cable/telco/satellite multichannel video program distributors MVPDs), and through Internet-delivered I-DTV sites. I-DTV is an on-demand “pull” technology in that viewers seek out a certain program and watch it in a video stream or as a downloaded file. OTA linear broadcasting is a “push” technology that transmits a digital program to millions of viewers at once. I-DTV, like other forms of digital television, is a scalable technology that can be viewed as lower quality, highly compressed content or in HDTV-quality on sites such as Vimeo.com or YouTube.com.

In the 1970s and 1980s, Japanese researchers at NHK (Japan Broadcasting Corporation) developed two related analog HDTV systems: an analog “Hi-Vision” production standard with 1125 scanning lines and 60 fields (30 frames) per second; and an analog “MUSE” transmission system with an original bandwidth of 9 MHz designed for satellite distribution throughout Japan. The decade between 1986 and 1996 was a significant era in the diffusion of HDTV technology in Japan, Europe, and the United States. There were a number of key events during this period that shaped advanced television technology and related industrial policies:

The FCC adopted a number of key decisions during the ATV testing process that defined a national transition process from analog NTSC to an advanced digital television broadcast system:

However, as the February 17, 2009 analog shutdown deadline approached, it was apparent that millions of over-the-air households with analog televisions had not purchased the converter boxes needed to continue watching broadcast programs. Cable and satellite customers were not affected, as provisions were made for the digital conversion at the cable headend or with a satellite set-top box. Neither the newly inaugurated Obama administration nor members of Congress wanted to invite the wrath of millions of disenfranchised analog television viewers, so the shut-off deadline was delayed by an act of Congress 116 days to June 12, 2009 (DTV Delay Act, 2009). Between 2009 and 2016, the proportion of U.S. television households using digital HDTV displays climbed from 24 percent to over 90 percent, a significant adoption rate over seven years (DTV Household Penetration, 2016).

Recent Developments

There are two primary areas affecting the diffusion of digital television and video in the United States: an ongoing battle over the digital television spectrum between broadcasters, regulators, and mobile telecommunication providers; and the diffusion of new digital display technologies. The latter include now ubiquitous 4K-resolution Ultra-High-Definition (UHD) sets with display enhancements such as improved High-Dynamic Range (HDR) and the evolution of QLED quantum dot technology. The spectrum battle is significant in the context of what is known as the Negroponte Switch, which describes the conversion of “broadcasting” from a predominantly over-the-air service to one that is now wired and the simultaneous transition of telephony from a traditional wired service to a wireless one for an increasing number of users (Negroponte, 1995). The growth of wireless broadband services has placed increasing demands on the available radio spectrum—and broadcast television is a significant user of that spectrum. The advent of digital television in the United States made this conflict possible in that the assignment of new DTV channels demonstrated that spectrum assigned to television could be “repacked” at will without the adjacent-channel interference problems presented by analog transmission (Seel, 2011).

Current Status

Display Features. Two key developments are the arrival of Ultra-High-Definition (UHD) televisions that have 4K screen resolution and the diffusion of “premium” 4K displays that offer High-Dynamic Range (HDR) and/or QLED “quantum dot” image enhancements. Note that a 55-inch 4K UHD television that cost an average price of $957 in 2015 could be purchased for about half that amount (averaging $580) in 2017. Most higher-end 4K displays are “smart” televisions that can easily display any desired programming source, whether it be broadcast, cable or satellite-cast, or Internet-delivered content. The advent of the incompatible ATSC 3.0 digital television standard in the U.S. will require the purchase of new displays with the required chipset for accessing the features of the new standard, but most cable and DBS subscribers will have this conversion accomplished by the provider.

DTV adoption and viewing. DTV penetration in the United States in July 2016 was estimated at 91 percent of 118.4 million U.S. television households or 107.74 million homes (DTV Household Penetration, 2016). This figure has steadily increased from 38 percent since the U.S. switchover in 2009 (Leitchman Research Group, 2009). The conversion to HDTVs and now UHD TVs is being propelled by the rapidly falling prices of DTV displays as shown in Table 6.1.

Digital Television Technology

Display Options

Consumers have many technological options for digital television displays, and most sets sold today include higher-resolution screens at 4K (2160p) that feature interactive (smart) features. The dominant display technologies are:

•4K Television/Video Production and Display. These Ultra-High-Definition (UHD) televisions have 8,294,400 pixels (3840 pixels wide by 2160 high)—four times that of a conventional HDTV display. One problem with 4K technology is that the data processing and storage requirements are four times greater than with 2K HDTV. Just as this appeared to be a significant problem for 4K program production and distribution, a new compression scheme has emerged to deal with this issue: High-Efficiency Video Coding (HEVC). It uses advanced compression algorithms in a new global H.265 DTV standard adopted in January 2013 by the International Telecommunications Union. It superseded their H.264 AVC standard and uses half the bit rate of MPEG-4 coding making it ideal for 4K production and transmission (Butts, 2013).

•Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED)—Sony introduced remarkably bright and sharp OLED televisions in 2008 that had a display depth of 3 mm—about the thickness of three credit cards. Mobile phone manufacturers such as Apple and Samsung have adopted AMOLED versions of these displays as they are very sharp, colorful, and bright. Korean manufacturer LG Electronics has decided to stake its future on this technology and recently introduced an 88-inch 8K (“triple 8”) OLED model that features a remarkable resolution of 7680 pixels wide X 4320 pixels high (also referenced as 4320p) (see Figure 6.4).

•High Dynamic Range (HDR) Imaging. Another recent development in television technology has been the inclusion of HDR enhancements to HD and UHD displays. Improving the dynamic range between the light and dark areas of an image adds to its visual impact. Greater detail can be seen in the shadow areas of a displayed scene and also in the bright highlights. The technology was developed by Dolby Laboratories in its plan known as Dolby Vision. While also increasing the range of contrast in televised images, HDR-ena-bled displays have much higher screen brightness than those without it (Waniata, 2015).

•Quantum Dots. Consumers considering purchasing a UHD display have the quantum dots option. A familiarity with theoretical physics is not required to understand that this term refers to the addition of a thin layer of nano-crystals between the LCD backlight and the display screen. This unique application of nanotechnology increases image color depth by 30 percent without adding extra pixels to the display (Pino, 2016).

Programming

With the advent of 4K UHD televisions, consumers are now demanding more 4K content. Netflix has obliged by producing and distributing multiple original series and motion pictures in 4K resolution. Amazon has emerged as another provider of 4K content and the company is starting to produce their own content in 4K, much like Netflix (Pino, 2016). Apple plans to enter the TV/film production business as a content provider with over $1 billion allocated for production in 2018. Netflix will spend over $7 billion on original programming during that same period, and Amazon spent $4.5 billion on its “Prime” video productions in 2017 (Spangler, 2017). Facebook is actively promoting its “Watch” video delivery service that it introduced in 2017 and, with over two billion global users, it could emerge as a significant provider of OTT video content worldwide in the next decade (Gahan, 2017).

Source: LG Electronics.

Factors to Watch

The global diffusion of DTV technology will evolve over the second and third decades of the 21st century as prices drop for UHD and 4K displays. In the United States, the future inclusion of ATSC 3.0 DTV receivers and the inclusion of UHD-quality video recording capability in most mobile phones will enhance this diffusion on a personal and familial level. In the process, digital television and video will influence what people watch, especially as smart televisions, note-sized phones, tablet computers, and the arrival of 5G mobile phones between 2018 and 2020 will offer easy access to on-demand, Internet-delivered content that is more interactive than traditional television.

These trends will be key areas to watch between 2018 and 2020:

•Evolving 4K and 8K DTV technologies. The continued development of higher-resolution video production and display technologies will enhance the viewing experience of television audiences around the world. While there are substantial data processing/storage and transmission issues with 4K (and certainly 8K) DTV technologies, these will be resolved in the coming decade. The roll-out of fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) with 1 Gb/s transmission speeds in many communities will enhance the online delivery of these highresolution programs. When combined with ever-larger, high-resolution displays in homes, audiences can have a more immersive viewing experience (with a greater sense of telepresence) by sitting closer to their large screens.

•Cord-Shavers and Cord-Nevers. The number of younger television viewers seeking out alternative viewing options via OTT-TV is steadily increasing. Expect to see more television advertisers placing ads on popular Internet multimedia sites such as YouTube to reach this key demographic. With a smart television, a fast Internet connection, and a small antenna for receiving over-the-air digital signals, viewers can see significant amounts of streamed and broadcast content without paying monthly cable or satellite fees. MVPDs such as cable and satellite companies are concerned about this trend as it enables these viewers to “cut the cable” or “toss the dish,” so these companies are seeking unique programming content such as premium sports events (e.g., the World Cup and the Super Bowl) to hold on to their customer base.

•New OTT Programming Providers. New players Apple and Facebook will join an increasingly crowded field of OTT companies, such as Netflix, CBS AllAccess, and Amazon. This is a golden era for video, television, and “film” program producers as these new channels are competing for a limited number of quality program producers. Already fragmented audiences for these services will become even more so, as the number of companies compete for their attention via cable, streamed OTT, and Wi-Fi access.

•U.S. Adoption of the ATSC 3.0 Standard. The FCC has approved the voluntary national adoption of the new, incompatible ATSC 3.0 digital television standard, and broadcasters are making plans to add OTT content to their OTA programming. The ATSC 3.0 standard will facilitate the merger of broadcast television and streamed on-demand programing in a hybrid model. For example, a large-screen smart television could display conventional broadcast programming surrounded by additional windows of related Internet-delivered content (see Figure 6.5).

Source: P.B. Seel

The era of the blended television-computer or “tele-computer” has arrived. Most large-screen televisions are now “smart” models capable of displaying multimedia content from multiple sources: broadcast, cablecast, DBS, and all Internet-delivered motion media. As the typical home screen has evolved toward larger (and smarter) models, it is also getting thinner and larger with the arrival of new LCD, QLED, and OLED models. The image quality of new high-definition displays is startling and will improve further with the present delivery of 4K Ultra-HDTV sets and the arrival of new 8K OLED models in the near future. Television, which has been called a “window on the world,” will literally resemble a large window in the home for viewing live sports, IMAX-quality motion pictures in 2D and 3D, and any video content that can be steamed over the Internet. On the other end of the viewing scale, thanks to new wireless technology, mobile customers with 5G phones will have access to this same diverse content on their highdefinition AMOLED screens. Human beings are inherently visual creatures and this is an exciting era for those who like to watch motion media programs of all types in ultra-high-definition at home and away.

Careers in Digital Television & Video Production

There are numerous ways to get started in video and television production or distribution. Working at a campus television station provides the essential on-the-job production experience required to seek an entry-level professional position. In the U.S., there are over 1,500 television stations that provide hundreds of entry-level production or sales positions each year, most of them in smaller markets. Similar entry-level positions are available in developed nations around the world that have local and national television services. The rapid expansion of Internet-delivered videos has also created many opportunities for producers of this type of online content.

As newspapers, magazines and other publications add streamed video to their online sites, there are entry-level production opportunities with these companies. Another entry-level option is to seek employment with a video production company or a related organization which would provide useful professional experience shooting, editing, and posting videos.