Special Effects and Visual Effects
This chapter approaches the subject of special effects as an ever-changing department that finds its growth in ever-changing technology. Entire books have been written on special effects, so it is not the intention here to write with that degree or scope. What this chapter will do is delineate the major kinds of special effects and the primary personnel that work on them. This chapter will also give a general overview of the personnel and process of visual effects. Visual effects can be differentiated from special effects. Special effects are effects created on set and sometimes in post-production. Visual effects are effects that are created digitally on set or in post-production.
SPECIAL EFFECTS
There are two kinds of special effects, physical effects and mechanical effects. The team that accomplishes these may be individuals who do special effects or a company that specializes in these effects. Some of the many different kinds of effects that can be achieved this way are as follows.
Creature Design
Creature design can be a physical effect that combines the special-effect and makeup departments. Creatures are first designed on paper and then constructed with various materials. This kind of effect usually has a person inside: an actor, a stunt person, or a person who either dances or fits the stature of the costume. Creatures of this type are also sometimes combined with visual effects to do such things as fly, jump, or perform actions impossible for a normal person. Creature design can also be done digitally. Whether you do creatures physically or digitally is usually determined by the preference of the director, producer, or the budget.
Creature Manufacturer
The creature manufacturer is a person who is in the business of creating physical creatures for motion pictures. This person usually works for a special effects house and is hired out by the company to create creatures.
Modelers
Modelers are the craftsmen who construct physical models of creatures with wire frames, latex, and paint.
Miniatures
Miniatures can be small physical models of aircraft, sets, and creatures—almost anything. The miniatures are constructed and then filmed at exterior locations or on a sound stage. This footage is either used alone or combined with visual effects.
Remote Vehicles
Remote vehicles can be aircraft or ground vehicles, usually in miniature, that need to be filmed away from the camera. Therefore, they are operated by remote control.
Miniature Pyrotechnics
Miniature pyrotechnics is a form of special effects where miniatures are in some way destroyed. I once worked a show where helicopters had to be blown up. The special-effects team constructed some miniature helicopters and shot them against the sky from a low angle, while blowing them up. The proper amount of pyrotechnics made the effect appear as if a full-size helicopter had been destroyed.
Matte Painting
A matte painting is a hand-painted background that could not be found in the real world or is not located conveniently for shooting. The painting can be combined with live action footage or visual effects. Most matte paintings today have been replaced with digital images.
Full-Scale Physical Effects
Full-scale physical effects are effects that are created on set by the special-effects team. These kinds of effects happen in real time and on an actual, life-size scale. Some examples of full-scale effects follow. Keep in mind any of these can also be created digitally.
Pyrotechnics Pyrotechnics include the use of explosions and fire. Explosions are created with mortars, black powder bombs, or det cords, which can be used to blow up almost anything. Fire effects can be created using propane torches, gas burners, or fire bars. You should also always have fire extinguishers standing by on set in case of an emergency. Make sure the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (BATF) licenses your pyrotechnics people. Many states also require a local license with the fire marshal.
Squibs Squibs are small explosive charges that are attached to an actor to give the illusion that he has been shot. I once worked on a low-budget show where many of the crew doubled as extras in the film (not uncommon in low budget). I played the part of a forest woman who is shot. I was dressed in a toga (the story takes place post-Armageddon, and of course the only wardrobe left would be togas!). In order to move into the shot, I had to jump up onto a rock. I was so nervous about not disturbing the squib on my stomach that I stepped on the toga on the way up the rock. All I heard next was someone yelling, “Wardrobe!” as I stood there with the toga around my waist, exposing myself to the entire crew!
Ground Squibs Ground squibs are squibs used to give the illusion that a bullet has hit the ground, a wall, or some other such surface.
Weather Effects
Weather effects are a type of physical effect that recreates a certain weather situation.
Floods and Rain Water effects are created by using rain towers or stands that shoot water over the shot. These stands can be mounted on the ground, over a car, or even hung across large distances, using cables to create the rain. Sometimes you can also hook up to a fire hydrant with permission from the local fire department and use special valves to create rain effects. It is important when using rain effects that your wardrobe and makeup team are standing by with dry clothes and towels for your actors.
Wind Wind effects are created using fans of various sizes to recreate anything from a gentle breeze to hurricane force winds up to 100 miles/hour. Safety is an important issue with wind machines, as they can also pick up debris and create dangerous projectiles.
Snow Snow effects are created using various methods. You can use plastic flakes, shaved ice, salt, shaving cream, or foam machines. The advantage of using foam machines is that the foam lasts longer than salt or shaved ice and is less messy to clean up than plastic flakes.
Smoke Smoke effects are created using various foggers, with liquid nitrogen, oil, kerosene, or dry ice. It is important that, when creating smoke effects, especially on a large scale, you inform the local authorities about what you are doing, so as not to create alarm that a real fire may be burning.
SPECIAL EFFECTS COORDINATOR
The special effects coordinator is in charge of the special effects budget. He works with the director to discuss each effect and determine how each effect will look. The coordinator then hires various teams to create the effects. He may also work with the visual effects coordinator if any of the effects will be combined with CGI. The coordinator could begin work months into pre-production if the show has many effects, or may be hired for only the period of time that a certain effect is required. Following is a general list of duties:
■ Breaks down the script and approximate cost of each special effect.
■ Meets with the director to discuss how each effect should look.
■ Works with the 1st AD to schedule effects, ensuring that enough prep time is given to accomplish the effects safely.
■ May assign a special effects supervisor to supervise different effects if needed. This is done on projects where a large number of effects are required.
■ May meet with the safety manager to discuss safety considerations.
■ On set, supervises the safety of each effect.
OPERATIONS ON SET
The special effects coordinator and her team may arrive on set a day or more before shooting to pre-rig devices as needed. On the day of shooting the team continues to prepare the effect for shooting. This may involve moving a rain machine into place or placing explosives for a car to blow up. The coordinator keeps the 1st AD informed of the preparations so that the 1st AD can judge when to move to the effects shot.
Increasingly, for safety reasons crews will complete a dry run-through. A dry run-through is a kind of rehearsal of the effect. The 1st AD quiets the set and calls the run-through. During this time, the special effects coordinator walks everyone on set through what will happen, step by step. This dry run is important for safety. It not only allows everyone to see what will happen but also gives them the ability to know if something has gone wrong.
Once the effect is executed, the special effects people notify the 1st AD when the set is clear. The 1st AD will then pass this information on to the rest of the crew.
VISUAL EFFECTS
Visual effects are created in computers. These effects can be created completely by the computer or may use footage from the main unit. If main unit footage is part of the shot, sometimes a motion control camera will be used on set. A motion control camera allows computerized positioning of the camera. The camera has the ability to move in exactly the same position or direction, either panning or tilting, take after take. This accuracy allows the footage to be easily combined with CGI later.
Visual effects can be used in a number of different ways. They can be used to clean up a shot: For instance, an actor may need to fly through the air and thus will be hooked to a safety line to do so. In post-production, the visual effects people will remove the safety line from the shot using visual effects.
Visual effects can be used to create set design. In many cases, more often than the average person can recognize, the background you are seeing may not be completely real. An establishing shot of a medieval city may consist of some sets constructed by the art department. Then the visual effects team may add more buildings with CGI, a certain cloud-filled sky, or mountains in the background.
Visual effects can also be used to provide more cast. Frequently, when shooting large crowds or armies, a minimum number of actual people are placed on set and photographed. Then in post-production, a larger number of CGI extras are added. This helps to fill a baseball stadium or battlefield with more people without having to hire them.
Finally visual effects can even be precreated and then used on set in combination with live actors to complete a scene. This is usually done with science fiction or fantasy films where the entire world may be digital. This way the director can see exactly how the effects will work as the live action goes on in front of it. Also keep in mind practically anything can be created as a visual effect. All physical and mechanical effects including creatures and miniatures are frequently done digitally.
VISUAL EFFECTS PRODUCER
A visual effects producer, also called the visual effects supervisor, is a person who works either independently or for a visual effects house. Her job description is much like that of a special effects coordinator. A general list of duties follows:
■ Completes a breakdown of all possible visual effects in the script.
■ Meets with the director to discuss the look of the effects.
■ Oversees the budget costs of various projects.
■ Monitors the visual effects budget.
■ Makes sure all deadlines for the effects are met.
■ Works with the special effects house or houses to ensure delivery of the effect on time.
■ Works with the 1st AD to schedule shots that require a motion control camera.
■ Sometimes supervises shooting on set to ensure the shot will work well when it goes to the visual effects house.
There is a whole team of people that works under the visual effects producer. This team works on different aspects to achieve the total effect. In 2D animation these can include a computer graphics supervisor, a compositing supervisor, compositing lead, compositors, an animation supervisor or director, animators, shaders, and 2D animators. In addition, when a film utilizes CGI or 3D technology, there are dozens of personnel involved in the process (too many to name!). Just look at the credits of the latest big-budget sci-fi or fantasy film and you will see why these credits take so long.
OPERATIONS
If you have special effects in your film, hire a special effects house. The key to hiring a good house is finding one that has done a lot of work with the kinds of effects you need or that fit your style. To begin with, contact a few effects houses and look at their reels. When you find one or two that you like, send each one a script and preliminary storyboards of the shots that need effects. Next, meet with each house and discuss whether it has had experience creating the effects you need, or if the effect has to be created with new technology. If your effect has to be created with new technology, check to see if the company has done this before. Some effects houses are more interested in turning out effects than spending the time to create something that has not been done before.
The special effects house will send you a bid for the cost of the effects. Choose the house and sign a contract with it. In the contract be sure to specify the cost, the time frame for delivery, and what kind of credit the house requires on your project. You may also need to hire more than one special effects house, depending on the type of effects you need. One house may not be able to handle a specific kind of effect you need or produce all the effects all in the time frame you need.
Once you’ve hired the house, the house’s supervisor assigned to your project meets with the director and producer to finalize the vision, costs, and time frame. At this point the director should provide more detailed storyboards so that the supervisor has a more specific idea of what is needed. The supervisor then returns to the house and either waits for footage, if original footage is to be used, or begins creating the effect. During the process, the supervisor will send over preliminary looks at the effect for input from the director. Once the effect is finished, it will go to the director for approval. Once approval is reached, the effect is either recorded onto film, if film is the final format, or sent over digitally, to be edited into the project.
SUMMARY
Special effects and CGI constantly change during projects. While there are some standard physical effects such as pyrotechnics and squibs, writers and directors are frequently coming up with new ideas that require the special effects team to be flexible and creative. The advent of CGI in the 1980s and its abundant growth in the 1990s has led to more and more traditional effects being created digitally. Entire cities and their populations can now be created digitally using a vast visual effects team. When it comes to effects, there are no rules. If a full-scale visual effect fits the shot the best, then it will be shot on set. If the effect could be created and result in a more effective shot with a computer, then, budget permitting, it is done.