The previous chapter looked at weapons and armor from history and from different cultures. This chapter takes up where Chapter 33 left off—specifically with the rise of guns and the evolution of modern weapons and armor.
In this chapter:
Note: Even though the history of guns dates as far back as the 13th century, in many ways the evolution of gunpowder weapons could be seen as the beginning of the modern era of weaponry, and certainly guns were a great equalizer in combat. I considered splitting the coverage of guns into historical (old) and modern, but where do I draw the line? Significant developments occurred in the evolution of guns, such as the move from black powders to smokeless powders, and the development of breech loading, cartridge bullets, and rifling, to name some key examples. At any rate, this section contains a good deal of information about guns through history, from the earliest to some of the most recent.
Gunpowder revolutionized warfare, and nothing symbolized the changes it brought about more dramatically than the invention of handguns—both the longarm, or two-handed, variety and, to a lesser extent, the one-handed variety, or pistol. Today, we take guns for granted and rarely think about all the elements that define and measure their workings. Here, then, are a few basic facts about guns, how they work, and how they have developed historically:
Combustion and Propulsion. Guns all work on the same basic principle of combustion and propulsion. An explosion takes place within a tube that is closed at one end and open at the other. The expansion of the gas of the explosive at the closed end forces the bullet out the open end at high velocity. That’s how all guns, cannons, and artillery work.
Loading Method. There are two main methods of loading guns—from the muzzle (muzzle loaders) and from the breech (breech loaders). Early guns were almost all muzzle loaders. They required packing of powder, ball, and wadding into the muzzle of the gun, using a ramrod to stuff it all down. Modern weapons are almost all breech loaders. The technology of breech-loading weapons was difficult for preindustrial civilizations. The Industrial Revolution made it more feasible to create breech-loading guns. Further, the invention of the self-contained cartridge bullet made muzzle-loading guns essentially obsolete.
Barrels. There are two kinds of gun barrels—smooth bore and rifled. A smooth bore fires a projectile without any stabilizing influence, resulting in a less accurate gun. Further, smooth-bore guns generally fire round balls or shot. In either case, there is more room between the bullet and the bore, meaning that the pressure, and therefore the muzzle velocity, is lower than with the improved rifled barrel. Rifling is the cutting of spiral grooves on the inside of the barrel, which cause the bullet to spin, creating a gyroscopic effect. The bullets fired from rifled barrels are generally elongated and heavier at the back, fitting the barrel very tightly. In flight, they would tend to tumble, being back-heavy, but the rifling causes them to spin, and the gyroscopic effect keeps them traveling straight. As a consequence, rifled barrels produce more pressure, more stabilized, accurate shots, and higher muzzle velocity. Rifling was known quite early in the development of guns, because the principle upon which it worked was the same principle used to stabilize arrows in flight, by fletching them with feathers that caused them to spin. However, it was expensive to create rifled barrels until the Industrial Revolution, so many of the early guns remained smooth bored. The art of rifling a barrel has evolved over the years, until now the grooves spiral tighter as they near the muzzle.
Bore and Caliber. One way that guns are categorized is by the bore size and caliber of the ammunition. The bore size is essentially the inner diameter of the gun’s barrel. The older way of describing it involved the number of perfectly spherical lead balls that would fit the bore and weigh one pound. Thus a 10 bore would mean that 10 lead balls, collectively weighing one pound, would fit the bore exactly. Caliber is a measurement of cartridge size, and it takes into account the bullet size (essentially the bore, measured in millimeters or inches) and sometimes the length of the shell casing (which is an indication of how much explosive is available to the bullet). Typical handgun sizes are 9mm (for metric types) or .22, .38, and .45 inches. A typical European caliber is 7.62 × 39mm (7.62 millimeter bullet and 39mm case). An additional important measurement is the weight of the bullet head, measured in grains.
Shot Frequency. Guns can also be categorized by the number and frequency of shots they can fire.
Some guns fire a single shot each time the trigger is pulled, but must be reloaded after that shot. Typical muzzle loaders were of that type. However, a single-barreled shotgun and most derringers work the same way.
Some guns will fire a single shot each time they are fired, but they have more than one barrel that can each fire a single shot before reloading. A double-barreled shotgun (of the breakaway variety) is typical of this style of gun.
Repeaters are guns that have a magazine of some kind that stores ammunition and allows them to fire repeatedly with each press of the trigger without reloading each time. Some kind of mechanical operation is necessary to seat a new bullet, such as a sliding bolt, a lever or pump, or a ratchet or spring (in the case of revolvers or magazine-based guns).
A semi-automatic gun uses the recoil force or gas pressure of the previous shot to work the mechanism and arm the gun for another shot so that it can be fired repeatedly without any additional arming action.
Fully automatic weapons will fire in bursts when the trigger is pressed, as long as there is ammunition available and the gun doesn’t malfunction.
Types of Guns. There are seven basic types of handguns:
Handgun or Pistol. A gun designed to be used in one hand. (Pistols may have rifled barrels, but they are not called rifles. They are still pistols.)
Musket. A musket was a longarm, or two-handed smooth-bore weapon. Nearly all muskets were muzzle loaders, beginning with the early matchlock guns and extending through to the various other firing mechanisms that preceded modern guns.
Carbine. The carbine was a longarm with a short barrel. It had a typical two-handed stock, but the barrel was kept short, making it easy to wield on horseback. Consequently, it was a popular cavalry weapon.
Shotgun. A shotgun is a smooth-bore weapon designed to fire small pellets instead of single bullets, and it is generally used in hunting and in riot control but not often in organized warfare.
Rifle. A rifle is a longarm, like the musket and the carbine, but it has a rifled barrel of full length. There are many types of rifles with different designs and firing mechanisms.
Submachine Gun. A fully automatic weapon that can be held in two hands and fired. It is distinguished from other machine guns, which are too large to be carried and must be mounted.
Assault Rifle. Generally, a gun designed to operate in either semi- or fully automatic modes, designed around traditional rifle lines.
Bullet Types. There are many types of bullets in use today. In earlier guns, bullets were round lead balls, but bullets for rifled barrels have moved to a more lozenge-like shape for better aerodynamics and stability. Here are some of the common bullet types for rifles and for pistols, not including modern plastic and rubber bullets used in crowd-control situations, followed by some more specialized modern bullets.
Pistols
Full Metal Jacket. The bullet has a lead core that is completely encased in a strong metal core. This is a reliable bullet with good penetration and stability.
Jacketed Hollow Point. Similar to the full metal jacket, except that the tip of the bullet is hollow, exposing the lead inside. The bullet expands, which results in maximum energy transfer upon impact. In contrast, a full metal jacket might completely penetrate the target but do less damage than the hollow point.
Semi-Jacketed Hollow Point. This one has a fully exposed lead tip and expands even more than the jacketed hollow point.
Full Metal Case, Truncated Cone. The lead core is enclosed in a light copper jacket in a cone shape with a flat or somewhat cupped point. This is a middle ground between the jacketed hollow point and the full metal jacket.
Soft Point. A jacketed bullet with a fully open lead point.
Lead Wadcutter. A bullet entirely of lead that cuts cleanly for target shooting.
Lead Semi-Wadcutter. A more pointed tip for target shooting accuracy and clean scoring.
Round-Nosed Lead. A lead bullet for pistol shooting.
Rifles
Full Metal Jacket. The bullet has a lead core that is completely encased in a strong metal core. It’s not a good hunting bullet, but it is good for some military applications and for clean target shooting.
Full Metal Jacket Boat Tail. Essentially a full metal jacket bullet with a tapered tail that reduces drag and increases long-range velocity.
Hollow-Point Boat Tail. A hollow-point bullet with the boat-tail design.
Soft Point. A jacketed bullet with the lead tip exposed, resulting in a considerable expansion and greater damage overall.
Specialized modern bullets
Rubber Bullets. Cylindrical metal bullets coated with rubber—fired at relatively low velocity. Large size does a lot of damage to flesh without penetrating. Used in riot control.
Needle Bullet. A bullet that responds to body temperature and explodes just before it enters the body, sending tiny sliver-like fragments into the body. They are very hard to locate and even harder to remove, tending to disappear more deeply into the body, doing further harm.
Micro Ammunition. Very small bullets shot at high velocity. So small that victims may not always know they have been hit. They feel it when they attempt to move the part that has been penetrated. The shape of the bullet helps cause it to move deeper into the body, damaging capillaries and potentially causing hematoma.
Electric Bullets. Bullets that can deliver a crippling shock on impact, incapacitating a subject instantly. Current technology uses piezoelectric effects from ceramic crystals that translate the energy of firing and impact into a high electrical charge, similar to a Taser or stun gun, but at much greater distance.
Explosives Used in Guns. The earliest guns were probably created in Europe in the 13th century, although gunpowder had been around in weaker forms for use in fireworks, rockets, and incendiary bombs. Gunpowder was known in China as early as the 9th century, and experts believe that it was first introduced to Europe via trade with the Arabs. Refining techniques allowed for a stronger type of powder, which, in turn, made guns feasible. The first guns used black powder, which was made from various proportions of charcoal, sulphur, and saltpeter. The first black powder was a coarse mixture called serpentine, but ultimately a process called corning was developed, which allowed the manufacture of gunpowder as grains of powder, and the grains themselves could be created in different sizes. This resulted in much more powerful explosives—so powerful, in fact, that it wasn’t immediately used in cannons because the explosions would blow apart the cannons of the time. It became common practice to vary the grain size of powder, depending on the use it was to be put to. For instance, larger grain could achieve the same muzzle velocity as a smaller grain, but with much less pressure.
Modern bullets no longer used black powder. In the late 19th century, new “smokeless” explosives were developed, mostly based on nitrocellulose (also known as guncotton) and nitroglycerine. Various methods of combining the basic elements of modern explosives have resulted in a wide array of explosives for use in guns and for other types of weapons and other non-weapon uses as well. In terms of modern usage, the explosives used in modern guns are called low explosives, in that their autocombustion rates are suitable for propellant applications, as opposed to high explosives, which create far more powerful blasts and are used for the sheer power of their explosions rather than to propel something else. In any case, they are far more powerful, more reliable, and less likely to combust accidentally than black powder.
Every gun has, in addition to its explosive powder, a method of detonating that powder and starting the explosion that results in the bullet firing. In early guns, this was done by touching a “match,” or burning wick, to a touch hole or flash pan that led into the chamber with the powder. This method was done by hand at first, then later by mechanisms called matchlocks. Then came a series of different mechanisms—all called locks—that modified the original matchlock principle. (See “The Early Evolution of Guns” section a bit later in this chapter.)
Cartridge details
There are five main types of cartridge bases:
Rimmed. The base has a rim or extractor flange with a diameter greater than that of the case.
Semi-Rimmed. The rim is only slightly larger than the case.
Rimless. The rim is the same diameter as the case. This is the most common military cartridge type.
Rebated. The rim’s diameter is smaller than that of the case. This is an uncommon design that includes a defined extractor groove between the rim and the case.
Belted. A special projection or flange that rings the cartridge above the rim, with an extractor groove between the two.
Although there have been other schemes, such as the Dreyse cartridge (see the upcoming “The Modern Shell” section), modern shells use one of two types of ignition—centerfire or rimfire. The former has the primer in a separate cup in the center of the shell, which is struck by a center firing pin. The latter works the same way, except that the primer is distributed along the outer rim of the shell’s back, which is where the firing pin strikes it. Most modern cased cartridges are centerfire.
Cartridges may be straight-walled or bottlenecked. Straight-walled cartridges have sides that are nearly parallel, and the base is the same or only slightly wider than the bullet at the head. Bottlenecked cartridges, used for more high-power guns, have a wide base that narrows toward the bullet, similar to a bottleneck, allowing a cartridge with a higher powder capacity behind a smaller bullet, resulting in dramatic increases in velocity.
When you’re creating a realistic game, details sometimes matter. Most gamers won’t care what kind of cartridge you pick up for your weapon. “Ammo” is all that counts, generally speaking. But just so you can say you were accurate, here’s some reference material about cartridges to work with.
Pistol and Submachine Gun | Case | Bullet Diameter (in.) | Case Length (in.) | Shoulder Diameter (in.) | Bullet Weight (grs.) | Muzzle Velocity (fps) | Muzzle Energy (fpe) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
5.7 × 28mm FN | C | .220 | 1.13 | .309 | 31 | 2345 | 378 |
.22 Long Rifle | B | .223 | .595 | – | 38 | 1280 | 138 |
.25 Automatic | D | .251 | .62 | – | 50 | 810 | 73 |
5.45 × 18mm Soviet | C | .210 | .700 | NA | 40 | 1035 | 95 |
.32 Automatic | H | .308 | .68 | – | 71 | 905 | 129 |
7.62 × 25mm Russian Tokarev | C | .307 | .97 | .370 | 87 | 1390 | 365 |
.380 Automatic (9mm Short) | D | .356 | .68 | – | 90 | 1000 | 200 |
9mm Ultra | D | .355 | .72 | – | 123 | 1070 | 350 |
9mm Parabellum (9mm Luger) | D | .355 | .754 | – | 124 | 1150 | 364 |
.38 Special | B | .357 | 1.16 | – | 158 | 900 | 284 |
.38 Super | H | .358 | .90 | – | 125 | 1150 | 367 |
.357 SIG | C | .357 | .865 | .424 | 125 | 1350 | 505 |
.357 Magnum | B | .357 | 1.29 | – | 125 | 1450 | 583 |
.40 S&W | D | .400 | .850 | – | 155 | 1205 | 500 |
10mm Automatic | D | .400 | .992 | – | 180 | 1150 | 528 |
.400 Corbon | C | .400 | NA | NA | 135 | 1450 | 600 |
.44 Magnum | B | .429 | 1.29 | – | 240 | 1350 | 971 |
.44 Auto Mag | D | .429 | 1.298 | – | 240 | 1400 | 1045 |
.440 Corbon Magnum | J | .440 | NA | – | 240 | 1800 | 1727 |
.45 ACP | D | .452 | .898 | – | 230 | 855 | 373 |
.45 Colt | B | .454 | 1.29 | – | 185 | 1100 | 497 |
.45 Winchester Magnum | D | .451 | 1.198 | – | 230 | 1550 | 1227 |
.454 Casull | B | .452 | 1.39 | – | 300 | 1500 | 1500 |
.475 Linebaugh | B | .475 | 1.5 | – | 370 | 1495 | 1840 |
.500 Linebaugh | B | .510 | 1.405 | – | 500 | 1200 | 1599 |
.50 Action Express | J | .500 | 1.285 | – | 300 | 1579 | 1568 |
Rifle and Carbine | Case | Bullet Diameter (in.) | Case Length (in.) | Shoulder Diameter (in.) | Bullet Weight (grs.) | Muzzle Velocity (fps) | Muzzle Energy (fps) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
22 Long Rifle | B | .223 | .595 | – | 38 | 1280 | 138 |
.22 Hornet | A | .223 | 1.40 | .274 | 45 | 2690 | 723 |
5.45 × 39mm Soviet | C | .221 | 1.56 | .387 | 54 | 2950 | 1045 |
.223 Remington (5.56 NATO) | C | .224 | 1.76 | .349 | 55 | 3250 | 1290 |
5.7 × 28mm (SS190) | C | .227 | 1.13 | .309 | 23 | 2790 | 400 |
.243 Winchester | C | .243 | 2.05 | .454 | 100 | 2960 | 1945 |
.270 Weatherby Magnum | E | .277 | 2.55 | .490 | 150 | 3245 | 3501 |
30-30 Winchester | A | .308 | 2.03 | .402 | 150 | 2390 | 1902 |
7.62 × 39mm Soviet | C | .311 | 1.52 | .344 | 122 | 2329 | 1470 |
.303 British | A | .311 | 2.21 | .401 | 180 | 2460 | 2420 |
.308 Winchester (7.62 NATO) | C | .308 | 2.01 | .454 | 150 | 2750 | 2520 |
.30-06 Springfield | C | .308 | 2.49 | .441 | 172 | 2640 | 2660 |
7mm Remington Magnum | E | .284 | 2.50 | .490 | 160 | 2950 | 3090 |
.300 Winchester Magnum | E | .308 | 2.60 | .489 | 200 | 2825 | 3544 |
.338 Winchester Magnum | E | .338 | 2.49 | .480 | 250 | 2660 | 3921 |
.338 Lapua Magnum | C | .338 | 2.72 | .540 | 250 | 2950 | 4830 |
.340 Weatherby Magnum | E | .338 | 2.49 | .495 | 250 | 2980 | 4931 |
.375 Holland & Holland | E | .375 | 2.85 | .440 | 300 | 2530 | 4265 |
.416 Remington Magnum | E | .416 | 2.85 | .487 | 350 | 2520 | 4935 |
.458 Winchester Magnum | F | .458 | 2.50 | – | 500 | 2040 | 4620 |
.50 Browning (BMG) | C | .510 | 3.90 | .708 | 720 | 2810 | 12630 |
.585 Nyati | I | .585 | 2.79 | .650 | 750 | 2235 | 8320 |
700 Nitro Express | B | .700 | 3.50 | – | 1000 | 2000 | 8900 |
[A] Rimmed, Bottlenecked
[B] Rimmed, Straight
[C] Rimless, Bottlenecked
[D] Rimless, Straight
[E] Belted, Bottlenecked
[F] Belted, Straight
[G] Semi-rimmed, Bottlenecked
[H] Semi-rimmed, Straight
[I] Rebated, Bottlenecked
[J] Rebated, Straight
[K] Rebated belted, Bottlenecked
[L] Rebated belted, Straight
Bullets do not travel in perfectly flat trajectories. They are subject to gravity and air resistance. In the case of gravity, a bullet starts to fall as soon as it is fired. It will hit the ground in exactly the same amount of time as if you simply held it in your hand and dropped it. The velocity of the bullet determines how far it will travel before hitting the ground. When a gun is fired, the shooter will determine a target by a straight line of sight. To hit the same target, a bullet of lower velocity will have to travel in a greater arc. At long distances, the sight on the gun must be calibrated to allow for the slow rise and faster fall of the bullet. There is a term called the danger space, which is defined as the distance the bullet travels while it is within the height of a man from the ground. With slower-velocity guns, sometimes the shot could travel over the heads of people in order to arc to a specific point. Shots from higher-velocity guns travel on a more flat trajectory, thereby increasing the danger space.
When the bullet first leaves the muzzle of the gun, it is traveling at a very high rate, and its power is maximal. Over time, its speed and power diminish. However, modern guns have very long ranges and can remain deadly, if not accurate, over these distances. The ranges of bullets vary. In a vacuum, bullets would travel more than 20 times the distance they can travel in air, but even in air they can travel several miles. A common .22 caliber bullet travels nearly a mile. The .30-06 bullet, common in hunting rifles, has a range of about two miles, and other high-powered bullets can travel as much as 4 miles or more!
For a sniper firing at long range, there is a lot to take into account. Here are some of the elements a good sniper must consider:
Accuracy diminishes approximately one inch for every 100 yards.
Wind affects trajectory.
The bullet falls in accordance with gravity, at the same rate as any object. In other words, a bullet dropped from the hand will hit the ground at the same time as a bullet fired from a gun, all things being equal.
Cold air is denser than warm air and therefore creates more drag on the bullet. In hot air, the bullet will travel farther.
Humidity can also affect a bullet. Humidity is often associated with hot air.
Bullets leave a rifle barrel at speeds greater than the speed of sound, causing a small sonic boom. At ranges of 600 yards or less, the target will hear the sound of the bullet. At more than 600 yards, however, targets will hear nothing, and a sniper could shoot at them all day and they wouldn’t necessarily know it—until they get hit, anyway.
Whenever we do historical games, we strive to be accurate and to depict, to varying degrees, what the situation was really like. This section takes a look at the evolution of guns, starting with the earliest explosive projectile weapons and detailing the various stages that led to the modern gun.
The earliest guns, which date back as far as the 13th century, were simple tubes with powder and some projectile stuffed inside. The person using the gun would touch something hot—a burning wick or a red-hot piece of iron—to what was called the touchhole, which ignited the powder inside the barrel. The earliest guns were probably made of bronze or brass, though iron and steel quickly became the standard for gun barrels. They were essentially hand cannons and were very difficult to manage. Generally, they rested on something, though they could have been braced against the chest, with one hand free to ignite the powder. Their range was probably not more than 30 to 40 yards.
The touchhole was soon made obsolete by the invention of the flash pan, a sort of cup to hold a small amount of gunpowder that would more reliably ignite the powder in the barrel. The flash pan was a part of the ignition system of guns for centuries after its invention.
The matchlock, the first firing mechanism for powder guns, was formed by an S-shaped device that rotated on the side of the gun. This device, called the serpentine, would hold a “match”—or, technically, a lighted wick—and, when the trigger was pressed, it swung down into the flash pan, (hopefully) igniting the priming and (hopefully) firing the gun. It was invented in the 16th century and remained in use in some parts of the world even into the 20th century. The first improvement was the addition of a cover that protected the powder in the flash pan but retracted automatically when the gun was fired, although on many matchlock guns, the flash pan was part of the barrel, and the cover had to be retracted by hand. The main weaknesses of this type of gun were that it took time to light the wick, so it was useless in case of a surprise attack, and it was difficult to keep the wick burning in wet weather. However, matchlocks were cheap and easy to produce, hence their long popularity.
The wheel lock mechanism was developed around the same time as the matchlock, but it was expensive and complex, so it never replaced the matchlock. It was, however, used by the rich and the elite. The principle of it is known to anyone who has used a cigarette lighter that uses a round metal wheel that spins across a flint. The wheel lock used a spring-set wheel and a piece of flint or pyrites. When the gun was fired, the flash pan cover retracted, and the hammer fell, pushing the flint against the metal wheel, which spun and showered sparks on the priming gunpowder. And it went boom!
One of the problems of the time involved gun barrels and cannons bursting when fired. Because the early muzzle loaders were simply packed with gunpowder, it was possible to pack them too much. The barrels themselves were none too strong, and even a quarter-full barrel might burst. A new technique developed in Germany in the mid-16th century finally produced strong, reliable steel barrels. The technique was called damascene, and it involved winding finger-width strips of steel together, welding and forging, then boring out the barrel. The result was a much stronger gun barrel that could be packed with powder without danger to the one firing the gun.
This precursor to the flintlock simplified the mechanism of the wheel lock to something affordable. It was far less complex, involving a hammer that held a piece of flint and a steel plate across which the falling hammer would scrape the flint. The resulting sparks would fall into the flash pan and ignite the priming powder.
The main difference between the snaphance and the flintlock was that the steel striking surface and the flash pan cover were made as one piece, making the gun more reliable and cheaper to manufacture. It operated the same way as the snaphance, however. The hammer would fall and strike the steel, which would fall backward, exposing the flash pan. The sparks would ignite the priming, and so it goes. The flintlock was used extensively from the early 1600s to the 19th century. (One variation of the flintlock is called the miquelet, and it differed only in the addition of an external spring on the hammer.) A good gunman with a flintlock could fire several shots a minute.
The next great innovation in ignition systems was the percussion lock, which was introduced in the early 19th century—about 300 years after the flintlock. The percussion lock was the direct precursor to the modern shell. It worked by using a hammer that fell onto a copper cap, which was loaded with fulminate of mercury, a substance that explodes when struck. The explosion of the cap traveled down a tube into the packed gunpowder in the barrel, detonating the charge that fired the bullet. Versions of early percussion locks were used in both muzzle- and breech-loaders. Although there previously had been many attempts to make a practical multi-shot gun, it was the invention of the percussion lock that made early revolvers practical. The percussion lock was used with devastating effect during the American Civil War. (A variant on the percussion lock was the pill lock, which used a small pill-shaped ball of percussive material instead of the copper cap.)
The early muzzle loaders required a lot of accessory items—some to carry the powder, for instance, some to ram the load down the barrel, and various elements of the load. Here’s a list of some of the common items that early musketeers had to carry with them.
Powderhorns. Powderhorns were containers for gunpowder that were made from the horns of animals. This practice was found all over the world.
Powder Testers. As early as 1578, people were creating methods for testing the strength of a gunpowder mixture. Most were highly inaccurate. However, in 1647, a method called the mortar eprouvette was developed, and some years later, the French government passed an ordinance that rejected any powder that did not pass the test of the eprouvette—to wit, that three ounces of powder would fire a 60-pound ball at least 320 feet from the testing mortar.
Primer or Priming Flask. A container to hold the fine powder used to ignite the charge in a wheel lock or flintlock gun. This finer powder was added to the flash pan, which was called priming the gun.
Ramrod. Used to pack the charge in muzzle-loading rifles and pistols. Ramrods were generally plain wood or metal rods with a slightly larger end. Ramrods were often carried in the sheath of the gun they were used with, although sometimes they were carried separately.
Spanner. A wrench used to wind a wheel-lock gun—often highly ornamental. Some doubled as primers to carry powder.
Detonators (or Pill Locks). Intermediate between the flint lock and the percussion guns, the detonator used percussion to fire, but instead of having the fulminate in a copper cap, it was in the form of a small pill, tube, or paper backing.
What a Muzzle Loader Required. All the guns mentioned so far were muzzle loaders (although there were breech-loading percussion lock guns). Among the items a muzzle loader might need were:
The ramrod (which fit into a slot in the gun stock).
A powder flask from which to pour the powder into the barrel.
A bullet mold.
Lead balls.
Patches and rags. (Patches were often stored in a compartment in the butt of the gun.)
A brush for cleaning the pan.
An oil bottle.
A turn screw.
A spring clamp.
A punch for making patches.
A cleaning rod.
Today, we think nothing of guns that shoot multiple times without reloading, but in the days of matchlocks, flintlocks, and so on, multi-shot guns were far less common. However, they did exist, and many attempts were made to create practical guns that could fire more than once without reloading. One way that was common was to create a gun with two barrels and two ignition systems (locks). The barrels would be either side by side or over and under. Another method was called the tap action, which involved a rotating flash pan that would ignite first one barrel, then, after re-cocking the hammer, the other. If it was fired first in the wrong position, both barrels would fire. Still other schemes tried to superimpose several loads in one barrel, and the lock mechanism would slide backward from one touchhole to the next, firing each load separately. The more familiar revolver-type multi-shot gun did not achieve popularity until the advent of the cartridge bullet. But some were made, and there are examples of matchlock, snaphance, flintlock, and percussion lock revolvers. Some used the “pepperbox” style, with many separate barrels that all rotated. Others were more like modern revolvers—a rotating chamber that held the charge and fired through a single barrel. One significant danger with early revolvers was the possibility of more than one chamber firing at once, causing potential injury to the shooter.
Breech-loading guns have existed for some time, and there have been some interesting examples. King Henry VIII of England had a breech-loading rifle. An odd type of pistol, called the turn-off pistol, was a flintlock that had a screw-off barrel. The charge and ball were inserted in the body of the gun, then the barrel was screwed back on. A famous version of this style was called the Queen Anne cannon barreled pistol. But it was ultimately the self-contained cartridge that really allowed the breech loader to take over. Once the cartridge bullet became the standard, breech loaders, too, replaced muzzle loaders almost entirely, except in some far-flung parts of the world. Breech loaders fired faster, achieved greater velocity and greater accuracy, and were more reliable than muzzle loaders. All modern guns are breech loaders and use cartridge shells for bullets.
In the previous section, we ended with breech loaders—guns that didn’t have to be loaded by stuffing the load down the barrel. This was a significant innovation in the technology of firearms and was part of the evolution of guns to the modern era. The other significant innovation was the cartridge, or shell—a bullet that had the primer, the powder, and the projectile all in one. This was the beginning of the modern era.
Two factors led to the modern cartridge and revolutionized guns all together: the percussion lock and the technology to make inexpensive and effective breech loaders. The modern cartridge bullet contains the detonating chemical inside the shell with the propellant explosive. A shock from the firing pin or other similar mechanism is sufficient to detonate the percussion mixture and start the explosion in the shell, which results in the firing of the bullet at high velocity. The earliest detonators used fulminate of mercury, which is highly explosive when hit. This is the material used, in very small quantities, in the caps used in toy cap guns. More modern substances include DDNP (diazodinitrophenol), lead picrate, lead azide, and cyclonite.
There were several milestones in the development of the modern cartridge.
One was the Pauly pistol, created by a Swiss man named Pauly. He created a gun with a swivel barrel, much like a break-open shotgun of today. He then devised a self-contained cartridge and a hammer with a striker to fire it. This was the first time that the bullet, priming, and powder were all combined into one unit.
In 1835, the Lefaucheux case was developed. It was a paper tube with a brass base, much like shotgun shells were made later, and it used what came to be known as pinfire ignition. It was the first self-contained bullet to achieve wide use, though mostly with sportsmen.
The Boxer cartridge was developed in the mid-1800s and was the first metal-cased cartridge that saw widespread use. Its developer, Colonel Boxer, also designed a center-fire primer of a type still used with bullets today.
A weapon used in the Prussian army around 1848 combined a bolt action with a self-contained cartridge of unusual design, known as the Dreyse cartridge. It was entirely encased in paper, and the primer was up near the bullet. The firing needle would completely pierce the cartridge to reach the primer and ignite the powder. This was combined with an effective single-shot bolt-action rifle.
In the modern, post–Industrial Revolution era, repeating guns have become pretty standard, although single-shot guns are still used in some circumstances. There are several types of repeating guns, however, and we’ll look very briefly at the different types of repeating pistols and longarms, starting with pistols.
Repeating pistols come in several forms:
A few feature multiple barrels. In these, either the barrels themselves rotate or a striking pin rotates internally to fire each in turn.
More common is the revolver, which features a rotating cylinder that holds the cartridges. Revolvers are reliable and economical, and they have changed little since the late 19th century. Although several different schemes for loading and removing spent cartridges have been used, revolvers otherwise are quite similar, and some of the early ones from the 1870s are still in production today, such as the Colt Peacemaker, the “gun that won the West.”
Arguably, the earliest semi-automatic pistols were like the Webley-Fosbery revolver of the 1890s, which used recoil from firing to push back the barrel and cylinder, re-cocking the hammer and rotating the cylinder simultaneously. Later semi-automatic pistols used similar technology, but with a spring-loaded magazine, usually inserted into the gun’s handle, to feed cartridges into the breech. Once the first cartridge has been manually fed, by cocking the breechblock, every subsequent shot automatically ejects the spent cartridge and loads a new one until the magazine is emptied. Most semi-automatic pistols are based on designs from before World War I. There are two basic types of semi-automatic mechanisms—the blowback system and the locked breech system.
The blowback mechanism uses a fixed barrel and breechblock, which is held in position only by the force of a recoil spring. When the gun is fired, the pressure first fires the bullet, which offers the least resistance to the sudden buildup of gases. The breechblock and barrel resist the pressure until the bullet has left the barrel, at which point they are thrown back. The spent cartridge is ejected, and a new one is loaded as the breechblock travels backward, then forward again, pushed by the recoil spring back into position. The gun is ready to fire again. Blowback mechanisms work with lower-powered ammunition. With higher-powered bullets, the pressure would open the breechblock too quickly, and the cartridge would rupture and fail to eject.
With breechblock pistols, the barrel is locked to the breechblock by some mechanism. Upon firing, the barrel and breechblock are thrown backward until the locking mechanism is released, at which point the breechblock continues backward, ejecting the shell and reloading as it slides forward again and relocks. Two famous mechanisms are the German Luger and the Colt 1911.
The Luger uses a joint-like mechanism located behind the breechblock. When the gun is fired, this joint is locked in place, but when it recoils, the barrel and breechblock slide back a short distance in machined grooves, which push them downward, opening the locking joint and freeing the breechblock to continue its cycle while the barrel stops.
In the Colt 1911, which was originally designed in 1911, the barrel is locked by interlocking ribs to the slide mechanism and is attached to the lower part of the pistol by a short, flexible link. Upon firing, the barrel and slide recoil. The barrel slides down on the flexible link, freeing it from the interlocking ribs. The slide continues rearward, ejecting the cartridge and reloading the gun as it swings back forward and re-engages the barrel. This design was modified in 1923 as the Colt 1911 A1, which is still in production and use around the world.
The idea of repeating muskets and rifles was not new, but they were difficult to implement with muzzle-loading, black-powder guns. The development of the self-contained cartridge made them much more feasible. Equally important was the development of new “smokeless” powders, which would not foul the barrel as much. In the early guns, the amount of residue left behind after firing made repeating longarm weapons impractical, if not outright dangerous to the firer—which, of course, did not stop people from making them. But the repeating rifle didn’t come into its own until the mid to late 1800s, when the necessary technology was all in place.
Repeating rifles use several types of mechanisms to fire multiple shots. All use some kind of magazine. There are three popular styles—loading from the butt, loading from a tube under the barrel, and loading from a magazine clip attached below the breech. In each case, a spring pushes the bullets up into the breech each time the gun is cocked. There are several methods of cocking a repeating rifle:
Bolt action, still used today in many guns. The bolt action is a simple mechanism in which the breech is locked by the bolt and is manually opened by rotating, then sliding the bolt open. In a single-shot gun, the cartridge is manually inserted into the breech each time the gun is fired. In a repeating rifle, the bullets are readied automatically, often from a clip magazine or sometimes from a tube magazine running under the barrel and loaded from the side. The shooter only needs to open the bolt and close it again to ready another shot. The spent cartridge will eject upon opening, and the new cartridge will take its place as the bolt is closed and locked again. Some bolt-action guns automatically cock the firing pin when closed. Others require a separate step of cocking the pin.
To make loading quicker, special clips were designed that could hold several cartridges at a time. These could be loaded quickly by inserting the clip into the breech from the top and shoving the cartridges down into the magazine. The clip itself was then discarded.
Lever action was popularized by the famous Winchester Model 1873 and is still in use today. Opening the lever also opens the breech, ejects the spent shell, and loads a new one, simultaneously cocking the firing mechanism.
Pump or slide action is also still in use today, most commonly in pump-action shotguns. Pulling the slide and pushing it closed will open the breech, eject the spent shell, load a new one, and arm the firing mechanism, all in a simple motion.
Self-loading and assault rifles use a modified blowback system to re-cock the firing mechanism and reload the weapon automatically. Self-loading rifles are distinguished from assault weapons in that they will fire only one shot at a time. Some can be modified to fire continuously, making them effectively assault rifles or submachine guns.
The blowback mechanism used in self-loading rifles and assault weapons differs slightly from that used in semi-automatic pistols and true submachine guns. It uses a piston and a system to bleed gas out of the barrel upon firing, which drives the piston backward, opening the breech and ejecting the spent shell. A recoil spring then pushes the mechanism back, reloading the weapon.
Submachine guns are fully automatic weapons small enough to be carried and fired by hand. They use low, pistol-caliber ammunition, minimizing recoil so that they can be fired from the shoulder or from the hip. For further portability, many submachine guns have retractable stocks so that they can be used in different situations.
Submachine guns use a blowback system similar to that used in semi-automatic pistols. When they are fired, the breech stays closed due to its own weight and the power of the recoil spring. By the time the breech does swing open, the pressure in the bore has reduced. The spent cartridge is ejected, and a new one is fed in as the recoil spring pushes the breech closed again. Ammunition is fed into the submachine gun using box or drum magazines. Theoretical rates of fire for early machine guns (from WWI and WWII) ranged from about 400 rounds per minute (rpm) to as high as 900 rpm; however, this did not account for changing magazines and re-cocking the mechanism. More modern submachine guns can fire up to a theoretical 1,200 rpm. Possibly the most infamous submachine gun was the Thompson Model 1928, used in WWII, but, more importantly, the gun used by gangsters during Prohibition and commonly depicted in the movies.
Surprisingly, there have been guns to fire grenades as far back as the 16th century. These guns may have used any of the older mechanisms—matchlocks, wheel locks, flintlocks, and so on. There are two methods used to fire grenades from small arms—large-bored grenade guns made specifically to fire grenades and regular guns adapted to fire grenades. This section only talks about handheld guns used to fire grenades. Fixed grenade launchers will be covered under the “Modern Artillery” section.
Firing grenades from regular guns is done in three main ways:
The cup discharger is an adapter fitted to the end of rifle. A regular grenade fits into the cup, and a blank charge is fired in the gun, which launches the grenade. There are variations of this method that allow a bulleted cartridge to be used, in which case the bullet may bypass the grenade or even fire through a center tube. Flare pistols operate similarly, although technically they are not grenade launchers.
The rod grenade is one attached to a steel rod. The rod fits into the muzzle of the gun, which fires a blank charge to launch the grenade.
The spigot grenade fits over the gun barrel and has stabilizing fins attached to it. Both blank cartridges and bulleted cartridges may be used with the spigot grenade. Because the fins help stabilize the flight of the grenade and keep it flying point first, this is a good way to fire anti-tank grenades.
Grenade firing techniques can be adapted to fire different types of projectiles, including anti-personnel grenades, anti-tank grenades, smoke grenades, and anti-riot gas grenades.
Most little boys had a BB or pellet gun at some point in their lives. These toy guns were examples of air-powered guns. However, air guns have been made at least since the 18th century, though they have rarely been used as serious weapons in war. Early air guns were rifle-shaped and stored compressed air in the stock or in an attached sphere. The reservoir was filled and compressed generally by means of a simple hand pump. This was long before the development of today’s compact CO2 cartridges. One of the few air guns to see combat was the Girandoni air rifle, which looked a bit like a flintlock from the outside, but was a repeating rifle from the late 18th century. It had a range of 130 yards, had a magazine of 20 13mm rounds, and was used by Austrian sharpshooters. Another common air gun was a 19th-century innovation—an air gun that was disguised as a walking cane, at one time a common weapon of self-defense.
Many common expressions in the English language were derived from the use of guns. A few examples include:
Lock, stock, and barrel.
Flash in the pan.
Keep your powder dry.
In the line of fire.
Quick on the draw.
Here are some examples of longarms:
Arasaka Type 38 (Rifle and Carbine). Standard Japanese rifle and carbine of WWII—named for the 38th year of the Meiji calendar, which was when this gun was introduced (1905).
Arquebus. Matchlock (and later wheel lock) rifles dating back as far as the 14th century.
Blunderbuss. A short gun or pistol with a bell muzzle. Typically used as personal protection against thieves and by guards, but not generally in war. They often had bayonets attached, sometimes on springs that would fold back unless needed.
Brown Bess. The main British military musket used between around 1720 and 1840. Various versions of this musket were made.
Caliver. A matchlock gun, larger than a musket and smaller than a carbine. A longer-barreled version was called a Currier.
Camel Gun. A gun on a swivel carried by a camel.
Carbine. A gun with a smaller bore than the musket, which ultimately became a horseman’s gun because it was smaller and lighter. The earliest carbines were flintlocks.
Colt Lightning. An 1885 slide-action repeating rifle.
Colt Model 1855. A revolving musket using percussion-type ammunition; came in various lengths.
De Lisle Carbine. A silenced bolt-action repeater designed for clandestine operations during WWII. It was based on the SMLE, but it used the same cartridge as the Thompson submachine gun.
Esclopette. A wheel-lock pistol with a folding stock that could be carried in a holster like a pistol.
Henry Rifle. An innovative 1860 lever-action repeating rifle created by B. Tyler Henry, who designed it as an improvement over Winchester’s Volcanic repeating rifle—the immediate predecessor to the famed Winchester Model 1873. Used a .44-70 centerfire cartridge of Henry’s design.
Jacob Rifle. A double-barreled rifle used by the British Indian Army in the mid-1800s. It used a percussion lock and could fire pointed bullets or very small explosive shells. It was sighted up to 2,000 yards.
Jennings Rifle. An 1849 improvement on the Volition Repeating Rifle (later in this list) that used external pill-lock percussion caps; another step toward the Winchester Model 1873 lever-action rifle.
Jezail. A very long-barreled gun from Afghanistan with barrels as much as seven feet long with a one-inch bore. Very long range.
Kentucky Long Rifle. Originally created by German craftsmen in Pennsylvania around 1725, it was the most accurate long-range rifle of its time. It is sometimes called the Pennsylvania Long Rifle, but its use in the frontier and its mention in an 1812 song, “The Hunters of Kentucky,” gave it the more commonly used moniker, Kentucky Long Rifle. It was a .50-caliber weapon used during the American Revolution and was further distinguished by a downward curving stock and its 42- to 46-inch barrel. It went the way of all muzzle loaders once breech loaders and self-contained cartridges were developed.
Krag-Jorgensen. A Norwegian bolt-action repeating rifle used in other countries (and the USA), created in 1888.
Lebel M1e 1886/93. This French trendsetting bolt-action repeater was the first small-bore military weapon to use smokeless powder, and it set the standard for the world’s armies.
Lee-Metford. British Army repeating bolt-action rifle from 1888.
Mauser Gewehr 98. Highly successful and much copied WWI era bolt-action repeater.
Mauser Kar 98k. The standard German infantry rifle of WWII.
Mauser Model 71/84. A German bolt-action repeating rifle from 1884.
Mosin-Nagant. Soviet bolt-action repeater of WWII.
Mousqueton. A flintlock with a smooth bore and a 4-foot barrel.
Musquet Arrow (Spright). A wooden arrow that was actually fired from the musquet and was said to be able to penetrate objects that resisted bullets.
Musquet Fusil. A gun used in the time when flintlocks were new. It contained both the flintlock mechanism and a matchlock.
Musquet Rest. Originally just a forked stick used to rest the barrel of the musquet when firing, but ultimately modified by lengthening one fork and sharpening it to use as a defense against cavalry. Some, called swine’s feathers (or Swedish feathers), had spring-loaded spikes concealed inside and were planted into the ground as protection.
Musquets or Muskets. Evolved from cannons and were originally matchlock guns too heavy to be fired without a rest. It was typical to name cannons after birds, so the musket got its name from the sparrow hawk, the smallest of the hawks. Some muskets were as much as 4 feet long and had a 1-inch bore. As time passed, the term musket came to refer to any rifle carried by regular infantrymen.
No4 Mk1. British bolt-action repeater of WWII, based on the SMLE.
No5 Mk1 (Jungle Carbine). The No4 Mk1 in a light version for jungle fighting.
Percussion Cap. Developed in the early 1800s, it uses a fulminating mixture (fulminate of mercury, plus other ingredients) to cause detonation of a shell upon impact.
Pun Lang Chan. A Burmese swivel gun mounted on an elephant.
Punt Gun. A large-bored English gun meant to be swivel-mounted on a boat and used to hunt water birds.
Remington Rolling-Block. An 11mm single-shot gun used all over the world in the late 19th century.
Savage Model 77E. A pump-action military shotgun used by Marines in Vietnam.
Sharps 1855 carbine. A single-shot breech loader that used external percussion caps and linen cartridges.
Sher Bacha. A heavy Persian “wall gun” with a pentagonal stock and a large back site.
Shutrnals. Swivel guns mounted on camels in 18th-century India.
SMLE (Short Magazine Lee Enfield or Rifle No. 1). Standard British bolt-action repeater from 1902 into the beginning of WWII.
Springfield Model 1873. Single-shot breech-loading carbine used in 1876 by the U.S. Cavalry during the Battle of Little Bighorn; used .45-caliber metal cartridges.
Springfield Rifle (or U.S. Model 1903). The principal rifle (bolt-action repeater) of the U.S. Army from the early 20th century until the beginning of WWII.
Toradar. An Indian matchlock gun, some with a curved stock and others with slender straight stocks in a pentagonal section.
Tschinke. A wheel-lock rifle with the butt set at a diagonal angle.
Volition Repeating Rifle. Walter Hunt’s 1849 precursor to the famous Winchester Model 1873, one of the first modern repeating rifles that used fixed (self-contained) ammunition. In the case of the Volition Repeating Rifle, the ammunition was Hunt’s own patented “rocket ball” bullet, which was a hollow bullet packed with gunpowder, enclosed by a cap at the back.
Wall Guns. Some guns were mounted in the walls of fortresses. These kinds of guns were used all over the world and were heavier and larger than the shoulder-mounted guns that were ordinarily carried.
Winchester Model 1873. A lever-action repeating rifle, the successor to the Henry rifle, and the most famous lever-action repeater, emblematic of the Old West, along with the Colt Peacemaker. Like the Henry rifle, it used a .44-40 centerfire cartridge.
Zamburaq. “Wasp,” a camel-mounted swivel gun of old Persia.
Zarbuzan. A light swivel gun or small cannon.
Frank Wesson Dagger-Pistol. Two “over and under” barrels, rotated by hand, with a dagger blade extending out the front. Patented in 1868, it used .41-caliber rimfire ammunition.
Mondragon Modelo 1908. An early self-loading rifle produced in Switzerland but used in Mexico.
Ljungmann Rifle. A Swedish self-loading rifle often credited with innovating the gas-operation mechanism used in all subsequent self-loading rifles. Some sources say that the gas-operation mechanism was actually invented in 1900 by Monsieur Rossignol.
M1 Rifle and Carbine. The M1 rifle (also known as the Garand, sometimes spelled Garland) was the first self-loading rifle to become standard issue in any army and was used throughout WWII and the Korean War.
M14 Rifle. The predecessor to the M16, this was a self-loading rifle based on the M1 Garand used during WWII.
MAS 49. A French self-loading rifle that came into use in 1949. MAS stands for NATO’s Military Agency for Standardization.
Gewehr 43. German WWII self-loading rifle.
Hakim. An Egyptian copy of the self-loading Ljungmann rifle.
RSC Modele 1917. French self-loading rifle used in WWI.
Siminov SKS. A Soviet-designed self-loading carbine, designed at the same time and using the same ammunition as the Kalashnikov AK-47 assault rifle. The SKS was copied for use in the Chinese military and called the Type 56.
Pistols are guns made to be fired in one hand. They probably first appeared in the early 16th century, the first ones being matchlocks and wheel locks. Pistols have been fashioned in a variety of forms, styles, and sizes. The Japanese made tiny pistols as netsuke (small Japanese carvings that were used both as works of art and as fasteners), fully detailed, though no doubt useless as firearms. Some pistols were made with multiple barrels—as many as 24—but it’s doubtful that they were very practical. Perhaps the most famous pistol was the Colt 45 (or Peacemaker)—“the gun that won the West.” Pistols were also combined with just about anything else you could think of, including axes, spears, whips, maces, knives, swords, canes, and even belt buckles and stirrups. At one time or another, almost any weapon (and many non-weapons) have been combined with pistols. Here are a few examples, along with other examples of pistols from history:
Adams Revolver. An 1872 five-shot revolver. Used .45-caliber cartridges.
Borchardt Pistol. An 1893 precursor to the Luger—an early semi-automatic pistol.
“Broomhandle” Mauser. An early semi-automatic pistol that had a detachable shoulder stock.
Browning High Power. A semi-automatic pistol first produced in 1935. It had a magazine that carried 13 9mm cartridges.
Browning Modele 1900. The first Browning pistol, semi-automatic, manufactured in Belgium by Fabrique Nationale.
Colt. Colt was the maker of many important gun models, beginning in the 19th century. The post–Civil War saying went, “Abraham Lincoln may have freed all men, but Sam Colt made them equal.” Some representative Colt guns, including pistols, rifles, machine guns, and assault rifles, include:
Colt Patterson Model. A five-shot revolver that used percussion ignition, made in 1836 in Patterson, NJ.
Colt Walker Model. A revolver used by the U.S. Army as early as 1847, using percussion caps. To load, the paper-wrapped cartridges were inserted from the front of the cylinder, and percussion caps were inserted from the back.
Colt Model 1855. See the “Longarm and Rifle Examples” section.
Colt Model 1861 Navy Revolver. A six-shot, .38-caliber revolver modified in 1870 to a side-gate breech loader.
Colt Peacemaker. Went into production in the 1870s and is still being made today. Known as “the gun that won the West.” A six-shot revolver, side-gate design.
Colt New Service M1917. A six-shot, .45-caliber revolver with a swing-out cylinder. Used in both the U.S. and Britain (where it was a .455 caliber).
Colt Police Positive Special. Made from 1908 until the 1970s—a .38-caliber six-shot revolver that used a lengthened cylinder to house the .38 special cartridge, which is why it was called “special.”
“Snub-Nosed” 38 (Colt Detective Special). A version of Colt’s Police Positive Special revolver with a shortened barrel, designed for concealment and easy carrying, often in a holder under the armpit—a shoulder holster. Created in 1927.
Colt Python. A .357 Magnum revolver—six shot swing-out cylinder.
Colt 1911 A1. A semi-automatic .45-caliber pistol first produced in 1911 and modified in 1923; still in production.
M1, M4, AR-15 (with ArmaLite), M16. Colt manufactured these military weapons.
Demi-Hag. A small kind of Hackbutt.
Deringer. A very small pistol meant for concealment. Originally designed by Henry Deringer in Philadelphia, but often copied.
Knife or Dagger Pistol. It was not too uncommon to find a combination knife and pistol, where the barrel of the gun extended along the top of the blade. In Japan, some pistols were formed with hilts just like a knife, so that they could not be distinguished from knives when carried in a scabbard.
Hackbutt. A 16th century gun that did not exceed 27 inches in length.
Harrison and Richardson 900. A modern nine-shot revolver. The cylinder removes completely for reloading.
Heckler and Koch VP 70. A semi-automatic pistol able to fire bursts of three shots with a shoulder stock. Uses an 18-shot magazine of 9mm cartridges.
Lancaster Pistol. A four-barreled break-open pistol that was also made as a pistol shotgun.
Lefaucheux Revolver. An early six-shot revolver made in 1845.
Luger Parabellum. The prototypical semi-automatic German pistol of WWII, it was originally designed in 1898 by Georg Luger. The name was taken from the expression (in Latin) Si vis Pacem, Para bellum. (“If you want peace, prepare for war.”) The locking mechanism was based on the earlier Borchardt pistol. The model P-08 was the standard military model of WWII. Many models of the Luger were created, including one with a shoulder stock, but all used the same blowback mechanism.
Man-Stopper. A British six-shot revolver of the 1870s that used a .577-caliber cartridge. The cylinder was completely removed for reloading.
Marston Pistol. A repeating pistol with three barrels that had to be turned by hand.
Modele 1892. A French six-shot revolver with double action, used in both WWI and WWII.
Modello 89B. An Italian six-shot revolver used from 1889 until 1920.
Nagant Model 1895G. Seven-shot revolver used in WWI and WWII.
Niao-Chiang. A matchlock gun from China that was remarkable in that it had a pistol stock and was fired like a pistol, but with both hands, yet it could be from three to seven feet long!
Pepper Box. An early form of revolver made around the middle of the 19th century. Generally, when the trigger was pulled, the hammer was raised and the barrels revolved. In some the hammer was above, and in some it was below. Pepper Boxes varied in size and in the number of barrels. Some were a single action, and others were double action, meaning that the hammer was cocked by hand, and the trigger fired and rotated the barrels.
Petronel. An ungainly 16th-century gun, midway between the earliest pistols and the Arquebus. It was short but of a large caliber, and it had a highly curved stock meant to be rested against the chest when firing.
Remington Derringer. An “over and under” gun originally made in the 1860s and still manufactured today. Uses .41-caliber rimfire cartridges.
Robbins and Lawrence Pepperbox. An early revolver (1849) with five barrels and a rotating striker—the barrels remained stationary.
Shattuck Palm Pistol. An unusual, self-cocking small pistol held with the four barrels sticking out through the fingers. It was patented in 1906 and used .22-caliber rimfire bullets.
Shuju. A Japanese pistol
Smith and Wesson .44 Magnum Model 29. Modern six-shot revolver. A very powerful pistol.
Smith & Wesson Bodyguard Airweight Model. Modern small revolver with internal hammer; fires .38 special rounds.
Smith & Wesson Model 60 (“Chief’s Special”). A modern five-shot small revolver suitable for police work and concealment.
Tamancha. An Indian pistol.
Tercerole. A pocket pistol.
Remington-Elliot Derringer. Four-barreled 1860 pistol with a ring trigger that was used to rotate the striker.
Remington Model 1867. Used by the U.S. Navy, it was a repeater using a rolling-block breech more common in rifles.
Remington Model 1874. A .44-caliber, six-shot U.S. Army revolver.
Ruger Blackhawk. A modern single-action six-shot revolver that uses .38 special or .357 Magnum rounds.
Sharps Derringer. A four-barreled pistol in which the hammer rotates to fire each in turn.
Volcanic Repeating Pistol. A lever-action pistol created by Horace Smith and Daniel Wesson, based on the work of Lewis Jennings and his Jennings Repeating Rifle. (See the “Longarm and Rifle Examples” section earlier in this chapter.) This was followed by a Volcanic rifle. Soon after, Smith & Wesson became the Volcanic Repeating Arms Company. One of the principal investors was Oliver F. Winchester. Smith and Wesson soon left the company and ultimately re-started Smith & Wesson.
Volley Gun. A flintlock created in the late 18th century that fired seven barrels simultaneously. It was presented to the British Navy but was later abandoned because the recoil was so powerful that it smashed the shoulders of those who fired it. Only someone very big and very strong could fire it with impunity.
Walther P38. A semi-automatic pistol used by the Germans during WWII and manufactured for years afterward. Eventually replaced by the Walther P88.
Walther PPK. A semi-automatic pistol featured in James Bond books. The initials stand for Polizei Pistole Kriminal.
Webley-Fosbery Self-Cocking Revolver. Made around 1890, this could be considered one of the first semi-automatic pistols in that it used recoil from the previous shot to cock and load the next shot. It differs from what are considered to be modern semi-automatic pistols in that it used a cylinder instead of a magazine, and a different type of recoil system.
Webley Mk VI Revolver. British military six-shot revolver, single- or double-action, used from 1915 through WWII. Used a .455-caliber cartridge. A lower-caliber version based on this design was the Enfield No2 Mk1 Star, which used a .380-caliber cartridge.
Submachine guns are lightweight, fully automatic guns that fire pistol ammunition. They lack the long-range accuracy of rifles and the armor-piercing power of heavy machine guns, but they can deliver a lot of bullets quickly while remaining light and easy to carry. They are generally fired from the shoulder or the hip.
Assault rifles are selective-fire guns, meaning that they can be set for semi-automatic or full automatic fire. According to Wikipedia, an assault weapon must have a provision for firing from the shoulder, must be capable of selective fire, must use a cartridge that is somewhere between a pistol and a rifle in caliber, and must use detachable box magazines for cartridges.
Rate of fire (measured as rounds per minute [or rpm]) means the gun’s theoretical uninterrupted firing rate. In reality, this does not include time taken to change magazines and re-cock the mechanism, nor does it take into account heat buildup or fouling in the barrel from continuous use.
ArmaLite. Originally a division of Fairchild, ArmaLite produced a series of U.S.-made assault weapons, beginning with the AR-5 .22 Hornet Survival Rifle. They subsequently developed the AR-10 and AR-15 assault rifles, ultimately licensing the designs to Colt, who manufactured them. In 1961, ArmaLite became independent of Fairchild. ArmaLite had attempted to get the U.S. military to adopt the AR-15, but the M14 won the military bid. Later, with the AR-18, they once again lost the bid to the redesigned M16. In 1998, they created the AR-50, a heavy-caliber assault weapon.
Bergmann MP 18/1. One of the first SMGs, used in 1918 by the German army in WWI. It used a 32-round “snail” drum magazine. Rate of fire/caliber: 400 rpm/9mm.
CETME Model C. Spanish assault rifle. Rate of fire of 550 to 650 rpm, and a 30-round magazine of 7.62mm cartridges.
FG42. A fully automatic German paratrooper’s weapon—one of the first to adopt a straight stock to reduce “climb” from fully automatic fire.
FN FAL (Fusil Automatique Leger). Assault rifle that was adopted in countries all around the world, developed by Belgian Fabrique Nationale beginning in the late 1940s and culminating in 1956 with the adoption of the NATO-standard T65 cartridge as its ammunition. Several versions were created, including a paratrooper version with a folding skeleton stock and a short barrel. Some versions were semi-automatic only, but the rest were full assault weapons. It used a gas-operated mechanism with an adjustment regulator that could even be defeated entirely for use with rifle-launched grenades. Some models had a straight stock to reduce “climb” from fully automatic operation.
Galil ARM. Israeli assault rifle developed after the Arab-Israeli war of 1967. Rate of fire of 650 rpm and a 35-round magazine of 5.56mm ammunition.
Gewehr 3 A3. West German variant of the Spanish CETME (see above).
Ingram Model 11. U.S.-made SMG specialized for undercover operations, with a stock that slides and folds in. Rate of fire of 1200 rpm with .38 ACP (Automatic Colt Pistol ammunition).
K-50M. A North Vietnamese SMG with a telescopic scope—based on the Soviet PPSH 41. Rate of fire of 700 rpm. Caliber: 7.62mm.
Kalashnikov AK-47. Soviet standard assault rifle, used all over the world in various versions. Rate of fire of 600 rpm and a 30-round magazine of 7.62mm ammunition. A version known as the AK-74 was developed for use with smaller-caliber ammunition. The AK-74 had some modifications, but was essentially still the AK-47.
M16. Standard U.S. military assault weapon manufactured by Colt, first adopted in the 1960s. The original version was, in essence, the AR-15 with the addition of a manual device for resetting the mechanism in case of jams. Several versions of M16 have been created over the years, some considerably different from the original. It is still standard issue and is comparable to the Soviet AK-47, although it is believed to be less reliable in harsh battlefield conditions than the latter.
MP38 and MP40. German SMGs used in WWII. The MP40, also known as the Schmeisser, was the first SMG to use a folding stock. Rate of fire/caliber: 500 rpm/9mm.
MP44. Also known as the Sturmgewehr 44 (StG44); often considered the original model for the modern assault rifle. Sturmgewehr translates to “storm rifle,” which ultimately became “assault rifle” in English. The StG44 saw limited use in WWII. Rate of fire of 500 rpm and a 30-round magazine of 7.92mm ammunition.
PPSH 41. A Soviet SMG from WWII that used a drum magazine. Rate of fire/caliber: 900 rpm/7.62mm.
Sten Mk2. British SMG from WWII that could be mounted with a silencer. Rate of fire of 550 rpm (450 with silencer) with .45 ACP (Automatic Colt Pistol ammunition).
Thompson Model 1928. First designed by General John T. Thompson in 1920, this was the famous “Tommy gun” of the Prohibition era. It was also used during WWII, although the first government agency to purchase them was the U.S. Post Office. It was used by the FBI and the military until 1974, when it was declared obsolete. It could hold a 20-, 30-, or 50-round magazine, or a drum magazine of 60 or 100 rounds. Rate of fire/caliber: 700 rpm/.45in.
US M3. Known as the grease gun for its resemblance to that tool, it used a telescopic stock. Rate of fire of 450 rpm .45 ACP (Automatic Colt Pistol ammunition).
Uzi. Israeli compact SMG made in various versions. Rate of fire/caliber: 600 rpm/9mm.
F2000 Integrated Weapon System. Gas-operated 5.56mm LMG with computerized fire control/sight and optional grenade launcher or nonlethal attachments for BBs or tear gas. Fully ambidextrous, with a front ejection system for spent casings.
FN P90 Personal Defense Weapon. A submachine gun with a blowback mechanism that fires a 5.7mm cartridge and weighs only five pounds unloaded. It has a 50-round detachable magazine (translucent) and rate of about 900 rpm. It also has an unusual shape and molded plastic stock.
Walther MPL. Common SMG used for border guards and police in Germany.
CornerShot. A modern gun system that uses a color video camera attached to a gun, allowing the shooter to fire from around a corner without risking exposure.
Not all guns were produced during the war. Some models are shown with alternate names (in parentheses).
Table 34.1. Major Gun Manufacturers
Winchester Repeating Arms | |||
|---|---|---|---|
M1 Garand rifle | M1/2 carbine M1918 BAR | M1917 riot gun (M97 shotgun) | M1917 riot gun (M12 shotgun) |
Winchester Repeating Arms | |||
M1917 Browning machine gun M1911 pistol | M11 shotgun | M31 shotgun | M1903 Springfield rifle |
Colt’s Patent Firearms Manufacturing Company | |||
M1911 pistol (Model O) | M1908 pistol (Model M) | M1903 pistol (Model M) | M1908 pistol (Model N) |
Service Model Ace pistol (Model O) | Woodsman Match Target pistol (Model S) | Commando revolver | |
M1917 Browning machine gun | M1919 Browning machine gun | M2 Browning heavy machine gun | |
M1917 revolver | M1921 (and 21/8) | Thompson SMG | M1918 BAR |
Smith & Wesson | |||
British Pistol No. 2 (K-200 or S&W .38-200) | M1940 Light Rifle Mark 2 | Victory Model revolver (M&P) | M1917 revolver |
Harrington & Richardson | |||
M999 Sportsman revolver | Defender revolver | M35 Premier revolver | |
Reising 50/55 SMG | Reising 60 carbine | M65 Military rifle | |
Marlin | |||
M42 United Defense SMG | M1918 BAR | M1917 Browning machine gun | |
Savage - Stevens | |||
M1 Thompson SMG | M1928 Thompson SMG | M620 Stevens shotgun | M2 Browning heavy machine gun |
M1917 Browning machine gun | British Rifle No. 4 (Lee-Enfield) | M720 shotgun | |
Auto-Ordnance | |||
M1928 Thompson SMG | |||
Ithaca Gun Company | |||
M1911 pistol | M3 SMG | M37 shotgun | |
High Standard | |||
USA Model H-D pistol | Model H-D MS suppressed pistol | Model B-US pistol | |
M1917 Browning machine gun | M2 Browning heavy machine gun | ||
Buffalo Arms | |||
M2 Browning heavy machine gun | |||
Government Arsenals | ||
|---|---|---|
Rock Island Arsenal | ||
M1917 Browning machine gun | M1903 Springfield rifle | |
Springfield Armory | ||
M1 Garand Rifle | M1903 Springfield rifle | M1911 pistol |
Private Companies Not Usually Associated with Firearms | ||
International Business Machines | ||
M1918 BAR | M1 carbine | |
Frigidaire | ||
M2 Browning heavy machine gun | ||
Brown-Lipe-Chapin | ||
M2 Browning heavy machine gun | ||
Kelsey Hayes Wheel Co. | ||
M2 Browning heavy machine gun | ||
General Motors | ||
M1917 Browning machine gun | M2 Browning heavy machine gun | FP-45 Liberator pistol |
M1 2/3 carbine | M2 Hyde SMG | M3 SMG |
Companies Set Up Just to Make WWII Weapons | ||
New England Small Arms | ||
M1918 BAR | ||
Cranston Arms (Universal Windings) | ||
M1941 Johnson rifle | M1941/44 Johnson machine guns | |
Explosives are present or at least implied in a lot of games. Most games don’t deal with them in great detail. It’s enough to know that you can blow up something with a gun, a bomb, or some other device. But suppose you wanted a game in which you had access to the materials of explosives and could, in a rough way, combine them to create mayhem and destruction in your virtual environment.
Explosions can be caused by a variety of circumstances, most often by materials called explosives, although some explosions can be caused by the buildup of pressure involving non-explosive materials, such as steam or even air.
What is an explosive? Simply put, it is a chemical or nuclear material that can be caused to undergo very rapid, self-propagating decomposition resulting in the formation of more stable material and the liberation of heat, or the development of a sudden pressure effect through the action of heat on produced or adjacent gases. In evaluating the effectiveness of an explosive, there are a number of factors to take into account, such as:
Conditions under which it will explode (pressure, temperature, friction, shock, other agents, and so on).
The velocity of its explosive reaction, also known as brisance. Measured “confined” velocities of modern high explosives range from about 4,000 to about 25,000 feet per second, although many conditions can affect those statistics.
Temperatures produced.
Relative stability under different conditions.
It all boils down to how much energy is produced and how fast. By nature, explosions involve a rapid release of energy. In general, the faster rate of propagation, the more powerful the explosive, and the more damage it can cause or the farther it can fire a projectile, and so on.
There are a lot of ways to make things explode. Dry ice and water in a sealed plastic or glass container will do it—but don’t try it with glass unless you take appropriate safety precautions. You can get hurt.
That brings me to the warning in this chapter and the disclaimer: First, I’m not going to give you precise methods for making explosives. If you’re really dedicated, you can find that sort of information, but I’m not going to be responsible for it. The only exception is the formula for making TNT, a high explosive that is so complicated to make that it should suffice to warn you that explosives are complex, especially modern ones. Second is the warning that, even if you have access to the materials mentioned in this chapter, I advise you not to mess around with them. If you really want to do some chemical experiments, work with an expert chemist and do it in laboratory conditions. Okay?
Anyway, since the actual methods of making most explosives are too complicated for any average game, they are also too complicated for this book. However, it wouldn’t be too taxing on players to provide them with the ingredients for something explosive and, perhaps, a black box sort of device that will create the end result without being too particular as to the method. Having said that, I thought I’d provide you with some interesting information about explosives. If you’re really curious how high explosives are made, check out the “Making TNT” sidebar later in this chapter. For a list of explosive terminology (no, not curses), check out the Glossary of Explosives later in this chapter.
The chemistry and science of explosives is, on one hand, relatively simple by comparison with some subjects, but it’s still a lot more complex than, say, programming a VCR or a microwave oven. Although it might be quite interesting to go into considerable detail here, there’s probably no way much of the very specific chemistry and science around explosives would be especially useful in games. If you can think of a way to use more specifics, I encourage you to do further research. For instance, did you know that modern explosives use ingredients classified as explosive bases, combustibles, oxygen carriers, antacids (Tums for explosives?), and absorbents?
Explosives are also categorized as high-order (HE) and low-order (LE) explosives. The main difference is that HE detonates, meaning that they produce a shockwave that travels through the material at speeds in excess of the speed of sound. This causes a very fast reaction and release of energy. Low-order explosives, on the other hand, burn rapidly, but not like HE. In LE, the process is called deflagration instead of detonation, although in some specific circumstances, low-order explosives can be caused to detonate, often unexpectedly. Black powder is a typical low-order explosive.
Explosives are further categorized as primary (highly susceptible to detonation) and secondary (more likely to detonate as a result of a specific initiation, such as the detonation of a primary explosive and in some cases even a “booster” charge). In the modern world, materials such as lead azide and lead styphnate are common primary explosives, while secondary explosives these days can be categorized, more or less, into “melt/pour” nitroaromatics (like TNT) or plastic-bonded explosives, which use a crystalline explosive such as RDX in combination with various types of binder materials.
In addition to explosives, there are also pyrotechnic materials used in flares for signals or illumination, smoke generators, incendiary bombs, some fuses, and flash compounds. Pyrotechnic material generally combines an inorganic oxidizer with a metal powder, mixed in some kind of binder. For instance, one “recipe” for an illumination flare combines 38% sodium nitrate, 55% magnesium, and 6% binder. An infrared flare might use different materials, such as cesium nitrate, barium nitrate, or red phosphorous. Signal flares, which are designed to be small and fast-burning, may use different metals for different-colored flares.
In contrast to standard military “manufactured” devices, the terminology to describe what terrorists use is improvised explosive devices or IEDs.
It may help to understand the following terms used in conjunction with explosives:
Brisance is the measure of how rapidly an explosive develops its maximum pressure. A brisant explosive is one in which the maximum pressure is attained so rapidly that the effect is to shatter any material in contact with it and all surrounding material.
A hygroscopic material (literally water seeking) is one that readily absorbs water (usually from the atmosphere).
A binary explosive is an explosive material composed of separate components, each of which is safe for storage and transportation and would not in itself be considered as an explosive.
A high explosive is characterized by the extreme rapidity with which its decomposition occurs; this action is known as detonation. When initiated by a blow or shock, it decomposes almost instantaneously, either in a manner similar to an extremely rapid combustion or with rupture and rearrangement of the molecules themselves.
There are different types of explosives, with different characteristics and components. This section will help you get a handle on explosive basics.
The explosive mixture that propels the bullet or other projectile is called the propellant. Here are some of the main types of propellants used in guns.
Black powder is your basic gunpowder, and it is considered a low explosive. It can be ignited easily by heat, friction, or a spark, making it one of the more dangerous explosives to handle. The basic formula contains potassium nitrate or sodium nitrate, charcoal, and sulfur. Black powder is known as a hygroscopic substance, which means it attracts and absorbs water molecules. Consequently, it will degrade rapidly when exposed to moisture. Black powder is no longer used in military guns, but there are many gun enthusiasts who enjoy firing guns using black powder, and it is still found in various ammunition components.
Smokeless powder is not generally seen as a powder, but is prepared in such a way as to produce flakes, strips, sheets, balls, cords, or perforated cylindrical grains of uniform size. Used exclusively for gun and rocket ammunition, smokeless powder is not completely smokeless; however, it produces far less smoke than earlier propellants, such as black powder. Common types of smokeless powder are guncotton, ballistite, and Cordite N.
Guncotton is a nitrocellulose explosive that is used primarily as a propellant, though it is also used in electric primers and other electrically initiated devices. It is made from cotton fibers that contain 13 percent or more of nitrogen. It is sometimes referred to by various names, such as pyropowder, pyrocellulose, or nitrocellulose. When confined, it can produce a high-explosive detonation.
Ballistite, a double-base powder, is actually a mixture of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin that have been blended with a stabilizer, diphenylamine. Used primarily as a rocket propellant, ballistite’s rate of burning can be controlled by altering the characteristics of the powder grain, the pre-ignition temperature, and the pressure during reaction. It is generally produced as a solid propellant shaped to fit the housings of various rocket motors. It produces a lot of smoke, flash, and gas upon burning. Solid propellant charges, like ballistite, fall into one of two categories—restricted burning and unrestricted burning.
Restricted-burning charges are so named because a part of the exposed surface of the charge is covered with an inhibitor, which allows the burning rate and duration to be controlled.
An unrestricted-burning charge uses no inhibitors, and all surfaces burn simultaneously, resulting in a large output of thrust over a shorter time period, depending on the type of grain used. The grain can affect the duration and short- versus long-term output of thrust.
One commonly used propellant in aircraft guns is Cordite N, which is made from a combination of nitroguanidine, nitrocellulose, and nitroglycerin. In contrast to ballistite, Cordite N burns cool and emits little smoke or flash. It also has a higher burning rate, resulting in a higher velocity of projectile.
Initiating explosives are used to detonate high explosives, and won’t burn under normal conditions. While their strength and brisance are not as great as that of high explosives, they can detonate with enough force to detonate the stronger high explosives.
Mercury fulminate will detonate when exposed to heat, friction, spark, flames, or shock. It generally appears as white, gray, or slightly brownish crystals. It is used in blasting caps and detonators, where it is packed into containers at 3,000 psi, though it can be “dead pressed” at up to 30,000 psi, which requires it to be detonated by another detonating agent. It loses potency if stored for long periods of time above 100 degrees Fahrenheit, and it is usually stored under water (if there is no danger of freezing) or in an alcohol and water mixture. When the substance is dry, it is highly sensitive, and accidental detonations are common. It also reacts strongly when it comes into contact with metals, such as aluminum, magnesium, zinc, copper, brass, or bronze.
Lead azide is an initiating explosive that is generally seen in the form of white or cream-colored crystals. Unlike mercury fulminate, lead azide does not decompose when stored in hot conditions. Although it is sensitive to both flame and impact, it requires a layer of lead styphnate priming mixture to initiate a reaction from a firing pin or electrical charge. Extremely sensitive to a chemical reaction with either copper or bronze, particularly in the presence of moisture, where it can form copper azide, lead azide is generally packed into aluminum housings. In addition, when it is stored in water, to which it is practically insoluble, the water must be clean and free of contaminants with which the substance might react. It is used in various devices, including priming mixtures, major caliber base detonating fuzes, point detonating fuzes, and of auxiliary detonating fuzes.
Lead styphnate, like lead azide, is found as an orange- to brown-colored crystalline substance that is stored in conditions similar to those of mercury fulminate. Although it is sensitive to ignition from heat or static discharge, it is not considered a reliable means of igniting secondary high explosives. When dry, however, it can discharge simply from static electricity generated by a human body. It is used as an ingredient in priming mixtures for small arms ammunition, although it is usually mixed with other materials and pressed into a metallic container.
Tetracene is insoluble in water, alcohol, benzene, or most other substances, although it is soluble in strong hydrochloric acid. It is generally a colorless or slightly yellow substance that is only moderately hygroscopic. Like mercury fulminate, it can be “dead pressed,” which reduces its sensitivity under higher pressures (and therefore higher material density), and will explode when exposed to flame, emitting a great deal of black smoke; however, its brisance increases when detonated by tetryl or mercury fulminate.
DDNP (diazodinitrophenol) is a primary high explosive that appears commonly as a yellowish-brown powder. It is used in commercial blasting caps that are initiated by a black powder safety fuse. It is more stable than mercury fulminate but less stable than lead azide. Insoluble in water, it can be dissolved in other solvents, such as acetic acid, acetone, strong hydrochloric acid, and others. It can be neutralized if dissolved in cold sodium hydroxide or if placed in water at normal temperatures. Although it is not as sensitive to impact as mercury fulminate or lead azide, it more powerful than either. It is used primarily in conditions where high sensitivity to flame or heat is preferred.
Auxiliary explosives fall in the midrange of sensitivity between initiating explosives and high explosives. They are commonly used as filler charges or bursting explosives.
Tetrytol is a cast mixture consisting of approximately 75 percent tetryl and 25 percent TNT. It is used as a demolition explosive, a bursting charge in mines, a burster charge in chemical bombs, and also in artillery shells and shaped charges. The explosive power of tetrytol is generally about the same as that of TNT, and it is generally initiated using a blasting cap.
PETN (pentaerythritol tetranitrate) is almost the equal of nitroglycerine and RDX, making it one of the most powerful military explosives, with a detonation velocity of 21,000 feet per second. It is sometimes used in detonation cord (primacord), where it can be handled in transport safely, as its natural sensitivity to shock or friction is reduced. It is also used in booster and bursting charges of small-caliber ammunition and in the upper charges of land mine and artillery shell detonators.
Tetryl (Trinitrophenylmethylnitramine) is a fine yellow crystalline material with very high shattering power. It remains stable when stored and is used as a standard booster explosive in detonators, where it is compressed for greater stability and reduced reactivity and generally initiated by a priming charge of mercury fulminate or lead azide. Reactions can be obtained by exposure to flame, friction, shock, or sparks, and it will detonate if burned in large quantities.
TNT (Trinitrotoluene) is produced by combining toluene, sulfuric acid, and nitric acid, and it is widely used in a variety of applications, including steel cutting, breaching concrete and other demolition, and even underwater demolition. It is also used in other explosives, such as amatol, pentolite, tetrytol, torpex, tritonal, picratol, ednatol, and composition B. TNT is stable, stores well, and is insensitive to shock, making it a reliable explosive under many conditions, although it will react with alkalis to form unstable compounds that are far more sensitive to heat or impact than the pure TNT. Under some conditions, TNT may form an oily brown liquid that is flammable and dangerous, and should be cleaned up if discovered. It is alternately called Triton, Trotyl, Trilite, Trinol, and Tritolo. In addition to general demolition work, TNT can be used as a booster or as a bursting charge for high-explosive shells and bombs. It is commonly detonated by blasting cap or primacord. Military-grade dynamite detonates at a rate of 20,000 feet per second.
Nitrostarch, which is composed of starch nitrate, barium nitrate, and sodium nitrate formed through a dangerous process involving sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and corn starch, is a brownish or orange-colored crystalline powder (though in its pure form, it is white). While less powerful than TNT, it is more sensitive to flame, friction, and impact. It was used in WWII as a filler in hand grenades, though it is also used as an explosive in the mining industry.
While high explosives detonate at a very high rate, bursting explosives, also known as disrupting explosives, are designed to create maximum damage, and they are used as a filler explosive in many applications, incuding bombs, torpedoes, mines, warheads, and shells. Bursting explosives vary in terms of their sensitivity, brisance, rate of detonation, and so forth.
Ammonium nitrate is a white crystalline substance that is highly water absorbent. It is generally packed in sealed metal containers. It will react with metals, such as copper and brass, so it must be kept away from copper-based metals. Ammonium nitrate is a common ingredient in fertilizers, which homegrown bomb makers use as a source of the material; however, the agricultural grade (FGAN) is a low-porosity form that is less likely to detonate. By comparison, the “technical” grade is more porous and more reactive. Its velocity of detonation is low, at 3,600 feet per second, and it is considered to be only 55 percent as powerful as TNT, so it is often combined with other materials, such as amatol. In liquid form it is known as UAN (Urea Ammonium Nitrate). Some military uses include daisy-cutter bombs and sometimes in solid rocket propellants. Ammonium nitrate has been used by terrorists and insurgents, including the IRA and in the Oklahoma City bombings, among other examples.
Nitroglycerin is a thick yellow-brown liquid formed by treating glycerin with a nitrating mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids. Normally colorless, it tends to discolor after it is manufactured. It is extremely sensitive to shock and easily detonated. It freezes at 56°F, and one source (from WWII) claims it is less sensitive to shock when frozen, but more modern sources claim it is even more shock sensitive. In any case, it is extremely dangerous to manufacture and to handle, and many catastrophic explosions are linked to its history. At the time of its discovery and first applications, Alfred Nobel (of the Nobel Prize) created an explosive compound of nitroglycerin and gunpowder (called Swedish Oil), but when that was proven too unstable, he combined it with more inert ingredients, such as charcoal and diatomaceous earth, in the first applications of dynamite. Nobel is also credited with creating blasting gelatin and ballistite, the first double-base propellant, a precursor to the more modern cordite.
Nitroglycerin also has a medical use as a vasodilator in the treatment of heart conditions. Apparently it is also being inserted (as glyceryl trinitrate [GTN]) into the tips of certain condoms to stimulate erections during intercourse, which inspires one to hope that they have made the substance less sensitive to exploding as a result of shock or pounding.
Blasting gelatin (Gelignite) is a gelatinous explosive material first discovered by Alfred Nobel in 1875. It is stable under most conditions and cannot explode without a detonator. It is made from a collodion-cotton (nitrocellulose or guncotton) dissolved in nitroglycerine and mixed with wood pulp and either sodium or potassium nitrate. It is used for large-scale blasting operations and, unlike dynamite, will not deteriorate and leak out unstable liquid nitroglycerin when stored.
Amatol is a whitish substance made by mixing ammonium nitrate and TNT in proportions ranging from 80:20 to 40:60. Invented early in the 20th century, it was used in the warheads of the German V-1 and V-2 rockets. In WWII, amatol was used as a main bursting charge in artillery shells and bombs. In the Vietnam War, the Bangalore Torpedo used an 80:20 mixture of amatol to TNT, which produces a characteristic white smoke. More even mixtures produce a darker smoke. Like ammonium nitrate, amatol should not be stored in contact with copper or brass.
Ammonal is a mixture of ammonium nitrate, TNT, and flaked or powdered aluminum in a ratio of about 22:67:11. It is about 83% as effective as TNT and explodes with a bright flash. It was used as a filler in artillery shells during WWII.
ANFO (Ammonium Nirate Fuel Oil) is used in blasting and was originally developed for use in mining. It combines ammonium nitrate explosive with about 6% fuel oil, in part to keep it dry.
Tritonal is a silvery solid composed of 80% TNT and 20% atomized aluminum powder. It is often used as a filler in bombs and shells.
Picric acid is a highly sensitive explosive substance that can be somewhat controlled by “wetting” or diluting with water. It is normally found as a solid or paste and is highly sensitive to shock, heat, and friction. Its tendency to form salts with various metals, which are themselves even more explosive and sensitive than the pure substance, make it very hazardous, and it should never be allowed to come in contact with metals or even concrete, with which it can form calcium picrate. In contact with lead, it can form the highly unstable and explosive substance lead picrate. Picric acid can produce explosions superior in power to TNT, making it a class A high explosive. Picric acid can be synthesized rather easily in laboratory conditions using concentrated sulfuric and nitric acids, phenol, ethanol, and distilled water. The result is a yellowish crystalline powder. It can be further distilled to an even more pure grade. It can also be created directly from benzene. Picric acid can also be used to create a more stable explosive called, alternately, ammonium picrate, ammonium piconitrate, Explosive D, or carazoate. This substance can be used in armor-piercing shells because it does not detonate easily and will not react with casing metals to create dangerous salts. (An even more reactive substance, styphnic acid, can be derived from the common priming compound, lead styphnate.)
Dynamite was commonly used in excavation and other commercial or military blasting projects. However, there are different types of dynamite. Among commercial types used up until the 1950s, which all used nitroglycerin as the primary explosive, there were straight dynamite, ammonia dynamite, and gelatin dynamite, which ranged (based on the nitroglycerin content) from a velocity of detonation of 4,000 to 23,000 feet per second. Dynamite had a tendency to be unstable and to “leak” nitroglycerin when stored. It was used in a variety of ways; one interesting use of it was by safecrackers who would melt down the dynamite to extract the nitroglycerin.
Military dynamite is not a true dynamite, but an explosive substance consisting of 75% RDX, 15% TNT, 5% SAE 10 motor oil, and 5% cornstarch, packaged in standard dynamite cartridges of colored wax paper marked by size: M1, M2, or M3. All military dynamite detonates at about 20,000 feet per second, which is equivalent in strength to 60% straight dynamite. Military dynamite is far safer to store and to transport than commercial dynamite because it contains no nitroglycerin and is therefore less sensitive to heat, shock, friction, or bullet impact. The explosive substance inside military dynamite is granular, yellow-white to tan in color, crumbles easily, and is slightly oily. It does not have the characteristic sweet odor of true nitroglycerin-based dynamite.
Pentolite is a high explosive created by mixing equal proportions of PETN and TNT. In WWII it was used as a main bursting charge in grenades, small shells, and shaped charges. It can be melted and cast into a container.
HMX (High Melting Explosive), also known as Octogen and by other names, explodes violently at temperatures at or above 534° F. It was present in the pre-atomic era but is used now exclusively to implode fissionable material in nuclear devices, as well as being a component in plastic-bonded explosives, rocket propellants, and as a high-explosive burster charge. HMX is highly toxic and will break down in water if exposed to sunlight, discharging toxic chemicals into ground water.
RDX (Cyclotrimethylene trinitramine or Royal Demolition Explosive), is also known as cyclonite or hexogen. RDX is used primarily in combination with other explosives or combined with oils or waxes. This white crystalline solid demonstrates very high shattering power, but it is very stable and can be stored effectively and safely. Considered to be possibly the most powerful military high explosive, RDX is used in various combinations, known (unimaginatively) as Composition A, Composition B, Composition C, HBX, H-6, and Cyclotol. Can also be found in fireworks, demolition explosives, heating fuel for food rations, and sometimes as a rodent poison.
Pure RDX is used in press-loaded projectiles. Cast loading is accomplished by blending RDX with a relatively low-melting-point substance. RDX is also used as a base charge in detonators and in blasting caps. The various compositions created with RDX are classified as follows:
Compositions in which RDX is melted with wax are called Composition A (see details below).
Compositions in which RDX is mixed with TNT are called Composition B (see details below).
Compositions in which RDX is blended with a non-explosive plasticizer are called Composition C (see details below).
Composition A is available in five different forms: Composition A-1, A-2, A-3, A-4, and A-5. Each variant of Composition A is a granular explosive made up of a quantity of RDX with a plasticizing wax, and the less commonly used A-4 and A-5 versions include a desensitizing agent. Composition A is used in different applications, including in rockets and land mines.
Composition B is formed from a mixture of 59 percent RDX with 40 percent TNT and 1 percent wax. Its shattering power and relative effectiveness is greater than that of TNT alone, and it has been used in various applications, including Army projectiles, rockets, landmines, torpedoes, and shaped charges.
Composition C is made of a combination of RDX and various plastics. The best known version of Composition C is the plastic explosive C-4, which is composed of 91 percent RDX with about 9 percent plastic as a binder. It remains pliant at temperatures ranging from about 70 to 170 degrees Fahrenheit. It can be used underwater, molded to different shapes, and used in shaped charges, for cutting steel or timber, and for breaching concrete. C-4 is the most widely known of the Composition C variants, but C-3 is also used, and less commonly, C-1 and C-2.
HBX-1 and HBX-3 are explosives made from a combination of RDX, TNT, powdered aluminum, and D-2 wax with calcium chloride. They are castable explosives sometimes used in missile warheads and underwater weaponry.
H-6 is an explosive created by mixing RDX, TNT, powdered aluminum, and D-2 wax with calcium chloride added. It is a castable explosive that is often used as a bursting charge in bombs.
Minol is an explosive created by mixing TNT, ammonium nitrate, and powdered aluminum, though one formulation used potassium nitrate along with the other ingredients. Developed in WWII, Minol is now considered obsolete and has been largely replaced by various PBX compositions.
Explosive D (Ammonium picrate)—also known as Dunnite for its developer, Major Dunn, in 1906. This explosive was used primarily in the early 1900s, especially by the U.S. Navy during WWI. It was very insensitive to shock or friction and was used as a bursting charge in armor-piercing shells. Because Explosive D would not detonate on impact, it was detonated by a fuse after the shell casing had burst open.
Plastic Bonded Explosives (PBX) are polymer-bonded explosive materials in which particles of explosive are set into a matrix of synthetic polymers (plastics). Polymer-bonded explosives have several potential advantages:
The rubbery material matrix of PBX explosives makes them very insensitive to accidental detonation due to impact or shock.
Various types of polymers that create a harder surface can allow PBX to be rigid and shaped to exact engineering standards, even when under severe stress.
In the PBX form, the explosive can be cast as a liquid at room temperature, making it far safer than casting the explosive without the plastic bonding.
Some examples of PBX materials:
Name Explosive
Ingredients Binder
Ingredients
Usage
EDC-37
HMX/NC 91%
Polyurethane rubber 9%
LX-04-1
HMX 85%
Viton-A 15%
LX-07-2
HMX 90%
Viton-A 10%
LX-09-0
HMX 93%
BDNPA 4.6%; FEFO 2.4%
LX-09-1
HMX 93.3%
BDNPA 4.4%; FEFO 2.3%
LX-10-0
HMX 95%
Viton-A 5%
LX-10-1
HMX 94.5%
Viton-A 5.5%
LX-11-0
HMX 80%
Viton-A 20%
LX-14-0
HMX 95.5%
Estane & 5702-Fl 4.5%
LX-15
HNIS 95%
Kel-F 800 5%
LX-16
PETN 96%
FPC461 6%
LX-17-0
TATB 92.5%
Kel-F 800 7.5%
PBX 9007
RDX 90%
Polystyrene 9.1%; DOP 0.5%; rosin 0.4%
PBX 9010
RDX 90%
Kel-F 3700 10%
PBX 9011
HMX 90%
Estane and 5703-Fl 10%
PBX 9205
RDX 92%
Polystyrene 6%; DOP 2%
PBX 9404
HMX 94%
NC 3%; CEF 3%
Nuclear Weapons
PBX 9407
RDX 94%
FPC461 6% PBX 9501
PBX 9501
HMX 95%
Estane 2.5%; BDNPA-F 2.5%
Nuclear Weapons
PBX 9502
TATB 95%
Kel-F 800 5%
Nuclear Weapons
PBX 9503
TATB 80%; HMX 15%
Kel-F 800 5%
PBX 9604
RDX 96%
Kel-F 800 4%
PBXN-106
RDX
Polyurethane rubber
Naval Shells
PBXN-3
RDX 85% Nylon 15%
AIM9-X
Sidewinder Missile
PBXN-5
95% HMX 5%
Fluoroelastomer
Naval Shells
X-0242
HMX 92%
Polymer 8%
TATP (triacetone triperoxide) is a peroxide-based explosive used extensively by terrorists. It is easy to manufacture at room temperature and explodes with a force 80% greater than TNT. It is highly unstable and dangerous to produce. Unlike most explosives, it is formed without a nitrogen base, making it very difficult to detect with ordinary detection equipment (see PET in the Glossary of Explosives). When it does detonate, each of its molecules breaks into four molecules of gas, but at the density of a solid. The resulting sudden expansion creates pressure 200 times greater than the surrounding air.
Thermite is a mixture of three parts iron oxide and two parts aluminum powder by volume that, when ignited, creates very high heat in a local area. It does not explode, but it is so hot that it can selectively melt or weld metal. Although it requires a high temperature to cause ignition, once started it will burn even in cold and windy weather. The result of the reaction is molten iron and aluminum oxide.
Napalm is a liquid fuel that is gelled by the addition of soap powder or other ingredients and is considered an incendiary weapon. It can be initiated using direct application of flame or by delayed ignition systems. It was widely used in Vietnam to burn structures, to clear out forests, and on people.
Gasoline is often mixed with different ingredients to create a gelatinous incendiary. Some combinations include:
Lauryl amine (55), toluene diisocyanate (27)
Coco amine (55), toluene diisocyanate (27)
Lauryl amine (57), hexamethylene diisocyanate (25)
Oleyl amine (59), hexamethylene diisocyanate (23)
t-Octyl amine (51), toluene diisocyanate (31)
Coco amine (51), naphthyl isocyanate (31)
Delta-aminobutylmethyldiethorxysilane (51), hexamethylene diisocyanate (31)
Paraffin-sawdust mixture is used as an incendiary to burn buildings and can be ignited using a flame or delayed ignition system. It burns slowly at first, but within a few minutes can produce a strong effect. Beeswax can be substituted for paraffin wax.
Our lawmakers have determined that some substances are too dangerous to be used freely and without oversight, so they’ve created lists of substances that must be regulated. We found the list of regulated substances for the state of Colorado, which is probably typical of most states in the U.S.
Note
The purpose of the following lists of dangerous substances is to give you some idea of what’s out there. If you are interested in populating your games with any of the substances listed in this chapter, be sure to look them up in a reliable source to understand what they do and how they can be used. We love good explosions and ways to do damage, so here are some items that might inspire you to do more and to do it with a full arsenal of options.
(I) “Explosive or incendiary device” means:
(A) Dynamite and all other forms of high explosives, including, but not limited to, water gel, slurry, military C-4 (plastic explosives), blasting agents to include nitro-carbon-nitrate, and ammonium nitrate and fuel oil mixtures, cast primers and boosters, R.D.X., P.E.T.N., electric and nonelectric blasting caps, exploding cords commonly called detonating cord or det-cord or primacord, picric acid explosives, T.N.T. and T.N.T. mixtures, and nitroglycerin and nitroglycerin mixtures;
(B) Any explosive bomb, grenade, missile, or similar device; and
(C) Any incendiary bomb or grenade, fire bomb, or similar device, including any device, except kerosene lamps, which consists of or includes a breakable container including a flammable liquid or compound and a wick composed of any material which, when ignited, is capable of igniting such flammable liquid or compound and can be carried or thrown by one individual acting alone.
(II) “Explosive or incendiary device” shall not include rifle, pistol, or shotgun ammunition, or the components for handloading rifle, pistol, or shotgun ammunition.
(b) (I) “Explosive or incendiary parts” means any substances or materials or combinations thereof which have been prepared or altered for use in the creation of an explosive or incendiary device. Such substances or materials may include, but shall not be limited to, any:
(A) Timing device, clock, or watch which has been altered in such a manner as to be used as the arming device in an explosive;
(B) Pipe, end caps, or metal tubing which has been prepared for a pipe bomb;
(C) Mechanical timers, mechanical triggers, chemical time delays, electronic time delays, or commercially made or improvised items which, when used singly or in combination, may be used in the construction of a timing delay mechanism, booby trap, or activating mechanism for any explosive or incendiary device.
(II) “Explosive or incendiary parts” shall not include rifle, pistol, or shotgun ammunition, or the components for handloading rifle, pistol, or shotgun ammunition, or any signaling device customarily used in operation of railroad equipment.
Here’s a handy-dandy list of military stuff that blows up.
Acid, Picric (Trinitrophenol)
Adhesives (ELBA Solution)
Akardite II (Methyl Diphenylurea)
Aluminum Oxide
Aluminum Powder, Flake, Grained, and Atomized
Aluminum Powder, Spherical
Aluminum Stearate
Aminoguadine Bicarbonate, Aminate
Ammonium Dichromate
Ammonium Nitrate
Ammonium Oxalate
Ammonium Oxalate
Ammonium Perchlorate, Conditioned
Ammonium Perchlorate, High Purity
Ammonium Perchlorate, Solid Propellant
Ammonium Perchlorate, Special
Ammonium Perchlorate, Tech.
Ammonium Picrate
Antimony Powdered, Tech.
Antimony Sulphide (Pigment)
Antimony Sulphide
Antimony Trioxide
Asphaltum (Gilsonite)
Barium Chromate
Barium Nitrate
Barium Oxalate
Barium Peroxide
Barium Stearate
Boron Amorphous, Powder
Boron Potassium Nitrate, Pellets
Butyl Sebacate, Di Normal
Butyl Stearate, Normal
Calcium Carbonate
Calcium Hydride Charges
Calcium Oxalate
Calcium Phosphate, Tribasic
Calcium Resinate
Calcium Silicide, Tech.
Calcium Silicate
Calcium Stearate
Carbazole
Carbon Activated
Carbon Black
Carbon Black
Carbon, Technical (Carbon Black)
Cellulose Acetate, Plasticized
Cellulose, Cotton
Composition, A-3 and A-4
Composition, B
Riot Control Agent, CS
Riot Control Agent, CR
Composition, Delay
Copper Monobasic Salicylate
Chemical Agent CS1
Chemical Agent CS
Cupric Oxide
Curing Agents (Dimeryi-Di-Isocyanate Isophorane-Di-Isocyanate)
Delay Element, M2
Di-(2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate, Technical
Dioctyl Adipate
Di-N-Propyl Adipate
Dinitrotoluene 2,4
Di-(2-Ethyl Hexyl) Adipate
Dye, Benzanthrone
Dye 1,4-Diamino
1,3-Dihydroanthraquinone
Dye, Disperse Red 9
Dye Mix, Disperse Red 9 Dextrin
Dye Mix, Green Smoke IV
Dye Mix, Green Smoke VIl (metric)
Dye Mix, Violet
Dye Mix, Yellow Smoke VI
Dye, Solvent Green 3
Dye, Solvent Yellow 33 (metric)
Dye Vat Yellow 4
Emulsion, Polyethylene
Ether, Diethyl, Tech.
Ethyl Alcohol
Ethyl Cellulose, Plastic Molding/Extrusion Material
Ethyl Cellulose, Tape Inhibiting
Ethyl Centralite (Carbamite)
Ferric Chloride
Ferric Oxide, Tech.
Graphite Dry
Guanidine Nitrate
Hexachloroethane
HMX
HMX Resin, Explosive
Hydroxyl Terminated Polybutadiene
Iron Oxide Black, Tech.
Iron Oxide, Ferric, Red Dry
Lactose, Tech.
Lead Azide RD-1333
Lead Beta Resorcylate
Lead Chromate
Lead Dioxide, Tech.
Lead 2-Ethyl Hexoate
Lead Nitrate, Tech.
Lead Salicylate
Lead Stearate
Lead Styphnate, Basic
Lead Thiocyanate
Magnesium Aluminum Alloy
Magnesium Carbonate
Magnesium Oxide, Tech.
Magnesium Powder
Magnesium Stearate
Manganese Delay Composition
Manganese Powder
Manganese Dioxide, Tech.
MAPO [Tris-1-(2-Methyl Azirdinyl) Phosphine Oxide]
Methyl Centralite
Methyl Chloride
Methyl Diphenylurea [Akardite II]
Molybedenum Disulphide, Tech., Lubrication Grade
Molybedenum Trioxide
Nitrocellulose
Nitrodiphenylamine
Nitroguanadine [Picrite]
Oxamide
Oxamide
Pentaerythrite Tetranitrate (PETN)
Phosphorous, Red Oiled Tech.
Phosphorous, Red Stabilized
Phosphorous, Red, Tech.
Phosphorous, White
Polyvinyl Chloride
Potassium Chlorate
Potassium Nitrate
Potassium Perchlorate
Potassium Picrate
Potassium Sulphate
Powders, Ignition, Gasless, A-1A
Powders, Metal Atomized
Propellant, Double-Base Sheet, Type N-5
RDX
Resorcinol
Silica
Silicon Powder
Sodium Azide, Tech. (Metric)
Sodium Bicarbonate
Sodium Carbonate
Sodium Chromate
Sodium Fluorescien
Sodium Hexametaphosphate
Sodium Hydroxide
Sodium Hypochlorite Solution
Sodium Metasilicate, Tech.
Sodium Nitrate
Sodium Nitrate
Sodium Nitrite, Tech
Sodium Phosphate
Sodium Sulphate
Stearic Acid, Tech.
Strontium Nitrate
Strontium Oxalate
Strontium Peroxide
Sulphur
Tetracene
Tetranitrocarbazole
Titanium Dioxide Dry
Titanium, Technical Powder
Tolylene, 2-4, Diisocyanate
Triacetin (Glyceryl Triacetate)
Trinitrotoluene (TNT)
Triphenyl Bismuth
Tris-1(2-Methyl Aziridinyl) Phosphine Oxide [MAPO]
Tungsten Carbide
Tungsten Delay Composition
Tungsten Powder
Tungsten Powder
Varnish, Phenol-Formaldehyde, Clear and Aluminum Pigmented
Vinyl Alcohol-Acetate Resin Solution [VAAR]
Zinc Carbonate
Zinc Dust
Zinc Oxide, Tech.
Zirconium, Granular and Powdered
Zirconium Nickel Alloy
Zirconium Hydride
Here’s the official U.S. list of things that blow up. Now you don’t just have to make things explode in your games, but you can actually choose the substance you like. Look them up and see what pretty colors or devastating effects they have, then let your players use them to create all kinds of realistic mayhem.
Acid, Picric (Trinitrophenol)
Adhesives (ELBA Solution)
Akardite II (Methyl Diphenylurea)
Aluminum Oxide
Aluminum Powder, Flake, Grained and Atomized
Aluminum Powder, Spherical
Aluminum Stearate
Aminoguadine Bicarbonate, Aminate
Ammonium Dichromate
Ammonium Nitrate
Ammonium Oxalate
Ammonium Oxalate
Ammonium Perchlorate, Conditioned
Ammonium Perchlorate, High Purity
Ammonium Perchlorate, Solid Propellant
Ammonium Perchlorate, Special
Ammonium Perchlorate, Tech.
Ammonium Picrate
Antimony Powdered, Tech.
Antimony Sulphide (Pigment)
Antimony Sulphide
Antimony Trioxide
Asphaltum (Gilsonite)
Barium Chromate
Barium Nitrate
Barium Oxalate
Barium Peroxide
Barium Stearate
Boron Amorphous, Powder
Boron Potassium Nitrate, Pellets
Butyl Sebacate, Di Normal
Butyl Stearate, Normal
Calcium Carbonate
Calcium Hydride Charges
Calcium Oxalate
Calcium Phosphate, Tribasic
Calcium Resinate
Calcium Silicide, Tech.
Calcium Silicate
Calcium Stearate
Carbazole
Carbon Activated
Carbon Black
Carbon Black
Carbon, Technical (Carbon Black)
Cellulose Acetate, Plasticized
Cellulose, Cotton
Composition, A-3 and A-4
Composition, B
Riot Control Agent, CS
Riot Control Agent, CR
Composition, Delay
Copper Monobasic Salicylate
Chemical Agent CS1
Chemical Agent CS
Cupric Oxide
Curing Agents (Dimeryi-Di-Isocyanate Isophorane-Di-Isocyanate)
Delay Element, M2
Di-(2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate, Tech.
Dioctyl Adipate
Di-N-Propyl Adipate
Dinitrotoluene 2,4
Di-(2-Ethyl Hexyl) Adipate
Dye, Benzanthrone
Dye 1,4-Diamino
1,3-Dihydroanthraquinone
Dye, Disperse Red 9
Dye Mix, Disperse Red 9 Dextrin
Dye Mix, Green Smoke IV
Dye Mix, Green Smoke VIl (metric)
Dye Mix, Violet
Dye Mix, Yellow Smoke VI
Dye, Solvent Green 3
Dye, Solvent Yellow 33 (metric)
Dye Vat Yellow 4
Emulsion, Polyethylene
Ether, Diethyl, Tech.
Ethyl Alcohol
Ethyl Cellulose, Plastic Molding/Extrusion Material
Ethyl Cellulose, Tape Inhibiting
Ethyl Centralite (Carbamite)
Ferric Chloride
Ferric Oxide, Tech.
Graphite Dry
Guanidine Nitrate
Hexachloroethane
HMX
HMX Resin, Explosive
Hydroxyl Terminated Polybutadiene
Iron Oxide Black, Tech.
Iron Oxide, Ferric, Red Dry
Lactose, Tech.
Lead Azide RD-1333
Lead Beta Resorcylate
Lead Chromate
Lead Dioxide, Tech.
Lead 2-Ethyl Hexoate
Lead Nitrate, Tech.
Lead Salicylate
Lead Stearate
Lead Styphnate, Basic
Lead Thiocyanate
Magnesium Aluminum Alloy
Magnesium Carbonate
Magnesium Oxide, Tech.
Magnesium Powder
Magnesium Stearate
Manganese Delay Composition
Manganese Powder
Manganese Dioxide, Tech.
MAPO [Tris-1-(2-Methyl Azirdinyl) Phosphine Oxide]
Methyl Centralite
Methyl Chloride
Methyl Diphenylurea [Akardite II]
Molybedenum Disulphide, Tech., Lubrication Grade
Molybedenum Trioxide
Nitrocellulose
Nitroguanadine [Picrite]
Oxamide
Oxamide
Pentaerythrite Tetranitrate (PETN)
Phosphorous, Red Oiled Tech.
Phosphorous, Red Stabilized
Phosphorous, Red, Tech.
Phosphorous, White
Polyisobutylene
Polyvinyl Chloride
Potassium Chlorate
Potassium Nitrate
Potassium Perchlorate
Potassium Picrate
Potassium Sulphate
Powders, Ignition, Gasless, A-1A
Powders, Metal Atomized
Propellant, Double-Base Sheet, Type N-5
RDX
Resorcinol
Silica
Silicon Powder
Sodium Azide, Tech. (Metric)
Sodium Bicarbonate
Sodium Carbonate
Sodium Chromate
Sodium Fluorescien
Sodium Hexametaphosphate
Sodium Hydroxide
Sodium Hypochlorite Solution
Sodium Metasilicate, Tech.
Sodium Nitrate
Sodium Nitrate
Sodium Nitrite, Tech.
Sodium Phosphate
Sodium Sulphate
Stearic Acid, Tech.
Strontium Nitrate
Strontium Oxalate
Strontium Peroxide
Sulphur
Tetracene
Tetranitrocarbazole
Titanium Dioxide Dry
Titanium, Technical Powder
Tolylene, 2-4, Diisocyanate
Triacetin (Glyceryl Triacetate)
Trinitrotoluene (TNT)
Triphenyl Bismuth
Tris-1(2-Methyl Aziridinyl) Phosphine Oxide [MAPO]
Tungsten Carbide
Tungsten Delay Composition
Tungsten Powder
Tungsten Powder
Varnish, Phenol-Formaldehyde, Clear and Aluminum Pigmented
Vinyl Alcohol-Acetate Resin Solution [VAAR]
Zinc Carbonate
Zinc Dust
Zinc Oxide, Tech.
Zirconium, Granular and Powdered
Zirconium Nickel Alloy
Zirconium Hydride
Blasting Agent. An explosive material used for blasting. It should not be otherwise defined as an explosive and should not be easily detonated in an unconfined state.
Blasting Cap. A metallic tube closed at one end, containing a charge of one or more detonating compounds and designed to initiate detonation.
Booster. An explosive used to initiate detonation in a less sensitive explosive material—generally a high explosive—or for intensifying the explosion.
Brisance. A way to measure the velocity and power of a shockwave produced in an explosion.
Bulk Mix. Bulk, unpackaged quantity of explosive material.
Commercial Explosives. Explosives used for commercial, rather than military, purposes.
Common Chemicals. Chemicals used in a mixture that are necessary for it to be explosive or any material used as an oxidizer or as a fuel source.
Critical Mass. In pyrotechnics, this refers to an approximation of the mass of a composition that will explode when unconfined. This can vary with factors such as air pressure, purity of the composition, and the source of ignition.
Deflagration. The rapid burning of a flammable substance, which may or may not result in an explosion. Common with low explosives, such as black powder.
Detection Taggant. A material such as DNMB (2,3-Dimethyl–2,3-dinitrobutane) or ICPM added to an explosive material that makes it easier to detect, such as additives to plastic explosives that make them easier to spot using available detection equipment. Some detection taggants also have identification abilities so that they can be used both before and after detonation for detection purposes. See also Identification Taggants.
Detonation. An explosive reaction that consists of the propagation of a shockwave through the explosive accompanied by a chemical reaction that furnishes energy to sustain the shock propagation in a stable manner, with gaseous formation and pressure expansion following shortly thereafter.
Detonation Velocity. The rate at which the detonation wave travels through a column of explosives.
Detonator. A device used to initiate an explosion using a primary explosive. Detonators are either instantaneous or delay charges, including electric blasting caps of either type, blasting caps using fuses, detonating cord, shock tube, and other detonator types.
Detonator Cord. A flexible cord that has a high explosive core and is used to initiate detonation of other explosives.
Electric Match. An electrical device used to ignite a fuse or explosive using electrical current. In the pyrotechnic world, they are called squibs.
Emulsion. A material composed of substances that, like oil and water, will not mix (immiscible). Explosive emulsions consist of oxidizers dissolved in water and surrounded by a fuel that will not mix with the water.
Explosive. A chemical or nuclear a material that, when detonated by various means, such as heat, shock, electrical impulse, or chemical or nuclear reaction, rapidly expands in a self-propagating decomposition, the result of which is the production of heat, gasses, and possible shock waves as a result.
Explotracer Taggant. A substance used to trace the source of an explosive after detonation. It uses special granules dyed with fluorescent pigments and specific rare earths for further specific identification. Similar tracers include Microtrace and HF6.
Federal Dealer. Someone who wholesales or retails explosives legally.
Federal License. A legal license to manufacture import, buy or sell, or transport explosive material, either within the country or internationally.
Filler. The substance that forms the basis of an improvised explosive device, which is combined with some type of initiation system.
Fuel. A material that reacts with oxygen either in the air or as produced by an oxidizer as part of an explosive reaction.
High Explosive (HE). Explosive that can explode even when unconfined and generates a very high rate of reaction, high pressure, and a detonation wave (faster than sound).
Identification Taggants. Markers added to explosive materials used to trace the exact source of the explosive after detonation, including the manufacturer, the date, and the shift at which it was produced.
Importer. Anyone importing explosives into the United States for sale or distribution.
Isotag. A way of tagging explosives by creating unique isotopes of some of the ingredients. These isotopes will have specific unique numbers of neutrons—more or fewer than normal—and the residue of an explosive can be analyzed by sophisticated equipment to determine the source of the explosive.
Licensee. Someone licensed to manufacture, distribute, buy or sell, or import/export explosives.
Low Explosive (LE). A material that does not detonate under most conditions but will burn or “deflagrate” when ignited.
Metric Ton. A measurement sometimes applied to explosives—2,204.6 pounds or 1,000 kilograms.
Microsphere. A tiny (37-840 microns) ball of solid glass used as a holder for chemical tags used in identifying explosives.
Microtaggant. First developed by the 3M Company, used in identifying explosives with a color-coded polymer microchip. The chip consists of 10 layers, including a magnetic layer and one that is coded with fluorescent material.
Nitrogen. One of the primary ingredients of most high explosives. Others include phosphorus and potassium.
Oxidizer. A material that will readily yield oxygen or that produces other oxidizing materials in the combustion of organic matter or fuels. A common example is nitrate.
Permit. Required for the purchase of explosives for use or transport.
PET (Peroxide Explosive Tester). A device that can detect peroxide-based explosives (TATP) favored by terrorists.
PETN. Pentaerythritol tetranitrate, used primarily in detonation cord with a detonation velocity of 21,000 feet per second, making it nearly as powerful as nitroglycerin or RDX. It is stable and safe for transportation when combined into detonation cord.
Photoflash Powder. Explosive used to create a loud sound and bright flash when ignited. Often contains potassium perchlorate or antimony sulfide combined with powdered aluminum.
Precursor Chemicals. A substance (element or chemical compound) that can be further refined through chemical reactions into an explosive compound.
Pyrotechnic. Specifically, a substance that produces a bright light and possibly a loud sound when ignited.
Reworked Explosive. Recyclable part of the explosives manufacturing process that is either residue or below standards.
Sensitivity. The common description for the ease with which a material can be ignited or detonated.
Slurry. See Water Gel.
Smokeless Powder. Mostly gelatinized cellulose nitrate compounds that are used as propellants and produce relatively low smoke output.
Taggant. A substance used to identify an explosive material, either before use or after detonation. Taggants are also called markers or tracer elements.
TATP. A peroxide-based explosive used extensively by terrorists.
Ton. A non-metric ton is 2,000 pounds or .907 metric tons.
Tracer Element. An identifier for explosives. See also Taggant.
Water Gel. Explosive materials containing substantial amounts of water and high proportions of ammonium nitrate, some of which is in water solution. May be a high explosive or a blasting agent depending on sensitizing materials used. May be loaded in bulk or tube-type cartridges.
The natural segue from the discussion of siege equipment and cannons at the end of Chapter 33 and a natural direction to take the discussion of modern weapons is the category of modern artillery. I’ll begin by discussing the evolution of artillery from muzzle-loading cannons to modern breech-loading guns with advanced and sophisticated types of ammunition.
Early cannons had a lot in common with early handguns. They were both primarily smoothbore muzzle loaders. In the mid-1800s, the changes that occurred in handguns were paralleled by identical changes in artillery. For instance, new ammunition was being developed that carried the powder charge in a bag attached to the projectile. Since cannons did not have firing pins, the firing of such early fixed ammunition was somewhat complex. First, the bag was pierced by an ice pick–like device inserted through the vent. Next, a priming device was inserted down the vent and attached to a lanyard. A pull on the lanyard ignited the primer in the device, which in turn lit the powder and fired the gun.
Another type of mid-19th century shell was made to explode, either in the air or upon impact. These explosive shells were still crude by comparison with later armaments, but they did do away with having to light a fuse before loading the cannon.
At the same time that rifled barrels were becoming standard on handguns, the same was rapidly becoming true with artillery. Rifled barrels could effectively increase the weight of the shells fired from the same caliber and the range of equivalent smoothbore guns. In addition, the stabilizing effect of the rifled barrel allowed for more reliable explosive shells with front-mounted percussion firing mechanisms that could just about be guaranteed to hit nose first. Two main types of early shells for rifled barrels included the parrot, which had a soft metal cup in the base that was forced into the grooves of the rifling, and the studded shell, which had projecting “studs” that matched the rifling.
As it was with handguns, there were breech-loading cannons as early as the 15th century, but with the technology of the day, it was far more practical to design and build muzzle loaders. That all changed in the middle of the 19th century. With the development of self-contained shells and the practical application of rifled barrels, breech-loading guns became both more feasible and significantly more desirable, in part because it was much harder develop ammunition for muzzle-loading rifled artillery (as seen with the parrot and studded shells). Breech loaders were generally advantageous anyway, in that they could be loaded more quickly and more easily than muzzle loaders and, with the increasing use of rifled barrels, they could achieve a tighter fit and therefore more power and distance, and they could fire a heavier shell. Increases in caliber also have added significantly to the weight of a shell. A 100-percent increase in the caliber with a proportionate increase in the length of the shell works out to about a 700-percent increase in weight.
One necessary challenge that had to be met was how to seal the breech from the terrific force of the explosion. Two main methods were developed:
The Quick Firing (QF) method uses a brass casing that expands into the breech, much the way a rifle cartridge does, and prevents any gasses from escaping out the back.
The De Bange system can fire without a cartridge case. It uses a piston-like assembly with a mushroom-shaped end. A soft obturator ring compresses and completely seals the barrel as the piston is driven back by the force of the blast.
Each of these breech-sealing methods uses a different style of shell:
Fixed ammunition is essentially like a bullet but much larger. It is a self-contained unit with a brass cartridge case that carries the propellant charge, the primer, and a payload of whatever kind is being used.
Semi-fixed ammunition still uses a brass cartridge, but it is separate from the shell to be fired. This has the advantage of allowing a different strength of charge to be used to adjust for trajectory and range, if required.
Separate loading systems, used with the De Bange breech-lock systems, use a bag that contains the primer, charge, and a separate shell. Like the semi-fixed ammunition, this type allows adjustment of the charge to compensate for range and trajectory changes.
This section contains information about artillery ammunition used since WWI. It also includes some newer missile technologies that are currently being used in what are traditionally artillery situations.
Modern artillery shells are used for several purposes and use different types of triggering systems, or fuzes. There are several types of fuzes, including:
Time. The shell is fired and explodes according to a set timer.
Time and Impact. The shell will explode according to a set timer, but also upon impact, whichever comes first.
Proximity. The shell uses radio waves to detect when it is near its target and explodes at a set distance.
Instantaneous Impact. The shell explodes immediately upon hitting the target.
Delayed Impact. The shell explodes moments after hitting the target, allowing the maximum penetration before explosion.
Note
Shell caliber is measured by the width of the bore of the gun. Sometimes the length of the barrel is measured in terms of the weapon’s caliber—so many calibers. For instance, an 8-inch caliber gun with an 80-inch barrel might be described as 8in of 10 calibers.
Modern artillery is used in anti-personnel, anti-structure, anti-armor, or anti-aircraft applications, and a variety of different types of shells are used, based on the application required:
Shrapnel. Used early in WWI to deliver deadly fragments over a wide area, it operated off a time fuze.
High Explosive (HE). Probably the most common type of shell, the HE explodes and scatters fragments of its casing, which generally do most of the damage. The fuzes on such weapons can be set to explode in the air, spreading maximum fragments; on hitting the target; in the ground, which minimizes fragmentation but can create a strong shockwave in the ground itself; or into underground or covered installations.
Armor-Piercing (AP). The pure AP shell is not very common today, but it was once a standard type of shell made with an extra-strong case and a shaped nose designed to penetrate armor. It was especially useful against naval targets. Some had a small bursting charge while others had none at all.
Armor-Piercing, Discarding Sabot (APDS). A variant of the AP shell that was smaller than the caliber of the gun. It was carried in a light alloy sabot that would drop off after the shell emerged from the muzzle. This sub-caliber shell would then be able to attain much higher velocity and penetrate more effectively against its target. Typical shells were made of tungsten for density and increased penetration. A variation of this type of shell uses fins for stabilization and is constructed very long and thin for maximum penetration. Once a shell gets more than approximately 10 times longer than its width, it becomes unstable in flight, even with the spin applied from a rifled barrel. With the addition of fins, this type of shell looks a lot like a large metal arrow. This type can also be made of tungsten, but the most effective models are made from depleted uranium, which is 70-percent denser than lead. In addition, depleted uranium melts and burns as it penetrates steel, making it sharper rather than duller, and when it hits air on the other side of the armor, it bursts into a white-hot fireball, showering particles of molten shrapnel.
Note
Shaped Charges. One of the most significant technologies used in anti-tank weaponry of the past 50 years is the shaped charge. The way this works is to have a shell with a high explosive contained in the body with what is called a distance tube on the leading edge. When the distance tube hits the target, it ignites the high explosive, which then funnels all its energy in a narrow jet of hot gas, burning through the armor plate and forcing hot metal and gas, along with blinding light, into the interior of the tank in what are called after-armor effects, otherwise known as spalling. This can kill the crew or ignite their ammunition.
Note
Spalling. This term originally described the flaking of concrete or masonry, where outer layers of a structure may separate and parts break off. The military use of it, with regard to anti-tank warfare, means the breaking or flaking of interior metal from the armor, which is caused by the explosion against the surface of the tank by a HEAT, HESH, or HEP type of artillery shell or other similar weapon. The result is a lot of high-speed debris flying around in a small space. Bad for equipment, worse for occupants.
High Explosive, Anti-Tank (HEAT, which stands for High Energy/Explosive Anti-Tank). Developed during WWII, the shaped charge is devastating against conventionally armored tanks. It uses the principle of the shaped charge to blast through tank walls and kill the occupants, possibly igniting any unused ordnance. HEAT charges are made with long, thin nose probes that are used to ignite the charge at the optimal distance from the tank’s armor and to funnel the force of the explosion into the tank’s walls. Although HEAT shells are highly effective against conventional tank armor, they have been defeated by the development of new kinds of armor, such as reactive and composite armor. (See the “Modern Armor” section for more.)
High Explosive, Squash Head (HESH) or High Explosive, Plastic (HEP). These are anti-tank shells developed after the HEAT shell. They feature a very thick case that usually contains a charge of plastic explosive. When the shell hits a tank, it flattens against the armor plate, then detonates. This causes a considerable compressive shock that reflects off the interface of air and metal inside the tank. The result is that it spalls a “scab” of metal off the inside and propels it into the tank’s interior. This type of shell is defeated by spaced armor. It is also the most effective shell used for demolishing structures of brick or concrete.
MCLOS. Manual Command to Line-of-Sight missiles are guided to the target by hand-operated guidance systems in which the operator must track both the target and the missile.
SACLOS. Semiautomatic Command to Line-of-Sight missiles have automatic systems that correct the missile’s flight to target. Two primary methods are used. With radio link and wire-guided SACLOS missiles, the instructions are relayed from a sighting device, which sends correction information to the missile. Radio linking can be jammed, however, and wire guidance is limited to the length of the wire. The second type of guidance system is called the Beam-Riding SACLOS. It uses a sighting device that emits a signal directing the missile, which has sensors either in the back, to receive signals from the sighting device, or in the nose, to receive signals reflected by the sighting device from the target. This system was used commonly in anti-aircraft roles and used radar to send the beam. Another method being employed now uses a laser directed by the operator onto the target. The missile has a sensor that can detect the laser’s signature and guide the missile. Examples: Wire-guided MILAN; radio-guided ASM-N-2 Bat; laser beam riding Kornet.
Artillery-Delivered Mines. Shells that will scatter landmines across a remote area. Instant minefield.
Chemical Shells. These use a small explosive charge to disperse a chemical compound. The compounds used will vary, and most of them have been banned by treaties—which doesn’t mean they don’t exist and might not be used.
AGM-84D Harpoon. U.S. air-to-surface turbojet missile weighs 1,145 pounds. Range is “over the horizon,” uses sea-skimming cruise monitored by radar altimeter; active radar terminal homing.
AGM-86B/C. U.S. air-launched cruise missiles powered by turbofan jets. Weighs 3,150 pounds. Approximate ranges: AGM-86B: 1,500-plus miles; AGM-86C: 600 nautical miles. Guidance systems: AGM-86B, Litton inertial navigation element with terrain contour-matching updates; AGM 86C, Litton INS element integrated with multi-channel onboard GPS.
Shells that are not designed for lethal purposes may still ignite unintentional fires, and, of course, anyone hit by the spent carrier would, in all likelihood, sustain serious injury or die.
Smoke. Used to create a smokescreen, these usually use white phosphorus, although there are variants that carry and distribute smoke grenades.
Illumination. Used to release a pyrotechnic flare, which may emit white, colored, or even infrared light. It is released at a planned altitude and slowly drifts to the ground on a heat-resistant parachute.
Carrier. Used to distribute items from a container. Often, these shells carry and release propaganda leaflets, but other items may be distributed via these shells. For instance, the weapons that deliver smoke grenades as well as the landmines of the artillery-delivered mine shell could be considered carrier shells.
Many anti-tank and air-to-air weapons employ rocket-powered ammunition. Here are some of the main types in use. These are man-portable or vehicle-mounted systems. For other types of missiles, see the “Modern Rockets and Missiles” section.
Tow. U.S. two-stage anti-tank missile that weighs 40 pounds and has a range of 3,280 yards, vehicle or tube fired. Uses SACLOS guidance system.
Harpon. Two-stage French anti-tank missile that weighs 67 pounds and has a range of 3,280 yards, guide rail or vehicle launched. Uses SACLOS guidance system.
Mamba. West German anti-tank missile that weighs 24.7 pounds and has a range of 2,188 yards. Uses MCLOS guidance system.
Cobra 2000. West German anti-tank missile, single stage plus booster, that weighs 227 pounds and has a range of 2,188 yards. Uses MCLOS guidance system.
Snapper. Soviet anti-tank missile that weighs 49 pounds and has a range of 2,950 yards, guide rail or vehicle launched. Uses MCLOS guidance system.
Milan. French/West German two-stage anti-tank missile that weighs 14.66 pounds and has a range of 2,188 yards, tube fired. Uses SACLOS guidance system.
Swingfire. British wire-guided anti-tank missile with a range of 4,376 yards, fired from container or vehicle. Uses MCLOS guidance system.
Sagger. Soviet anti-tank missile that weighs 24.9 pounds and has a range of 3,280 yards, guide rail, vehicle or man-carried launchers. Uses MCLOS guidance system.
Sparviero. Three-stage (launcher, booster, and sustainer) Italian anti-tank missile that weighs 36.4 pounds and has a range of 3,280 yards, fired from tripod or vehicle. Uses SACLOS guidance system. Uses MCLOS guidance system.
Hellfire. U.S. anti-tank missile that weighs 94.79 pounds and had a range of 5,470 yards, fired from helicopters or other air platforms. Uses terminal laser guidance system.
Grail (SA-7). Soviet anti-air missile that weighs 33 pounds and has a range of 6.2 miles. Uses infrared homing guidance.
Blowpipe. British anti-air missile that weighs 28 pounds. Uses radio command and optical tracking.
RBS 70. Swedish anti-air missile that weighs 44 pounds and has a range of 3 miles. Uses laser beam-riding guidance.
Stinger. U.S. anti-air missile that weighs 34.5 pounds with a 1- to 8-km range. Uses passive infrared or ultraviolet homing guidance.
Phoenix (AIM-54A). U.S. air-to-air missile that weighs 985 pounds with a range of 126.7 miles, inertial, semi-active, and active radar/terminal guided.
Aspide. Italian air-to-air missile weighs 486 pounds with a range of 50 miles, semi-active radar.
Saab 372. Swedish missile that weighs 242 pounds, with infrared homing.
R-40R/T (AA-6A/B Acrid). Russian air-to-air missile that weighs 475 kg with a range of 30 km (R-40) or 50 km (R40TD and R-40RD), with command, inertial, and semi-active radar guidance (on R-40T).
Magic R.550. French air-to-air missile that weighs 198 pounds with a range of 31 miles, with infrared homing.
Magic 2 R.550 Mk2. French air-to-air missile that weighs 198 pounds with a range between 320 meters and 5400 meters, infrared.
SRAAM. British air-to-air missile with a range of 5 miles, with infrared homing.
AIM-9L/M Sidewinder. U.S. air-to-air missile that weighs 188 pounds with a range of about 6 miles, infrared homing.
AIM-120A AMRAAM (Advanced Medium Range Air-to-Air Missile). U.S. air-to-air missile that weighs 335.2 pounds with a range of 20+ miles (one source says 45 miles), inertial midcourse correctable, plus active radar.
AIM-7F/M Sparrow. U.S. air-to-air missile that weighs 503 pounds with a range of 58.8 miles, with inverse-monopulse semi-active radar.
Skyflash. British air-to-air missile weighs 425 pounds with a range of 28 miles, with monopulse semi-active radar.
AIM-132 ASRAAM. European air-to-air missile that weighs 220.5 pounds with a range from 300 meters to 15 km, with strapdown inertial plus imaging infrared.
MICA. French air-to-air missile that weighs 242.5 pounds with a range of 31.1 miles, with a combination of inertial, active, and semi-active radar, plus infrared on final approach.
Mistral (ATAM). French air-to-air missile that weighs 18 kg with a range of 5 km, infrared.
Matra. French air-to-air missile weighs 551.1 pounds with a range of 21.75 miles, semi-active radar.
Python 3. Israeli air-to-air missile that weighs 264.6 pounds with a range between .5 km to 15 km, infrared.
Python 4. Israeli air-to-air missile that weighs 264.6 pounds with a range between .5 km to 15 km, infrared.
R-60 (AA-8 Aphid). Russian air-to-air missile that weighs 65 kg with a range of between 3–10 km, infrared (all aspect).
R-33E (AA-9 Amos). Russian air-to-air missile that weighs 490 kg with a range of 160 km, inertial with command updates and semi-active radar.
R-27R/T (Aa-10 Alamo A/B/C/D). Russian air-to-air missile that weighs 253 kg (R-27R), 254 kg (R-27T), 350 kg (R-27RE), 343 kg (R-27TE) with a range of 80 km (R-27R), 70 km (R-27T), 130 km (R-27RE), 120 km (R-27TE), SARH (R-27R, R27E), all-aspect infrared (R-27T, R-27TE).
R-73 (AA-11 Archer). Russian air-to-air missile weighs 105 kg (R-73M1), 115 kg (R-73M2) with a range of 20 km (r-73M1), 30 km (R73M2), all-aspect infrared.
R-77 (AA-12 Adder). Russian air-to-air missile that weighs 175 kg with a range of 50, 90, and 150 km, with radio command with active radar at terminal phase (<20 km).
PL-7. Chinese air-to-air missile that weighs 196.25 pounds with a range from .5 to 14.4 km, all-aspect infrared.
PL-10. Chinese air-to-air missile with a range from .37 miles, with radar-guided semi-active terminal.
SRAM. U.S. nuclear air-to-surface missile that weighs 2,204 pounds and has a range of 100 miles, with a programmed inertial guidance system.
AGM-88 HARM “Anti-Radiation” Missile. U.S. air-to-surface missile that weighs 780.4 pounds and has a range of more than 30 miles, with a passive radiation guidance system. Specifically designed to attack enemy radar-equipped air defense systems.
Kormoran (AS.34). German air-to-surface missile that weighs 1,323 pounds and has a range of 23 miles, with inertial guidance and active terminal radar.
RB O 4E. Swedish air-to-surface missile that weighs 1,323 pounds and has a range of 20 miles, with active radar.
Maverick (AGM-65 various versions). U.S. air-to-surface missile. Weights: AGM-65B/H, 462 pounds; AGM-65D, 485 pounds; AGM-65E, 777 pounds; AGM-65F, 804 pounds; AGM-65G, 670 pounds; AGM-65K, 793 pounds. Range is classified—some versions are 30 miles. Guidance systems: AGM-65B/H/K, electro-optical television; AGM-65D/F/G, imaging infrared; AGM-65E, laser guided.
Sea Skua. British air-to-surface missile that weighs 496 pounds and has a range of 9.3+ miles, with semi-active radar.
AGM-130. U.S. air-to-surface missile that weighs 2,917 pounds (range classified), with TV/imaging infrared seeker “man-in-the-loop,” autonomous GPS/INS. (Cost per unit according to the U.S. Air Force is $450,000.)
At the beginning of the modern era of artillery, many cannons and howitzers were still hauled by teams of horses, but mechanization changed all that. The carriages used by mobile cannons also varied. Early ones had a trail that was used to haul and stabilize the gun. However, the single trail got in the way of the breech when aiming the cannon, so two new styles were developed—the box trail and the split trail, which were shaped pretty much the way they are described. Because these guns created a lot of recoil, they were often fitted with spades that would dig into the ground to prevent the gun from moving backward when fired. However, ultimately, recoil was further reduced by the development of a hydraulic inhibitor or brake. It worked by forcing a quantity of oil through a narrow opening. At the same time, the force of recoil was used to compress an air chamber, which, after firing, would push the assembly back to the firing position. The first gun to use this technology was the French M1897 75mm Field Gun, known as the Seventy Five.
Modern artillery comes in a great variety of sizes. For instance, field guns had to be light enough to be mobile and easily moved to new positions. Even so, field guns got bigger and bigger. Ultimately, some field guns became self-propelled—close relatives to tanks. In contrast, there were siege guns, which required a stable installation from which to operate, and guns designed specifically for coastal defense and fortress installations.
Here are a few examples that demonstrate the range of guns that were mobile enough to be deployed in the field.
Pack Artillery. Several small artillery units were designed to be transported by animals—particularly those units that would be used in mountains, jungles, and other terrain that was difficult to traverse with a heavy gun in tow. Some examples include:
British 10-pounder Mountain Gun. A 2.75-in caliber gun of the WWI era designed to be taken apart, with a barrel that would screw apart, gaining it the nickname screwgun. It had a range of 6,000 yards.
Japanese 70mm Type 92 Infantry Gun. A 2.75-in gun from the WWII era that could be taken apart and carried by men in the jungle. It fired a variety of shells, including HE, smoke, shrapnel, and armor-piercing.
U.S. 75mm M1A1 Pack Howitzer. A 2.95in-caliber gun with a range of 9,760 yards, used in WWII. Originally designed to be carried by pack mules, it was more commonly delivered to the battlefield by parachute or glider. It could fire fixed HEAT shells or semi-fixed HE shells.
Italian 105/14 Model 56 105mm Howitzer. Highly versatile field gun developed in the late 1950s that could be packed by 11 mules, aircraft, helicopters, parachutes, towing vehicles, or even, for short distances, by men. It could fire 4.13-in shells at a range of 11,564 yards—either fixed HEAT or semi-fixed HE shells.
15-Pounder BL Mk2. British field gun of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Fired a 3-in caliber shell up to 6,000 yards. It primarily was used for anti-personnel shrapnel shells.
French M1897 75mm Field Gun. The first of the modern artillery to include a hydraulic recoil absorber.
British 13-Pounder QF Horse Artillery Gun. A WWI-era field gun with a recoil system and QF breech sealing. It used 3-in caliber ammunition and had a range of 5,900 yards.
German 77mm QF. WWI field gun that fired a 3.03-in caliber shell up to 9,200 yards and used a breech assembly called a sliding wedge.
British 6-in Howitzer. A standard howitzer of WWI, said to have fired more than 22 million rounds from 1914 through 1918. It fired 6-in caliber ammunition up to a range of 9,500 yards.
French St. Chamond Tracked Mount. A WWI self-propelled gun that was transported by a tractor that carried a generator to power the electric motors of both the tractor and the gun trailer.
British 25-Pounder, Mk2. An elaborate WWII-era weapon that could serve as either a gun or a howitzer, based on the size of the charge. It was mounted on a circular platform, which allowed it to rotate quickly for aiming. It fired a 3.45-in caliber shell up to 13,400 yards.
German 10.5cm 1eFH18. WWII-era German field howitzer that fired a 4.13-in caliber shell up to 11,670 yards. It fired HE, HEAT, smoke, incendiary, illuminating, and even propaganda carrier shells.
U.S. 155mm M2. A WWII-era field gun, known as Long Tom for its long barrel. It shot a 6.1-in caliber shell up to 24,000 yards and could be loaded with HE, armor-piercing, and smoke shells. Shell weight: 95 pounds.
French 155mm MkF3. A self-propelled howitzer of the modern era. It required an eight-man crew, who rode in a separate vehicle. It fired 6.1-in caliber shells up to 21,000 yards. It could travel up to 27 mph. Its shells weighed about 94 pounds.
U.S. 8-in Howitzer. Two versions—M110 self-propelled (which weighs 58,000 pounds and can travel at up to 34 mph) and M115 towed. It fires 8in-caliber shells up to 18,370 yards and can use HE, HE spotting, rocket-assisted HE. and nuclear shells.
Soviet 76.2mm M1942. A 3-in caliber field gun with a range of 13,290 yards that can use HE, HEAT, armor-piercing HE, and High Velocity Armor Piercing Tracer (HVAPT) shells.
U.S. 155mm M109. A self-propelled medium howitzer with an enclosed turret, making it in essence a mini-tank. It can travel up to 34 mph and fires 6.1-in caliber shells with a range up to 15,970 yards. It can fire separate-loading HE, chemical, canister, and nuclear shells, weighing up to 95 pounds. One of the reasons for using the separate-loading ammunition is to allow two rounds to hit the same target at the same time. This is done by using a light charge first, at a high, slow trajectory, then firing a heavy charge on a fast, flat trajectory. Both shells hit at the same time.
Field Howitzer 70. A multinational design with a motor assist, it fires 6.1-in caliber shells with a range up to 26,250 yards. It can fire semi-fixed HE, illuminating, and rocket-assisted HE shells (which have additional range up to 32,800 yards). The shell weight of an HE shell is 96 pounds.
Early and modern mortars have some things in common: They are (primarily) muzzle-loading weapons designed to fire at a very steep angle. However, whereas early mortars were essentially cannons, modern mortars are really bomb or rocket launchers.
The modern mortar was invented in 1914 at the beginning of WWI as a trench warfare weapon—particularly adapted to take out the German machine-gun nests that were wreaking havoc on the British troops. The Stokes trench mortar, named after its inventor, was a simple 3-inch-diameter smooth-bore tube with a metal cap fitted to the base. This 51-inch barrel rested on a metal base plate, which prevented it from digging into the ground when fired, and was supported by a bipod assembly, which could be adjusted to change the angle of fire. The weapon was fired by dropping a mortar shell into the tube. A shotgun-like blank cap on the shell would hit the fixed firing pin and ignite the primer and then the primary propellant rings, which would launch the bomb. The whole assembly broke down into three parts and weighed 108 pounds altogether. The rounds weighed 11 pounds each.
The British made some use of the new mortar starting in 1915, but it was the Americans, when they entered the war, who fully adopted the weapon, as they were more committed to an aggressive war, and the highly portable Stokes weapon, known to the Americans as the 3-inch trench mortar, Mark I, was used extensively.
The ammunition used in these first mortars was a high-explosive shell that would detonate on impact. The 11-pound 11-ounce shell carried about 2.25 pounds of an explosive called Trojan nitrostarch, although TNT was sometimes used. The shells were color-coded according to the amount of propellant charge they carried. The more propellant, the farther and the faster the shell would travel. Range adjustment was a combination of the amount of propellant used and the angle at which the firing tube was set. The shells had safety catches that would be released before they were fired.
Since WWI, the field mortar has undergone some changes. The post-WWI era Stokes-Brandt design featured some additional mechanisms for adjusting the angle of the barrel and some other improvements, but it was still essentially the same design. Today’s mortars, such as the model PRB 424, include some that are disposable and have no bipod. They are simply set on the ground and a strap laid out. The person firing the mortar steps on the strap at a marked location, which sets the angle of fire indicated by that mark on the strap. Other modern uses of mortars include the multi-spigot design, which can fire an array of mortars simultaneously, with the ability to cover about 1.5 acres with lethal fragments.
Field mortars, such as the Stokes and PRB 424, are classified as light mortars. There are also medium and heavy mortars. The heavier the mortar, the more likely it will have to be conveyed to battle on some kind of vehicle or on a trailer of some sort. Mortars up to 240mm caliber exist.
The area in which mortar technology has advanced the most is in the ammunition. Whereas the first mortars were essentially high-explosive bombs, modern mortars can fire a variety of shells, with a variety of options. High-explosive bombs, for instance, can be set to detonate on impact, on a delayed fuze (resulting in deeper penetration of armor), or as an air-burst shell for anti-personnel use. Mortar shells can also be used as smoke bombs, emitting sudden dense clouds of white phosphorus or releasing a slower curtain of smoke over several minutes. Still other shells can be used to release flares high in the air, illuminating an area or sending signals. In theory, mortar shells can also be used to spread gas or other agents into a battlefield.
Modern mortar shells are generally fitted with fins for stability, although some are also fired from rifled barrels. Generally, mortars are muzzle loaders, but the larger ones—too large to be loaded from the muzzle—are breech loaders. Most mortars are fired by the impact of the shell dropping into the tube, but some have optional trigger systems as well.
Some of the biggest guns made were used in siege conditions during WWI. They were assembled in semi-permanent emplacements or mounted on rails, sometimes with special angled tracks or turntables to allow more aiming range. These guns were mammoth in size, and their shells were sometimes as tall as a man. The kind of bombardment they provided in WWI has since been replaced by aircraft, so most of these guns are relics of a past era.
German 42cm Siege Howitzer (Big Bertha). A monster howitzer that fired shells weighing 205 pounds.
British 12-in Mk4 Siege Howitzer. A 37-ton beast that used an additional 20 tons of ballast to fire 750-pound HE shells up to 14,000 yards.
French 40mm Modele 1916 Railroad Howitzer. Transported on special rails, this howitzer could fire 15.75-in caliber shells up to 17,500 yards. The shells weighed in at a more than hefty 1,984 pounds!
Paris Gun. A siege gun developed by the Germans to bombard Paris during WWI, it fired small-caliber ammunition, accelerated through an extra-long barrel to very high velocities. It was fired into the upper atmosphere, where it encountered reduced air resistance and was able to attain a range of nearly 75 miles. The barrel was so eroded after each shot that the ammunition had to be adjusted between shots, and the barrel, which started at 8.26-in caliber, had to be rebored to about 9.13 inches after 70 shots.
On average, the largest guns have been those in fixed emplacements, such as fortresses and coastal defenses. Pre-WWII guns were mounted using four types of mountings:
Casemate. The gun is mounted in a chamber, theoretically bombproof, and fires from within it. Casemate mountings were used by the Germans on the beaches to defend against the allied D-Day invasion. Their effectiveness is demonstrated by the fact that many of them still exist, despite sustaining direct hits.
Barbette. The gun is mounted on a swivel and fires over a parapet that is curved to match the arc of the gun’s rotation.
Disappearing Mount. The gun is loaded in a pit and only raised for firing.
Cupola. The gun is mounted in a steel dome, the upper rim of which is flush with the ground. Cupola emplacements were used also for machine guns and other weaponry.
Fully automatic weapons, such as submachine guns and assault rifles, have already been mentioned in the handgun and small arms section. Here, we deal with larger-scale automatic weapons—both the full machine guns and automatic artillery, including automatic anti-tank and anti-aircraft guns.
The idea of a fully automatic weapon is just about as old as weapons themselves. Certainly, the idea of rapid fire goes back to the bow and, especially, to the crossbow, where various schemes have been used to fire arrows in rapid succession. In guns there were many difficulties, all of which were overcome in the mid to late 19th century.
Muzzle loading did not lend itself to rapid-fire devices, although some were tried. Various attempts to make multi-barreled weapons did succeed to a point, but although they could fire a volley of many simultaneous shots or several in succession, some were inherently dangerous to the person firing, and all required a long reloading time, so that the rate of fire could not be sustained.
Black powder created a lot of smoke, and rapid-fire devices would create thick clouds of smoke that could blind the person firing and cause breathing difficulties.
These problems were solved by the combination of breech loading, self-contained cartridge ammunition, and smokeless powders, along with advances in machining and manufacture that came along with the Industrial Revolution.
Early attempts included hand-cranked mechanisms, guns with multiple barrels, and so forth.
The most successful multi-barreled gun before the modern era was the Gatling gun, which, in its most refined models, could fire up to 1,200 rounds per minute. (Ironically, similar technology is used in today’s “Minigun,” which can achieve rates of fire up to 10,000 rounds per minute.)
One even older attempt, the Organ gun of 1670, resembled drawings by Leonardo Da Vinci.
Another, called the Puckle’s gun, from 1718, was like an oversized revolver mounted on a tripod.
In 1860, two years before the original Gatling gun, the Agar “coffee mill” used steel tubes as cartridges and could fire around 100 to 120 rounds per minute.
In 1870, a French gun, called the Montigny Mitraillieuse, combined 37 barrels in a large tube and was loaded by a special plate that held 37 cartridges. It could be fired in a volley or in single shots in rapid succession.
The 1873 Nordenfelt was a Swedish design that was manufactured in several calibers and found use in various settings, including as a naval deck-mounted gun. It could fire up to 100 rounds per minute.
The first modern machine gun was the Maxim gun, patented in 1883. This water-cooled gun was a true machine gun that, once a round was loaded in the breech, would fire automatically until the trigger was released or it ran out of ammo. It fired .45-in caliber rounds, up to 600 per minute. The Maxim was adopted in 1890 by the British, the German, and the U.S. militaries; however, only Germany had armed their troops with significant numbers of these weapons at the outbreak of WWI. Combined with the use of barbed wire as a barrier, this gave the Germans an early advantage in the war. By the end of the war, machine guns were being used on tanks and airplanes and in a variety of other ways, such as covering small advancing groups of soldiers.
In WWII, the influence of machine guns was significant, especially those mounted on airplanes and tanks. However, they were prominent on the ground as well. In modern warfare, machine guns have been, to some degree, replaced by assault weapons and weapons kits—multipurpose weapons, such as the Stoner system, in which one weapon can make use of different parts to perform a variety of roles.
Because machine guns must fire very rapidly, they have some added design challenges when compared to guns that fire one or even a few shots at a time.
They must load and reload very quickly and reliably.
They must have a mechanism to feed them ammunition in quantity.
They must have a way to keep the barrel from overheating.
There are several methods used for firing machine guns—recoil, blowback, C Gas, and chain.
Recoil. Before firing, the breechblock and the barrel are locked together. Each is on a separate spring. When the gun is fired, both move backward from the recoil, but the barrel stops short while the breechblock continues, ejecting the spent shell. At the point where the breech is opened, the pressure in the barrel is back to normal. A new round is inserted, and the breech is pushed back into position by the spring, as is the barrel.
Blowback. In this system, the gas pressure pushes back the breech, which is on a strong spring. The breech opens, but only after a short delay, which is caused by the pressure of the spring and the weight of the breech itself. In some cases, an additional device is added to be sure the breech doesn’t open until the pressure is sufficiently reduced in the barrel. Once the breech opens, the cartridge is ejected and the new one is seated as the spring closes the breech again, simultaneously firing the next round.
C Gas. The breech and barrel are locked together in the C Gas system. When the cartridge is fired, the gas pressure bleeds into a chamber running parallel to the barrel. This pressure pushes a piston in the chamber and drives back the breechblock. The gun is reloaded and a strong spring pushes the breechblock back again.
Chain guns. These use a separate motor to open and close the breech and eject and reload cartridges. They are more reliable than recoil and gas types. In addition, they can vary the rate of fire simply by varying the speed of the motor, and in the case of a misfire, they will eject the unfired cartridge and continue, whereas other systems will jam in the case of a misfire. A common chain gun is the M242 Bushmaster.
There is a real danger of a cartridge exploding in a hot barrel when a machine gun stops firing. This is countered by using an open breech, in which a cartridge will not be loaded until the trigger is fired. This open breech system will work with any of the firing methods described above.
How is ammunition delivered to the breech?
Hopper. A basic angled box that drops the ammunition into place using gravity.
Magazine. A spring-loaded box or drum that forces the shells into place.
Strip. Cartridges held together on a stiff clip of metal.
Belt. Cartridges held together on strips of cloth or by metal clips.
Here are a couple ways to cool a weapon:
Water-cooled systems run water around the barrel. When the water boils from the heat, the steam can be collected into a container and recycled.
Air-cooled systems use heat-radiating fins or even the mass of the barrel. Some use the explosion of firing to force air over the barrel. Most air-cooled systems also work best with quick-change spare barrels to rotate in times of heavy firing.
Machine guns are designated by their size and, to some extent, by their intended roles. The following are major designations used by British and American armies (light, medium, and heavy):
Light Machine Gun (LMG) or “Squad Automatic.”. Able to be carried by a man and fired from a bipod on the ground or standing. Uses a two-man crew—one to fire and one to handle ammunition and spare barrels, and so on. Used for close support.
Medium Machine Gun (MMG). Used for sustained firing from the rear, although often taken farther forward by the Americans. Fired from a tripod and served by a small crew.
Heavy Machine Gun or “Fifty” (HMG). High-caliber (.50-in) weapons that can be used in ground support or as an anti-aircraft gun.
There have been many machine guns created through history. Here are a few to get you started:
Lewis Gun. An important LMG of the WWI era, designed in America but used primarily by the British. .303 caliber, 26 pounds, gas-operated, drum magazine, 550 rpm, air-cooled, using muzzle blast to recirculate air over internal cooling vanes in the aluminum barrel.
Madsen. Danish makers of various LMG models.
Hotchkiss Mk1. WWII-era LMG used by various Allied armies. .303 caliber, 27 pounds, gas-operated, strip or belt ammunition, 500 rpm, air-cooled.
BAR M1918 A2. BAR stands for Browning Automatic Rifle. LMG or squad automatic used in WWII. .30-06 caliber, 19.4 pounds, gas-operated, magazine-fed, 500 rpm, air-cooled.
Maxim 08/15. German LMG. 7.92mm, 39 pounds, recoil system, belt-fed, 450 rpm, water-cooled.
ZB/vz26. Czechoslovakian LMG made in 1926 using 7.92mm and other caliber ammunition, 21 pounds, gas-operated, magazine-fed, 500 rpm, air-cooled.
Bren Mk1. Based on the ZB/vz26, one of the most successful LMGs of the WWII era. .303 caliber, 22 pounds 5 ounces, gas-operated, magazine-fed, 500 rpm, air-cooled with spare barrel.
Degtyarev DPM. Soviet postwar copy of an earlier LMG. 7.62mm caliber, 26 pounds 13 ounces, gas-operated, drum magazine, 520–580 rpm, air-cooled.
10 Type 56. Chinese copy of the Degtyarev DPM, used in various countries. 7.62mm, 15 pounds 7 ounces, gas-operated, belt-fed, 700 rpm, air-cooled.
Johnson M41. American LMG with use by some services. .30-06 caliber, 14 pounds 5 ounces, recoil-operated, magazine-fed, 300–900 rpm (adjustable), air-cooled.
Finnish KK62. Postwar LMG. 7.62mm caliber, 18.3 pounds, gas-operated, belt-fed, 1,000–1,100 rpm, air-cooled.
Browning-Colt Model 1914. Nicknamed the potato digger because of a spade-like swinging lever. Various calibers, 101 pounds, gas-operated, belt-fed, 400–500 rpm, air-cooled.
Hotchkiss Model 1914. Used in both World Wars, fires 8mm cartridges, 88 pounds, gas-operated, strip-fed, 600 rpm, air-cooled.
Browning M2. HMG made in 1918. .50 caliber, 109 pounds, recoil operation, belt-fed, 600 rpm, air- or water-cooled.
Maxim PM1910. Russian model used in both World Wars. 7.62mm, 152.5 pounds, recoil-operated belt-fed 600 rpm, water-cooled.
Maxim ’08. German machine gun of WWI, highly effective. 7.92mm, 70.5 pounds, recoil-operated, belt-fed, 450 rpm, water-cooled.
Schwarzlose Model 07/12. Austrian MMG used in both World Wars. 7.92mm, 44 pounds, blowback system, belt-fed, 400 rpm, water-cooled.
Fiat-Revelli Model 1914. Italian weapon updated in 1935 and used through WWII. 6.5mm, 37 pounds, delayed blowback, clip system and belt feed, water-cooled, 500 rpm, later air-cooled.
Degtyarev DShK 1938. Soviet HMG used as an anti-aircraft gun. 12.7mm, 78.5 pounds, gas-operated, belt-fed, 550 rpm, air-cooled.
Type 92 Japanese 1938. Based on the Hotchkiss. 7.7mm, 122 pounds, gas-operated, strip-fed (with oil device), 450–500 rpm, air-cooled.
Browning M1917. Water-cooled gun that was the basis for later designs. .30-06 caliber, 41 pounds, recoil-operated, belt-fed, 450–500 rpm, water-cooled.
Vickers Mk 1. British gun used from 1912 until 1965. Various models were made. It recirculated steam to recycle the water for the cooling system. It could be fired by compass bearings up to 4,500 yards. Reliable standard gun. .303 caliber, 88.5 pounds, recoil-operated, belt-fed, 450–500 rpm, water-cooled.
MG34 – GPMG (General Purpose Machine Gun). German design from 1934; could be used as an LMG or an MMG. Used in WWII. 7.92mm, 26 pounds 11 ounces, recoil-operated, belt-fed, 800–900 rpm, air-cooled.
Kalashikov PK. Soviet GPMG from the 1960s. 7.62mm, 19.75 pounds, gas-operated, belt-fed, 650 rpm, air-cooled.
SIG MG10-3. Swiss design from 1961, used in various countries. Quick-change barrel. 7.62mm, 20.3 pounds, delayed blowback system, belt-fed, 600 rpm, air-cooled.
Stoner 63A. Modular gun system that can serve various roles, created in 1963. Interchangeable parts allow it to be used as an LMG and in other roles (rifle, carbine, MMG, fixed machine gun, automatic rifle, and a drum-fed “Commando” LMG). 5.56mm, 11 pounds 11 ounces, gas-operated, belt-fed, 700 rpm, air-cooled.
MG42. German WWII design with a versatile add-on tripod that handles recoil and can easily be reset for anti-aircraft use. 7.92mm, 25.5 pounds, recoil-operated, belt-fed, up to 1500 rpm, air-cooled (tripod weighs 34 pounds 13 ounces).
US M60. Developed in the ’50s, American GPMG with design features similar to the German MG42 and FG42. 7.62mm, 23 pounds, gas-operated, belt-fed, 600 rpm, air-cooled (tripod 15 pounds).
L7 A1. British GPMG based on the Belgian FN MAG. 7.62mm, 22.3 pounds, gas-operated, belt-fed, 750–1,000 rpm, air-cooled (tripod weighs almost 30 pounds).
M2HB-QCB Heavy Machine Gun. Tripod-mounted; fires explosive incendiary, ball, tracer, armor-piercing, and incendiary rounds.
FN M3M. Fires up to 1,100 rpm, .50 caliber.
M249 (Minimi) LMG. Adopted into the U.S. military in the early 1980s, a versatile weapon, reliable and capable of firing between 750–950 rounds per minute. Weight, fully loaded with 200 rounds, is about 22 pounds. Gas-operated, 5.56mm caliber.
FN MAG 58 GPMG. Air-cooled, gas-operated general-purpose machine gun (GPMG) with quick-change barrels, approximately 23.5 pounds and 49 inches in length. It can fire .50-caliber ammunition at variable rates from 650–1,100 rounds per minute.
Machine guns are ideally suited for use on vehicles and have been mounted on various types of tanks, boats, automobiles, planes, and helicopters since WWI.
The early WWI tanks had up to four machine guns mounted on sponsons on the sides of the vehicle. Today, with modern long-range weaponry, there are generally only two machine guns mounted on tanks—one for spotting the shot before firing the big gun and one for normal defensive use.
On ships, machine guns are used on small patrol boats for defense and offense. On larger boats, they are generally used for anti-aircraft defense, often in arrays of multiple guns since weight isn’t a consideration on a large ship.
On planes, machine guns have become less important than they once were. In WWI, they were mounted on biplanes, first to shoot over the propeller or backward from the back seat, and later to shoot through the propeller with special synchronizing gears. In WWII, fighters often had twin machine guns in the wings and/or guns that fired from the nose. Bombers, such as the B-17 Flying Fortress, had machine gun turrets placed everywhere they could—in the rear, the sides, the top, the bottom. They bristled with guns, and the crossfire from a formation of bombers could be withering. Today’s jets use rockets more than machine guns, but they still generally carry arrays of machine guns in the wings or under the fuselage. Helicopters often are fitted with front-mounted guns for ground strafing, as well as side mounts.
Here are just a few guns that were commonly mounted on tanks. See the section on “Tanks” for more information, and look up each type of tank to find out what guns they carried.
Vickers .5-in MkV. A WWII gun with a water-cooling system linked with the cooling system of the tank.
BESA MkIII. A British version of a Czech gun, the Zb53, used throughout WWII. It was also used by the Germans after they took the BRNO factory.
L37 A1. British modern machine gun, a variant on the Belgian FN MAG.
MG73. A U.S. gun used on the M60 tank.
A few aircraft-mounted guns. Of course, there have been many, so this is just a small sampling of the older models.
CEC Minigun. Developed in the 1960s, this electric-powered descendant of the Gatling gun fires 7.62mm or 5.56mm rounds up to 6,000 per minute. It can be mounted on a helicopter side mount, among other uses.
Parabellum Model 14. WWI machine gun used by the Germans on their planes.
Lewis Mk2. British and American planes used this in WWI.
Vickers Mk2. Also used in WWI by the British and American planes.
Browning M2 .50-in. Possibly the most commonly used aircraft-mounted machine gun of WWII.
Browning Mk2 .303-in. The machine gun mounted on Spitfires and Hurricanes during the Battle of Britain, early in the war. It was also used in bomber turrets.
All guns are true to Newton’s third law, which states, “To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.” In most handguns, the reaction is absorbed by the shoulder or other parts of the body and is called recoil. However, there is a class of guns that allows the force of the recoil to escape without being contained within the firing tube, either by allowing the gas to escape out the back or, in some versions, by using a free counterweight to absorb the backpressure. These recoilless guns are used primarily as anti-tank weapons.
The bazooka was developed during World War II for use as an anti-tank weapon. In its original form, it was a smooth-bore tube that fired a 2.36-in caliber anti-tank rocket and weighed only 13 pounds. The rockets fired by bazookas could attain a velocity of 25,000 feet per second. By the Korean War, bazooka rockets were 3.5 caliber and could penetrate armor plates of 11 inches thick. Today there are many sophisticated versions of the basic design, including disposable versions, such as the Swedish Miniman and the West German Armbrust.
Traditionally, the early bazookas were operated by two-man teams—one to load and the other to aim and fire. Today, many bazookas are preloaded and disposable and may even use fiberglass or plastic tubes to launch the rockets.
The essential operation of a recoilless gun is very simple. Pressing the trigger causes a firing pin to ignite the rocket. Where there has been a great deal of innovation and variety is in the ammunition—the rockets themselves.
One of the most significant technologies used in anti-tank weaponry is the shaped charge. The way this works is to have a shell with a high explosive contained in the body with what is called a distance tube on the leading edge. When the distance tube hits the target, it ignites the high explosive, which then funnels all its energy in a narrow jet of hot gas, burning through the armor plate and forcing hot metal and gas, along with blinding light, into the interior of the tank in what are called after-armor effects, otherwise known as spalling. This can kill the crew or ignite their ammunition. Such types of ammunition are called HEAT (High Energy/Explosive Anti-Tank), and they are one of the common forms of anti-tank weapons.
Some other interesting innovations have been developed for these guns. For instance, some have rifled barrels, which cause the shell to spin and be more stable, but the spin also reduces the penetration effect of the shell. To counter that, an outer ring is mounted on bearings. This ring is set into rotation by the rifling in the barrel, but the shaped charge does not rotate and is, therefore, able to deliver all its power to the target. This system is used in the Carl-Gustaf RCL.
Another type of shell, used in the French ACL-APX gun, uses a separate rocket motor inside. The shell is fired normally, but the rocket motor takes it to the target. It can reach its full range of 660 yards in 1.25 seconds.
The U.S. Army M136 AT4 recoilless rifle is the Army’s primary light anti-tank weapon—successor to the M72-series LAW (Light Anti-tank Weapon) first developed in the 1960s. It is a disposable fiberglass tube that carries a fin-stabilized, free-flight 84mm HEAT rocket cartridge. It has a range of up to 250 meters and can penetrate up to 14 inches of armor. The whole unit weighs 15 pounds and can be operated by one person.
Parts of a handheld rocket launcher (Venturi):
Although the first anti-tank weapons were nothing more than high-velocity rifles, most anti-tank weapons since WWI have used some modified form of ammunition as tank armor, and protection has become increasingly tough and sophisticated. In fact, there has been a constant evolution of tank defenses and anti-tank weapons meant to defeat them.
One predominant feature of a functional anti-tank weapon is that it should be able fire quickly at a moving target, use a flat trajectory to get quickly to the target, and disable or destroy the target before it can fire back. Modern weapons use guided systems for greater accuracy, precision, and ease of firing.
One of the predominant anti-tank weapons, beginning in WWII, is the recoilless gun, which uses a hollow tube to launch a heavy shell that can do considerable damage. (See “Modern Ammunition” for more information about the shells that can be used.) Because they are relatively lightweight and there is little or no recoil, these weapons can be used in a variety of situations. One of the dangers, however, is the backblast, which can be dangerous to troops behind the gun for up to 100 yards and can be severely dangerous within 15 feet to the rear. It can injure, destroy hearing, and even kill troops in its blast area.
Tank Gewehr 1918. The first specific anti-tank weapon was a single-shot Mauser bolt-action rifle mounted on a bipod. It shot a .52 shell with a steel core bullet that could penetrate the relatively weak armor of the time. Other similar anti-tank rifles were deployed during WWI.
37mm PAK36. The Panzer Abwehr Kanone was Germany’s anti-tank weapon at the beginning of WWII, and other countries had similar guns. It fired a 1.45-in shell that was very soon made inadequate by improvements in tank armor. However, its usefulness was extended by the development of new ammunition, such as fin-stabilized HEAT bombs fired from the muzzle.
British 6-Pounder. This weapon was adopted early in WWII but was soon replaced by a 17-pounder gun. It remained on the battlefield, however, and found its way to third-world countries long after the war was over. It fired 2.24-in shells.
Soviet M1944 100mm. A 3.93-in caliber gun from late in WWII that could fire armor-piercing shells as well as HE and HEAT ammunition.
10.5cm LG40. A German recoilless gun from 1940, the Leicht Geshütz could be delivered by parachute. It fired a 4.13-in HE projectile that was loaded before the drop. The casing would blow out the rear on firing.
M20 Recoilless Rifle. A U.S. weapon from 1945 that doubled as a field gun, in which role it could fire HE or smoke rounds. It fired HEAT shells against tanks and could be carried by troops in two loads. The total weight was 158 pounds, and the range of its 2.95-in shells was about 7,000 yards.
U.S. 3.5-in M20 “Super Bazooka.”. A rocket launcher weighing only 12.1 pounds that can fire a HEAT shell at up to 1,100 yards, fired from the shoulder.
U.S. 66mm M72 A2. Disposable single-shot rocket launcher with telescoping tube weighing only 3 pounds, including the built-in rocket ammunition.
U.S. M47 Dragon. Fires a wire-guided system with optical tracking with line-of-sight missile guidance and infrared missile tracking. The firing tube is disposable after firing, but the guidance system is reusable for subsequent missiles. It weighs 32 pounds.
The role of aircraft in war began in WWI and continued to be of critical importance as the decades of the 20th century continued. To protect against air attacks, various defenses were created. These began with ground emplacements as well as airborne interceptors of various types. Guns have played a role throughout, although they are increasingly giving way to missiles and rockets.
AA guns have fired a variety of types of ammunition, including shrapnel shells, high explosives, proximity fuzes, and impact fuzes. During WWII, many shells were set to detonate at the calculated height of the planes, though later in the war, detection fuzes were developed that could “sense” the target within explosive range. In the 1930s, mechanical “predictors” were developed that could be used to guide gunners to the proper elevation, direction, and fuze settings for their AA guns. Modern AA employs missiles with MCLOS and, more likely, SACLOS guidance systems and HEAT warheads.
Here are some traditional AA guns from WWI to the present day:
British 12-Pounder AA gun. Used in WWI, this gun was positioned along the coastlines of Britain. It was positioned on a pedestal mounting, allowing it full range of motion to point in any direction. This is an important aspect of aerial defense guns.
Swedish Bofors. Used all over the world since the 1930s as a main defense against low-flying aircraft. They have been adapted to many types of mountings, including naval, self-propelled, and static mounts, and modern ones are fitted with radar-assisted aiming. They mostly fire 40mm shells.
88mm Flak36. The main German anti-aircraft gun of WWII—the Flug Abwehr Kanone was the basis for many anti-aircraft guns, with a range up to about 26,250 feet.
3.7-in AA gun. The British AA gun in use during WWII and still in service until about 1950, this gun had a range of about 35,000 feet and was ultimately fitted with more modern shells and technologies.
French AMX DCA 30. A modern type of AA mounted on an AMX-tracked chassis and firing twin 30mm automatic cannons with radar fire-control systems on a revolving turret.
The latter half of the 19th century produced many changes in the technology of guns and cannons, and these changes occurred also in the development of guns on ships. Along with the changes in the ships themselves, the 20th century ushered in an era of big battleships that lasted until the dominance of aircraft reduced them to a supporting role in modern warfare.
But guns didn’t get much bigger, on average, than those that were mounted on the big battleships, and special technologies had to be developed to support these massive guns.
The model ship of the early 20th century was the British HMS Dreadnought, which mounted 10 12-inch guns and a secondary complement of 24 “12-pounders.” The guns were arrayed in armored turrets around the deck so that she could fire broadside with eight guns at a time, as well as firing forward or to the stern.
Naval guns differed from other artillery in that they were ignited using electricity. This system was first used in the 1870s and ultimately became standard for naval guns. Passing a current through the primer would fire the gun.
Starting in the Civil War, armored ships began to appear, and the technology and design of armor continued to improve. It was logical, therefore, that the same effort would go into defeating that armor, and much research was done on armor-piercing shells, which had to be hard enough to damage the armor but not so hard as to be brittle. They also had to contain explosives that would detonate reliably and would have to be able to hit the smooth armor of the enemy ships at an oblique angle without simply bouncing or glancing off the smooth metal. One of the solutions found was called the capped shell, which had a softer steel cap over the point, which aided in penetration at oblique angles. Some even had a harder penetrating point within the soft cap.
On the larger ships, the big guns were contained in turrets, which could be controlled using hydraulics. The whole turret would rotate, and the guns could also be elevated or lowered. The crew was safely housed inside the turrets, which were heavily armored. Smaller boats used pedestal mountings instead of turrets.
Firing the big guns was a coordinated effort on the battleships and involved teams of observers and range-finders high in the superstructure of the ship, plus more range-finders in each turret. The data from each of these sources was processed on a large fire-control table, and the guns would be set and fired centrally from the captain’s bridge.
One problem the big battleships encountered was their vulnerability to small, fast torpedo boats. To counter this threat, quick-firing guns were added to the arsenal. These guns could be aimed and fired by one gunner and could fire several large rounds a minute. They were often placed between decks in the WWI era, but by WWII they were replaced by High Angle (HA) guns capable of dealing with airborne threats as well.
After WWI, one of the main AA weapons elements of the arsenal included versions of the Swedish Bofors gun, a 40mm automatic cannon that could put a lot of shells in the air around enemy aircraft. Bofors guns were often mounted in arrays on ships.
Modern AA weapons are automated and are not manned. They are fed from magazines of ammunition below decks, where they are also controlled. Their rate of fire and technology allow even a medium gun to put out as much weight in ammunition as the big guns of earlier times.
Armored fighting vehicles (also known as tanks) are a pretty modern invention, but they have ancestors in the ancient siege rams and towers and other armored war machines. In the 15th century, Leonardo Da Vinci drew out plans for an armored vehicle powered by four men working hand cranks, and a steam-powered tank was proposed in 1862 called (with faulty spelling) the Anihilator, which was inspired by the Civil War ironclad, the Monitor. There is even a statement in the Bible mentioning “chariots of iron.”
But modern tanks came into existence during WWI and were first deployed in battle on September 15, 1915. The first tank—the Mark I—had two configurations, one with two 57mm guns and four machine guns and one with five machine guns and no cannons. The top speed of the Mark I was 4 mph on caterpillar tracks, and it was a noisy and unreliable machine, dangerous to its crew, difficult to maneuver, and easily exploited. However, it was the beginning of a history of tank warfare that still exists today.
The Mark I was followed by several versions, the Mark V being the most successful. A light tank, the Whippet, was also used successfully—with a top speed of 8 mph. When the U.S. entered the war, they used the British Mark Vs and a French light tank, the T-17.
Early tanks had to carry bundles of wood, called fascines, to lay down over ditches and wide trenches. However, by the end of WWI, tanks had improved and were influential in the outcome of the war, so much so that tanks formed a significant part of the German blitzkrieg at the beginning of WWII.
The first American tank corps to be established after WWI (other than some failed experiments) was developed under General Douglas MacArthur in 1931 as a mechanized cavalry brigade. Because of regulations, the cavalry tanks had to be called Combat Cars, a moniker that failed to stand the test of time.
By 1940, with the stunning German victories in Poland and France, the U.S. beefed up its armor divisions, but most of the 500 machines available in 1940 were already obsolete.
The first tanks had guns mounted in boxes projecting from the sides of the tanks. Later tanks had big guns projecting from the front, but by far the most common and successful design is the tank turret, which sits on top of the tank and can rotate in a wide arc. Early in WWII, turret guns were given stabilizing systems, usually hydraulic, which would allow them to keep accurate aim even when traveling over uneven terrain.
The basic design of a tank’s gun, circa WWII, was to have a seat for a loader and a seat for a gunner. The barrel terminated in a muzzle brake, which reduced the recoil effects of rapid firing. Various wheels were used to elevate and site the gun, which was loaded by a breech-lock mechanism. This general configuration was common in tanks of the WWII era and after.
In addition to the big central gun, tanks generally have machine guns of various kinds. These could be used for offense and defense, but were also used for spotting the shot. The “ranging” machine guns were mounted in parallel with the main gun and fired tracer bullets that would also emit a visible sign on impact. When the ranging bullets hit the target, the main gun was instantly fired, with a high probability of a hit. The more modern alternative to the ranging gun is to use lasers to site the shot.
Some different approaches have been taken in modern tank design. The Swiss S-Tank, which appeared in the 1970s, uses a self-loading breech mechanism with the gun mounted on the front of the tank. A special suspension system allows the whole tank to be tilted or turned for accurate aiming.
The Rarden 30mm cannon is a British automatic cannon used on light AFVs, which fires at a (relatively) slow rate of 90 rounds per minute. This gun can be mounted on light tanks, armored cars, and APCs (armored personnel carriers). Its emphasis is on accuracy.
Tanks have generally been designed with rifled barrels, but some use a smooth bore in conjunction with fin-stabilized HEAT shells, since the spin given to these shells by rifled barrels makes them less effective.
The Little Willie Landship (UK: 1915) was the first tank.
Schneider Assault Tank (France: 1915)
St. Chamond Assault Tank (France: 1916)
Schneider Char d’Assault (France: 1916)
Mark IV (U.K.: 1917)
Mark A Whippet (U.K.: 1917)
Leichte Kampfwagen (LK II) Cavalry Tank (Germany: c. 1917)
Renault FT-17 Light Tank (France: 1917)
Sturmpanzerwagen A7V (Germany: 1918)
K-Wagen Heavy Tank (Germany—proposed, never completed; a 150-ton monstrosity meant to roll through enemy lines)
Mark VIII “International” Tank (U.K./U.S.: 1918)
Mark IX a.k.a. “The Pig” (U.K.: 1918; world’s first APC)
Medium Mark C Tank (U.K.: 1918)
Holt Gas-Electric Tank (U.S.: 1918; first prototype American tank)
Six Ton Tank M1917 (U.S.: 1918)
Medium C Tank (U.K.: 1918)
Char 2C Heavy Tank (France: 1918)
T-26 Light Tank (Russia: 1920)
Strv m/21 Tank (Sweden: 1920)
KS (M-17) Light Tank (Russia: 1920)
Mark I Medium Tank (U.K.: 1923)
Fiat 2000 Heavy Tank (Italy: 1923)
Fiat 3000 Light Tank (Italy: 1923)
Char NC1 Light Tank (France: 1923)
Vickers Mark II Medium Tank (U.K.: 1920s–1930s)
KH50 Wheel and Track Tank (Czechoslovakia: 1925)
T3 Christie Medium Tank (U.S.: 1928)
Vickers Six Ton Tank (U.K.: 1928)
Char Amphibie Schneider-Laurent (France: 1928)
MS Series Tanks (various models) (Russia: 1928)
Carro Veloce CV29/33 Tankette (Italy: 1929/1933)
Carden-Loyd Tankette Mark VI (U.K.: 1929)
T-24 Medium Tank (Russia: 1929)
Christie M1931 Medium Tank/T3 Medium Tank/Combat Car T1 (U.S.: 1931; highly influential design improvements that inspired future tank makers)
Mark II Light Tank (UK: 1931)
Renault Char D1 Infantry Tank (France: 1931)
Strv m/31 “Landsverk” Tank (Sweden: 1931)
Landsverk L-30 Light Tank (Sweden: 1931)
TK-3 Tankette (Poland: 1931)
BT-1/BT-2 Light/Medium Tank (Russia: 1931)
T-26 Light Infantry Tank (Russia: 1931)
T27 Tankette (Russia: 1931; based on the Carden-Loyd Mark VI)
CKD/Praga R1 Light Tank (Czechoslovakia: 1932)
BT-5 Medium Tank (Russia: 1932)
Renault AMR 33 VM Light Tank (France: 1933)
T-28 Medium Tank (Russia: 1933)
T-35 Heavy Tank (Russia: c. 1933)
T-37 Light Amphibious Tank (Russia: 1933)
CKD/Praga T-33 Tankette (Czechoslovakia: 1933)
TK S Tankette (Poland: 1933)
T-28 Medium Tank (Russia: 1933)
T-35 Heavy Tank (Russia: 1933)
T-37 Light Amphibious Tank (Russia: 1933)
AMC 34 Light Tank (France: 1934)
Type 89B Medium Tank (Japan: 1934)
Type 94 Tankette (Japan: 1934)
Mark IV Light Tank (UK: 1934)
PzKpfw 1 Light Tank (Germany: 1934; originally intended to be a training tank, it was the main German tank of the early years of WWII)
Strv L-60 Light Tank (Sweden: 1934)
Strv L-100 Light Tank (Sweden: 1934)
LT-34 Light Tank (Czechoslovakia: 1934)
7TP Light Tank (Poland: 1934)
Mark V Light Tank (U.K.: 1935)
LT-35 Medium Tank (Czechoslovakia: 1935)
BT-7 Light Tank (Russia: 1935)
Type 95 HA-GO Light Tank (Japan: 1935)
Mark VI/VIB Light Tank (U.K.: 1936/1937)
Vickers Commercial Light Tank (“Dutchman”) (UK: 1936)
10TP Wheel and Track Fast Tank (Poland: 1937)
BT-7 Fast Tank (Russia: 1930s)
Hotchkiss H-35/H-39 (France: 1930s)
Char B1 Heavy Tank (France: 1930s/early 1940s)
Renault R-35 Light Tank (France: mid-1930s)
Char SOMUA S-35 Medium Tank (France: 1930s)
M1/M2 Combat Car/M1A1 Light Tank (U.S.: 1935)
M2 Light Tank (U.S.: 1935)
PzKpfw II Light Tank (Germany: 1935–1942)
Auto Mitrailleuse Amphibie DP2 (France: 1935)
Renault R-35 Light Tank (France: 1935)
Hotchkiss H-35 Light Tank (France: 1935)
Samua S-35 Medium Tank (France: 1935)
Char B1-bis Heavy Tank (France: 1935)
AMC 35 Light Tank (France: 1936)
FCM-36 Infantry Tank (France: 1936)
A9 Cruiser Tank Mark I (U.K.: 1936–1941)
PzKpfw III Medium Tank (Germany: 1937; with the PzKpfw IV, one of the mainstays of the Panzer divisions)
CDK/Praga TNH Light Tank (export) (Czechoslovakia: 1937)
Type 97 TE-KE/KE-KE Tankette (Japan: 1937)
Type 97 Chi-Ha Medium Tank (Japan: 1937)
LT-38 (Czechoslovakia: 1938–1942)
A11 Matilda I Infantry Tank (U.K.: 1938–1940)
LT-38 Medium Tank (Czechoslovakia: 1938)
Hotchkiss H-39 Light Tank (France: 1939)
PzKpfw III Battle Tank (Germany: 1939–mid-1940s)
A13 Cruiser Tank Mark IV (U.K.: 1938; various versions, including Mark V, A13 Mark III)
A12 Matilda II Infantry Tank (a.k.a. “Matilda”) (U.K.: 1939–1942)
Valentine Infantry Tank Mark III (U.K.: 1939–1944)
PzKpfw IV Medium Tank (Germany: 1939–1946, last used 1967)
KV-I Heavy Tank (Russia: 1939)
M2 Medium Tank (U.S.: 1940; used only for training)
Mark VI Cruiser Tank (“Crusader”) (U.K.: 1940)
Mark III Valentine (U.K.: 1940)
A17 Tetrach Light Tank (U.K.: 1940)
VK 1601 Reconnaissance Tank (Germany: 1940; little used)
KV-1 Heavy Tank (Russia: 1940)
Carro Armato L6/40 Light Tank (Italy: 1940)
Carro Armato M13/40 Medium Tank (Italy: 1940)
Carro Armato P26/40 Medium Tank (Italy: 1940)
Strv m/39 Light Tank (Sweden: 1940)
KV-II Heavy Tank (Russia: 1940)
M3 Grant/Lee Medium Tank (U.S. 1941–1943) (Grant = British-designed turret/Lee = American-designed turret)
A22 Churchill Infantry Tank (U.K.: 1941–1950s)
A24 Mark VII Cruiser Tank (“Cavalier”) (U.K.: 1941)
Mark VIII Cruiser Tank (“Centaur”) (U.K.: 1941 through WWII)
Type 97 CHI-HA Medium Tank (Japan: 1941–1942)
T-60 Light Tank (Russia: 1941–1942)
Ram I/II Cruiser Tanks (Canada: 1941–1943)
Strv m/40 Light Tank (Sweden: 1941)
T-60 Light Tank (Russia: 1941)
T-70 Light Tank (Russia: 1942–1944)
M5 Light Tank (General Stuart) (U.S.: 1942; featured twin automatic-transmission Cadillac engines)
PzKpfw V Panther Battle Tank (Germany: 1942–1944)
Carro Armato M15/42 Medium Tank (Italy: 1942)
Strv m/41 Light Tank (Italy: 1942)
Strv m/42 Light Tank (Italy: 1942)
M22 Locust Light Tank (U.S.: 1942–1944; air transportable)
Sentinel Australian Cruiser (AC) Tank (Australia: 1942)
Type 2 Ka-Mi Amphibious Tank (Japan: 1942)
Type 3 Ka-Chi Amphibious Tank (Japan: 1942)
Ram I/II Cruiser Tank (Canada: 1942)
KV-85 Heavy Tank (Russia: 1943)
IS-1 Heavy Tank (Russia: 1943)
A27M Cromwell Cruiser Tank (U.K.: 1943)
A38 Valiant Infantry Tank (U.K.: 1943–1945)
A30 Challenger Cruiser Tank (U.K.: 1943)
A25 Harry Hopkins Light Tank (U.K.: 1943)
Turan I/II 40mm Tank (Hungary: 1943)
Grizzly I Cruiser Tank (Canada: 1943)
PzKpfw VIII Maus Super-Heavy Tank (Germany: mid-1940s; prototype only; 188-ton monstrosity—a pet project of Hitler)
A34 Comet Cruiser Tank (U.K.: 1944)
Char ARL-44 Heavy Tank (France: 1944)
PzKpfw VI Tiger II Heavy Battle Tank “Konigstiger” or “Royal Tiger” (Germany: 1944)
A39 Tortoise Heavy Tank (U.K.: 1944)
IS-2 Stalin Heavy Tank (“Victory Tank”) (Russia: 1944)
Type 3 Medium Tank (Japan: 1944)
A34 Comet Cruiser Tank (U.K.: 1945)
A41 Centurion Battle Tank (U.K.: 1945–1990s)
T-45 Tank (Russia: 1945; short-lived upgrade of the T-34/85)
IS-3 Heavy Tank (Russia: 1945)
ARL-44 Heavy Tank (France: 1946)
M46 Tank (U.S.: 1947; an improved M26 Pershing—some featured a flamethrower)
AMX-13 Light Tank (France: 1948)
Char AMX-50 Main Battle Tank (France: 1951)
M41 Walker Bulldog Light Tank (U.S.: 1951–present [around the world])
PT-76 Light Amphibious Tank (Russia: 1952–late 1960s)
M47 Medium Tank (U.S.: 1950–1953; many years of service around the world—precursor to the M48)
M41 DK Light Tank (U.S. [Denmark]: 1951 through 1980s)
AMX-13 Light Tank (France: 1952–early 1960s)
FV214 Conqueror Heavy Tank (U.K.: 1955–1966)
T-10 Heavy Tank (Russia: 1955–1966)
M103 Heavy Tank (U.S.: 1957–1960s)
Strv 74 Light Tank (Sweden: 1958)
M60 Main Battle Tank (U.S.: 1959–1991)
Char AMX-30 Main Battle Tank (France: 1960)
M60 Series
M60A1 Main Battle Tank (U.S.: 1960)
M60A2 Main Battle Tank (“Starship”) (U.S.: 1972–1978 approximately)
M60A3 Main Battle Tank (U.S.: 1978–1990s)
M60-2000 Main Battle Tank Upgrade Kit (U.S.: 2001)
T-62 Main Battle Tank (Russia: 1961–1975)
Pz61 Main Battle Tank (Switzerland: 1961)
T-55 Main Battle Tank upgraded (Iraq: 1961)
T-55 Main Battle Tank upgraded (Israel: 1961)
Type 62 Light Tank (China: 1962; modified Type 59 [Russian T-54])
Type 61 Main Battle Tank (Japan: 1961)
Leopard 1 Main Battle Tank (Germany: 1963–1987, all models)
FV4201 Chieftain Main Battle Tank (U.K.: 1963–present; used worldwide, including Middle East)
Type 63 Light Tank (Amphibious) (China: 1963)
Vickers Mark 1/Mark 3 “Vijayanta” Main Battle Tank (U.K. [India]: 1964)
S-Tank (Stridsvagen 103) (Sweden: 1966)
T-64 Main Battle Tank (Russia: 1967–end of service period unknown)
Centurion Main Battle Tank Upgraded (Israel: 1967)
AMX-30/AMX-30B2 Main Battle Tank (France: 1967? to ?)
Main Battle Tank 70 (Germany/U.S.: 1967)
M551 Sheridan Light Tank (U.S.: 1968–1978; some service through the 1990s)
Magach Main Battle Tank (Israel: 1970; upgraded M60)
Pz68 Main Battle Tank (Switzerland: 1971)
OF-40 Main Battle Tank (Italy: 1972; limited production and distribution)
FV101 Scorpion Light Tank/Recon Vehicle (U.K.: 1972–mid-1990s)
T-72 Main Battle Tank (Russia: 1973–2000s?; the most widely deployed tank in the world)
Type 69 Main Battle Tank (China: 1974–2000s)
Type 74 Main Battle Tank (Japan: 1975)
TAMSE TAM Medium Tank (Argentina: 1976)
Merkava Main Battle Tank (Israel: 1977)
Bernardini X1A2 Light Tank (Brazil: 1978; based on M3A1 Stuart)
Merkava Main Battle Tank/Mark I-Mark IV (Israel: 1979–present)
Type 74 Main Battle Tank (Japan: 1980–1989)
T-80 Main Battle Tank (Russia: 1980; improved T-64)
Type 69 Main Battle Tank (China: 1980; another variant on the T-54, used in Iran and Iraq)
Vickers OMC Olifant Main Battle Tank (S. Africa: 1980; upgraded Centurion)
Shir 1 (Khalid) Main Battle Tank (U.K. [Iran]: 1981)
Challenger 1 Main Battle Tank (U.K.: 1982–1990)
Char AMX-40 Main Battle Tank (France: 1982)
TR-580 Main Battle Tank (Romania: 1982)
Bernardini M41 Light Tank Upgraded (Brazil: 1983)
M-84 Main Battle Tank (Yugoslavia: 1984)
Type 79 Main Battle Tank (China: 1984)
Vickers Mark 7 Main Battle Tank (U.K.: 1985)
Tariq Main Battle Tank (Jordan: 1985; improved Centurion)
M1985 (PT-85) Light Amphibious Tank: (N. Korea: 1985)
ENGESA EE-T1 Osorio Main Battle Tank (Brazil: 1985)
Vickers VFM Mark 5 Tank (U.K./U.S.: 1986)
LeClerc Main Battle Tank (France: 1986)
TR-85 Main Battle Tank (Romania: 1987)
Arjun Main Battle Tank (India: 1987)
Stingray I Light Tank (U.S.: 1988)
Ariete Main Battle Tank (Italy: 1988)
Type 80 Main Battle Tank (China: 1988)
SM1 AMX-13 Light Tank (Singapore: 1988)
TR-125 Main Battle Tank (Romania: 1989)
Type 85-II/III Main Battle Tank (China: 1989)
M48H Main Battle Tank (Modified M60 with M48 Turret) (Taiwan: 1990)
LeClerc Main Battle Tank (France: 1991–present)
MBT 2000 (Al Khalid) Main Battle Tank (Pakistan: 1991)
Type 90 Main Battle Tank (Japan: 1991)
Challenger 2 Main Battle Tank (U.K.: 1992–present)
PT-91 Main Battle Tank (Poland: 1993)
T-59 upgrade of T-54 (Pakistan: 1993)
T-90 Main Battle Tank (Russian Federation: 1994–present [rumor has it that a new tank, the T-95, is to debut in 2010])
TM-800 Main Battle Tank (Romania: 1994)
Zulfiqar Main Battle Tank (Iran: 1994)
C1 Ariete Main Battle Tank (Italy: 1995–2002)
T-84 Main Battle Tank (Ukraine: 1995)
Type 90-II (MBT-2000) Main Battle Tank (China: 1995)
Stingray II (U.S.: 1996)
T-71Z Main Battle Tank (Iran: 1996; based on the Russian T-72)
ASCOD Light Tank (Austria/Spain: 1996)
Hyundai K1 Main Battle Tank (South Korea: 1997–2010 [rumor has it that a new K2 model will become available in 2010])
CV 90-120 Light Tank (Sweden: 1998)
Type 98 Main Battle Tank (China: 1998)
RH-ALAN Degman Main Battle Tank (Croatia: 1999)
Sabra Main Battle Tank (Israel: 1999; upgrade of M60A3)
Type 99 Light Tank (China: 1999)
T-95 “Black Eagle” (Russia: ?; newest Russian tank shown briefly in 1997, appears not to have entered production yet, but rumored to be in trials as of 2004 and to be deployed by 2010)
Self-propelled guns are any gun—artillery, anti-tank, or anti-aircraft—that is mounted on a base with wheels or tracks, and thereby mobile. Here are some of the self-propelled guns from history, beginning around 1936.
S-3 Self-Propelled Gun (Czechoslovakia: 1936)
Sturmgeschutz II Self-Propelled Assault Gun (Germany: 1937)
PanzerJaeger 1 Tank Destroyer (Germany: 1940)
15cm sIG33 (Sf) Heavy Infantry Gun (Germany: 1940)
Semovente L40 DA 47/32 Antitank Vehicle (Italy: 1940)
Semovente M41 Self-Propelled Gun (Italy: 1941)
M7 “Priest” Howitzer Motor Carriage (HMC) (U.S.: 1942)
M8 HMC (U.S.: 1942; based on M5 light tank chassis)
M10 Tank Destroyer (U.S.: 1942)
Deacon Tank Destroyer (U.K.: 1942)
Bishop Self-Propelled Door (U.K.: 1942)
Nashorn Tank Destroyer (Germany: 1942)
Elefant Heavy Tank Destroyer (Germany: 1942)
Marder II (Germany: 1942)
SU-76 Assault Gun (Russia: 1942)
M18 “Hellcat” Tank Destroyer (U.S.: 1943; light, fast [50mph] and effective in WWII)
M12 Self-Propelled Howitzer (U.S.: 1943)
A30 Avenger Tank Destroyer (U.K.: 1943)
Archer Tank Destroyer (U.K.: 1943)
Marder III (Germany: 1943)
Jagdpanther Tank Destroyer (Germany: 1943)
Jagdpanzer Tank Destroyer (Germany: 1943)
Sturmpanzer IV Brummbar (Germany: 1943)
Wespe Self-Propelled Howitzer (Germany: 1943)
Hummel Self-Propelled Howitzer (Germany: 1943)
SU-152/ISU-152 Assault Gun (Russia: 1943)
SU-84 Assault Gun (Russia: 1943)
Sexton Self-Propelled Gun (Canada: 1943)
M36 Tank Destroyer (U.S.: 1944)
Jagdtiger Heavy Tank Destroyer (Germany: 1944)
Hetzer Tank Destroyer (Germany: 1944)
Sturmmorser Tiger (Germany: 1944)
Pan m/43 Self-Propelled Gun (Sweden: 1944)
SU-100 Assault Gun (Russia: 1944)
ISU-122/SU-122 Assault Gun (Russia: 1944)
M37 HMC (U.S.: 1945; light replacement for the M7)
M40/M43 Self-Propelled Gun (U.S.: 1945; used primarily in the Korean War)
G-13 TD Tank Destroyer (Switzerland: 1947)
M44 Self-Propelled Howitzer (U.S.: 1950)
Mk 61 105mm Self-Propelled Gun (France: 1950)
ASU-57 Tank Destroyer (Russia: 1951)
M53 Self-Propelled Howitzer (U.S.: 1952)
M56 SPAT (Self-Propelled Anti-tank) Tank Destroyer (a.k.a. “Scorpion”) (U.S.: 1953)
Hornet Tank Destroyer (U.K.: 1953)
Charioteer Tank Destroyer (U.K.: 1954)
M50 “Ontos” Tank Destroyer (U.S.: 1955; featured 6 recoilless rifles; ontos = thing in Greek)
M52 Self-Propelled Howitzer (U.S.: 1955)
Jagdpanzer Kanone (Germany: 1959)
Type 60 Twin 106mm Tank Destroyer (Japan: 1960)
M107/M110 Self-Propelled Gun (U.S.: 1961/1963)
BRDM-1 ATGW Tank Destroyer (Russia: 1961)
M108 Self-Propelled Light Howitzer (U.S.: 1962)
FV438 Tank Destroyer (U.K.: 1962)
Mk F3 155mm Self-Propelled Gun (France: 1962)
ASU-85 Tank Destroyer (Russia: 1962)
M109 Self-Propelled Howitzer (U.S.: 1963; standard Western self-propelled gun—several versions)
Jagdpanzer Rakete Jaguar Tank Destroyers (Germany: 1963)
Abbot Self-Propelled Gun (105mm) (U.K.: 1964)
BRDM-2 ATGW Tank Destroyer (Russia: 1965)
Catapult 130mm Self-Propelled Gun (India: 1965)
Bandkanone 155mm Self-Propelled Gun (Sweden: 1966)
L33 155mm Self-Propelled Gun (Israel: 1967)
Type 54I 122mm Self-Propelled Gun (China: 1967)
MT-LB AT-6 ATGW Tank Destroyer (Russia: 1968)
M50 155mm Self-Propelled Gun (Israel: 1969)
160mm Self-Propelled Mortar (Israel: 1969; on Sherman tank chassis)
Ikv-91 Tank Destroyer (Sweden: 1970)
2S1 122mm Self-Propelled Howitzer (Russia: 1971)
2S3 152mm Self-Propelled Howitzer (Russia: 1971)
2S4 240mm Self-Propelled Mortar (Russia: 1971)
Giat GCT 155mm Self-Propelled Gun (France: 1972)
Type 74 105mm Self-Propelled Gun (Japan: 1974)
Striker Tank Destroyer (U.K.: 1975)
2S7 203mm Self-Propelled Gun (Russia: 1975)
Type 75 155mm Self-Propelled Howitzer (Japan: 1975)
SP-70 155mm Self-Propelled Howitzer (Germany/U.K.: 1975)
M901 Tank Destroyer (U.S.: 1976; conversion of M113 with TOW missile launcher armament)
MOWAG Piranha TOW Tank Destroyer (Switzerland: 1976)
Palmaria 155mm Self-Propelled Howitzer (Italy: 1977)
Dana Self-Propelled Gun (Czechoslovakia: 1980)
LIW G6 155mm Self-Propelled Howitzer (S. Africa: 1981)
2S5 152mm Self-Propelled Gun (Russia: 1982)
Type 83 152mm Self Propelled Gun (China: 1983)
Pvrbv 551 Tank Destroyer (Sweden: 1984)
Kkv 102/103 Self-Propelled Gun (Sweden: 1984)
2S9 120mm Self-Propelled Mortar (Russia: 1984)
PLZ45 155mm Self Propelled Gun (China: 1985)
Type 85 122mm Self-Propelled Gun (China: 1985)
Koksan 170mm Self-Propelled Gun (N. Korea: 1985)
Vickers OMC/Kentron Ratel Tank Destroyer (S. Africa: 1985)
M44T 155mm Self-Propelled Howitzer (Turkey: 1986)
ENGESA EE-18 Sucuri Tank Destroyer (Brazil: 1987)
120mm Armored Mortar System (Multinational: 1987)
Textron LAV Assault Gun (U.S.: 1988)
Model 89 122mm Self-Propelled Gun (Romania: 1989)
2S23 120mm Self-Propelled Mortar (Russia: 1989)
2S19 MSTA 152mm Self-Propelled Howitzer (Russia: 1989)
Type 89 122mm Self-Propelled Gun (China: 1989)
Panzerhaubitze 2000 Self-Propelled Howitzer (Germany: 1990)
PRAM-S 120mm Mortar System (Czechoslovakia: 1990)
Slammer 155mm Self-Propelled Gun (Israel: 1990)
XT-69 155mm Self-Propelled Gun (Taiwan: 1990)
VAB Tank Destroyers (France: 1992)
Zuzana Self-Propelled Gun (Czechoslovakia: 1992)
AS90 Self-Propelled Gun (155mm) (U.K.: 1993)
M109A6 Paladin (U.S.: 1994)
LIW T6 155mm Artillery System (S. Africa: 1994)
M52T 155mm Self-Propelled Howitzer (Turkey: 1995)
BMY/ARE 122 Self-Propelled Howitzer (Egypt/U.S.: 1995)
Thunder 122mm Self-Propelled Gun (Iran: 1996)
2S31 Vena 120mm Self-Propelled Mortar (Russia: 1997)
Thunder 155mm Self-Propelled Gun (Iran: 1997)
AMOS Advanced Mortar System (Finland/Sweden: 1997)
NORINCO 203mm Self-Propelled Gun (China: 1998)
K9 Self-Propelled Gun (S. Korea: 1999)
General Motors Defense LPT Assault Gun (Canada: 1999)
Rascal 155mm Self-Propelled Gun (Israel: 2000)
Type 99 155 Self-Propelled Howitzer (Japan: 2000)
Giat Caesar 155mm Self-Propelled Gun (France: 2003)
LOSAT (Line-of-Sight-Anti-Tank) based on M1114 HMMWV chassis (U.S.: 2004; KEM kinetic internally guided “hit to kill” missiles)
Crusader Self-Propelled Gun (U.S.: future tech)
Simms Motor War Car (U.K.: 1902)
Charron-Giradot et Voigt Armored Car (France: 1902)
Austro-Daimler Armored Car (Austria: 1904)
Armstrong-Whitworth Armoured Car (U.K.: 1906)
Ehrhardt BAK Armored Car (Germany: 1906)
Talbot Armoured Car (U.K.: 1914)
Delaunay-Belleville Armoured Car (U.K.: 1914)
Rolls-Royce Armoured Cars (U.K.: 1915, 1920, 1924)
Lancia Armoured Cars (U.K.: 1915)
Seabrook Armoured Car (U.K.: 1915)
Lanchester Armoured Car (U.K.: 1915)
Renault Model 1915 Armored Car (France: 1915)
Ehrhardt E-V/4 Armored Car (Germany: 1915)
Lancia 1ZM Armored Car (Italy: 1915)
Pierce-Arrow Armoured Truck (U.K.: 1916)
Leyland Armoured Car (U.K.: 1916)
Austin-Putilov Halftracked Armored Car (Russia: 1916)
Austin Armoured Car (U.K.: 1918)
Mernerva/SAVA/MORS Armored Cars (Belgium: 1918)
Peerless Armoured Car (U.K.: 1919)
Vickers-Armstrong Wheel-Cum-Track Vehicle (U.K.: 1926; Retractable tracks, could run on wheels or tracks)
Vickers-Guy Indian Pattern Armoured Car (U.K.: 1927)
Lanchester Mark I and Mark II Armoured Cars (U.K.: 1927)
Vickers-Crossley Armoured Car (U.K.: 1928/1930)
Ursus W29 Armored Car (Poland: 1929)
BA-27 Armored Car (Russia: 1929)
Crossley Mark I/II/III (U.K.: 1931; triple axle)
Renault UE Supply Carrier (France: 1931)
SdKfz 13 Light Armored Car (Germany: 1932)
SdKfz 231/232 Armored Reconnaissance Vehicle (Germany: 1932)
BA-10 Armored Car (Russia: 1932)
Model 2592 Osaka Armored Car (Japan: 1932)
Laffly-White Armored Car (France: 1933)
Model 2593 Sumida Armored Car (Japan: 1933)
Bren Gun Carrier (U.K.: 1934)
Morris Armoured Car (U.K.: 1935; in service until 1943)
Panhard et Levassor P 178 Armored Car (France: 1935)
SdKfz 221 Light Reconnaissance Vehicle (Germany: 1935)
Landsverk 180/181 Armored Car (Sweden: 1935)
Alvis Straussler Armoured Car (U.K.: 1937)
Chenilette Lorraine Type 37L (France: 1937; supply carrier)
STZ Armored Tractor (Russia: 1937)
Carden-Loyd Universal Carrier (U.K.: 1938; 35,000 built during WWII)
Daimler Dingo Scout Car (U.K.: 1938)
Guy Mark I/IA Armoured Car (U.K.: 1938)
M3 Half-Track (U.S.: 1938)
SdKfz 251 Armored Personnel Carrier (Germany: 1938); variant designations:
SdKfz 251: Personnel carrier
SdKfz 251/1: Rocket launcher carrier, “Stuka zum Fuss” or “Ground Stuka”
SdKfz 251/2: Mortar carrier
SdKfz 251/3: Radio vehicle
SdKfz 251/4: Ammunition transport
SdKfz 251/5: Combat engineer transport
SdKfz 251/6: Staff officer command vehicle
SdKfz 251/7: Combat engineer carrier, alternate version
SdKfz 251/8: Ambulance
SdKfz 251/9: Fire support vehicle for infantry with short-barreled 75mm gun
SdKfz 251/10: Anti-tank gun (37mm) platform
SdKfz 251/11: Field telephone switchboard unit
SdKfz 251/12: Instrument carrier for artillery units
SdKfz 251/13: Sound detection equipment for artillery units
SdKfz 251/14: Same as SdKfz 251/13
SdKfz 251/15: Flash-spotting equipment transport for artillery units
SdKfz 251/16: Flamethrower vehicle
SdKfz 251/17: Light air defense vehicle (20mm AA gun)
SdKfz 251/18: Artillery observation
SdKfz 251/19: Field telephone switchboard and enemy communications interception
SdKfz 251/20: Infrared detection system for tank support
SdKfz 251/21: Light air defense with triple mountings, either 15mm heavy machine guns or 20mm cannon
SdKfz 251/22: Anti-tank 75mm gun platform
M3 Scout Car (U.S.: 1939)
SdKfz 222 Light Reconnaissance Vehicle (Germany: 1939)
SdKfz 250 Armored Personnel Carrier (Germany: 1939); variant designations:
SdKfz 250/1: Personnel carrier
SdKfz 250/2: Field telephone cable layer
SdKfz 250/3: Radio vehicle
SdKfz 250/4: Observation vehicle (replacing SdKfz 253)
SdKfz 250/5: Observation vehicle with different radio systems
SdKfz 250/6: Artillery ammunition transport
SdKfz 250/7: Mortar vehicle with 81.4mm mortar
SdKfz 250/8: From 1943, fire support with short 75mm gun
SdKfz 250/9: Light reconnaissance vehicle with 20mm cannon and later a coaxial machine gun
SdKfz 250/10: Fire support with 37mm anti-tank gun
SdKfz 250/11: Fire support with 28mm tapered-bore anti-tank gun
SdKfz 250/12: Artillery observation
M39 Panzerwagen Armored Car (Netherlands: 1939)
Marmon-Herrington Mk I/II/III Armored Car (S. Africa: 1939)
Fordson Armoured Car (U.K.: 1940)
Beaverette Mark II Reconnaissance Vehicle (U.K.: 1940)
Humber Light Reconnaissance Vehicle (U.K.: 1940)
Humber Special Ironside Saloon Mark I (U.K.: 1940; specialty armored car for royalty, cabinet ministers, etc.)
LVT-1 (Landing Vehicle Tracked, a.k.a. “the Alligator”) (U.S.: 1940)
Autoblinda AB 40 Armored Car (Italy: 1940)
Morris Light Reconnaissance Car (U.K.: 1941)
Humber Scout Car (U.K.: 1941)
BA-64 Armored Car (Russia: 1941)
Marmon-Herrington Mk IV Armored Car (S. Africa: 1941)
T17 Staghound Armored Car (U.S.: 1942)
AEC Armoured Car (U.K.: 1942; many variations made, based on the AEC Matador gun tractor. AEC Basilisk Mark II was a version with flamethrower mounted. Another model was the AEC Anti-Aircraft Mark II, designed with a Crusader anti-aircraft turret and a pair of 20mm guns.)
M20 Armored Car (U.S.: 1942; M8 with machine gun but no turret)
Lynx Truck (Armored Truck) (Canada: 1942)
Marmon-Herrington Mk VI Armored Car (S. Africa: 1942)
M8 Armored Car (U.S.: 1943)
SdKfz 234 Armored Car (Germany: 1943 and beyond; various versions—SdKfz 234/2 “Puma” was highly considered)
LVT-2 (Landing Vehicle Tracked, a.k.a. “Water Buffalo” or “Buffalo”) (U.S.: 1943)
LVT-4 (U.S.: 1944)
M39 Utility Vehicle (U.S.: 1944)
Kangaroo Armoured Personnel Carrier (U.K.: 1944)
AEC Command Post Vehicle (U.K.: 1944)
Coventry Mark I/Mark II Armoured Cars (U.K.: 1945)
OT-810 Armored Personnel Carrier (halftrack) (Czechoslovakia: 1948)
Panhard EBR Reconnaissance Vehicle (France: 1950)
AMX VC1 Infantry Combat Vehicle (France: 1950)
BTR-40 Armored Personnel Carrier (Russia: 1950)
BTR-152 Armored Personnel Carrier (Russia: 1950)
M75 Armored Personnel Carrier (U.S.: 1952)
M59 Personnel Carrier (U.S.: 1953)
Ferret Mark 2/3 Scout Car (U.K.: 1953)
Saracen Armoured Personnel Carrier (U.K.: 1953)
SK-1 Armored Car (Germany: 1954)
SKPF M/42 Armored Personnel Carrier (Sweden: 1954)
Humber “Pig” FV1600 (U.K.: 1955)
VP90 Light Combat Vehicle (France: 1955)
HS-30 Armored Personnel Carrier (Germany: 1955)
AT-P Armored Tractor (Russia: 1955)
Hotchkiss Carriers (France [for Germany]: 1956)
M1113 Armored Personnel Carrier (U.S.: 1956–present; 80,000 built and still in production)
LVT-P5 (U.S.: 1956)
BTR-50 Tracked Armored Personnel Carrier (Russia: 1957)
MOWAG MR8-01 Armored Personnel Carriers (Switzerland: 1958)
Saladin Armoured Car (U.K.: 1959)
BRDM Scout Car (Russia: 1959)
Panhard AML Light Armored Car (France: 1960)
YP-104 Scout Car (Netherlands: 1960)
Walid Armored Personnel Carrier (Egypt: 1960)
Type 60 Armored Personnel Carrier (Japan: 1960)
Marder 1 Infantry Combat Vehicle (Germany: 1961)
Saurer 4K 4FA Armored Personnel Carrier (Austria: 1961)
Pbv 301 Armored Personnel Carrier (Sweden: 1961)
BTR-60 Armored Personnel Carrier (Russia: 1961)
FV432 Armoured Personnel Carrier (U.K.: 1962)
M577 Command Post Vehicle (U.S.: 1962)
HWK 11 Armored Personnel Carrier (Germany: 1963)
YP-408 Armored Personnel Carrier (Netherlands: 1963)
BRDM-2 Scout Car (Soviet Union: 1963)
Vickers OMC Eland Armored Cars (models 60 and 90) (S. Africa: 1963)
MAC-1 Armored Car (U.S.: 1964)
LAV-100 Commando (U.S.: 1964)
OT-62 Armored Personnel Carrier (Czechoslovakia: 1964)
OT-64 Armored Personnel Carrier (Czechoslovakia: 1964)
OT-65/FUG Reconnaissance Vehicle (Hungary: 1964)
Shorland Armored Patrol Car (U.K.: 1965)
UR-416 Armored Personnel Carrier (Germany: 1965)
SK105 Light Tank “Kurussier” (Austria: 1965)
M-60P Armored Personnel Carrier (Yugoslavia: 1965)
Shorland Tenix S55 Armored Personnel Carrier (Australia: 1965)
Pbv 302 Armored Personnel Carrier (Sweden: 1966)
Fox Armoured Car (U.K.: 1967)
BMP-1 Infantry Combat Vehicle (Russia: 1967)
United Defense Lynx Reconnaissance Vehicle (U.S.: 1968)
AMX-10P Infantry Combat Vehicle (France: 1968)
AMX-10P Marines (France: 1968)
LUCHS (Lynx) Armored Reconnaissance Vehicle (Germany: 1968–2012[projected])
MT-LB Armored Personnel Carrier (Russia: 1968)
LAV-200 Armored Car (U.S.: 1969)
Vixen Scout Car (“Fat Fox”) (U.K.: 1970)
GKN AT104 Armoured Personnel Carrier (U.K.: 1970)
MOWAG Roland Armored Personnel Carrier (Switzerland: 1970)
PSZH-IV Armored Personnel Carrier (Hungary: 1970)
TAB-72 Armored Personnel Carrier (Romania: 1970)
BMD-1 Airborne Combat Vehicle (Russia: 1970)
Type 70 Armored Personnel Carrier (Japan: 1970)
LAV-150 Armored Car (U.S.: 1971)
Panhard M3 Armored Personnel Carrier (France: 1971)
FN 4RM/62F AB Armored Car (Belgium: 1971)
LVT-P7 (AAV7) (aka “Amtrak”) (U.S.: 1972-)
Timoney 4 × 4/6 × 6 Armored Personnel Carriers (Ireland: 1972)
Iveco Type 6616 Armored Car (Italy: 1972)
MT-LB Armored Personnel Carrier (Bulgaria: 1972)
Armored Infantry Fighting Vehicle (U.S.: 1973; export only)
Scorpion 76mm/90mm (U.K.: 1973)
Scimitar 30mm/Sabre 30mm (U.K.: 1973)
Renault VAB Armored Personnel Carrier (France: 1973; various versions)
VTT-323/M1973 Armored Personnel Carrier (N. Korea: 1973; copy of Chinese YW 531)
Bravia Chaimite Armored Personnel Carrier (Portugal: 1973)
AMX-10RC Reconnaissance Vehicle (France: 1974)
ENGESA EE-9 Cascavel Armored Car (Brazil: 1974)
ENGESA EE-11 Urutu Armored Personnel Carrier (Brazil: 1974)
Vickers OMC Ratel Infantry Fighting Vehicle (S. Africa: 1974)
Saxon Armoured Personnel Carrier (U.K.: 1975)
Panhard VCR 6 × 6 Armored Personnel Carrier (France: 1975; export version to the Middle East)
M-980 Mechanized Infantry Combat Vehicle (Yugoslavia: 1975)
Ramta Ram Reconnaissance Vehicle (Israel: 1975)
MOWAG Piranha (6 × 6 or 8 × 8) Armored Personnel Carrrier (Switzerland: 1976)
BTR-70 Armored Personnel Carrier (Russia: 1976)
TAMSE VCTP Infantry Combat Vehicle (Argentina: 1976)
Panhard ERC Sagaie Armored Car (France: 1977)
Steyr 4K 7FA G 127 Armored Personnel Carrier (Austria: 1977)
BDX Armored Personnel Carrier (Belgium: 1977)
OF-24 Tifone Infantry Combat Vehicle (Switzerland: 1977)
MOWAG Grenadier Armored Personnel Carrier (Switzerland: 1977)
MOWAG Tornado Mechanized Infantry Fighting Vehicle (Switzerland: 1977)
Bravia Commando Mk III Armored Personnel Carrier (1977)
Spartan Armoured Personnel Carrier (U.K.: 1978)
Sultan Command Post Vehicle (U.K.: 1978)
Panhard VBL Scout Car (France: 1978)
Condor Armored Personnel Carrier (Germany: 1978)
TM-170 Armored Personnel Carrier (Germany: 1978)
MOWAG Pirate Armored Personnel Carrier (Switzerland: 1978)
MOWAG Puma Armored Personnel Carrier (Switzerland: 1978)
AIFV Armored Infantry Fighting Vehicle (Taiwan: 1978)
Buffel Armored Personnel Carrier (S. Africa: 1978)
Transportpanzer 1 Armored Personnel Carrier (Germany: 1979)
SIBMAS Armoured Personnel Carrier (Belgium: 1979)
BMR-600 Armored Personnel Carrier (Spain: 1979)
TABC-79 Armored Personnel Carrier (Romania: 1979)
BMD-2 Airborne Combat Vehicle (Russia: 1979)
ENGESA EE-3 Jararaca Scout Car (Brazil: 1979)
General Motors Defense Grizzly APC (Canada: 1979)
Vickers OMC Casspir Armored Personnel Carrier (S. Africa: 1979)
ACMAT TPK 4.20 Armored Personnel Carrier (France: 1980)
VEC Reconnaissance Vehicle (Spain: 1980)
BTR-80 Armored Personnel Carrier (Russia: 1980)
BMP-2 Infantry Combat Vehicle (Russia: 1980)
Egyptian Infantry Fighting Vehicle (Egypt: 1980)
Stormer Armoured Personnel Carrier (U.K.: 1981)
Renault VBC 90 Armored Car (France: 1981)
Bv 206S Armored Personnel Carrier (Sweden: 1981)
Al-Faris Armored Car (Saudi Arabia: 1981)
Armadillo Armored Personnel Carrier (Guatemala: 1981)
Sisu XA Series Armored Personnel Carriers (Finland: 1982)
Leonidas Armored Personnel Carrier (Greece: 1982)
VCC-1 Armored Personnel Carrier (Italy: 1982)
BTR-D Armored Personnel Carrier (Russia: 1982)
Type 87 Reconnaissance Combat Vehicle (Japan: 1982)
Type 82 Command and Communications Vehicle (Japan: 1982)
Scout (U.S.: 1983)
MLI-84 Infantry Fighting Vehicle (Romania: 1983)
BOV Armored Personnel Carrier (Slovenia: 1983)
Hotspur Hussar Armoured Personnel Carrier (U.K.: 1984)
IVECO Type 6614 Armored Personnel Carrier (Italy: 1984)
BMP-23 Infantry Combat Vehicle (Bulgaria: 1984)
BVP-M-80A Mechanized Infantry Vehicle (Yugoslavia: 1984)
Puma Heavy Armored Personnel Carrier (Israel: 1984; based on Centurion chassis)
WZ 523 Armored Personnel Carrier (China: 1984)
Vickers Valkyr Armoured Personnel Carrier (U.K.: 1985)
Glover Webb Armoured Personnel Carrier (U.K.: 1985)
Warrior Infantry Combat Vehicle (U.K.: 1985)
LAV-600 (6 × 6) Armored Car (U.S.: 1985)
BLR Armored Personnel Carrier (Spain: 1985)
OT-90 Armored Personnel Carrier (Czechoslovakia: 1985)
ML-VM Combat Vehicle (Romania: 1985)
Fahd Armored Personnel Carrier (Egypt: 1985)
Kader G 320 Armored Personnel Carrier (Egypt: 1985; Mercedes-Benz)
WZ 551 Armored Personnel Carrier (China: 1985)
Type 85 Armored Personnel Carrier (China: 1985)
KIFV Armored Personnel Carrier (S. Korea: 1985)
FAMAE Piranha Armored Personnel Carrier (Chile: 1985)
Cardoen VTP-1 Orca Multi-Purpose Armored Vehicle (Chile: 1985)
VAL Light Assault Vehicle (El Salvador: 1985)
DN-IV Armored Personnel Carrier (Mexico: 1985)
Vickers OMC Rinkhals Armored Ambulance (S. Africa: 1985)
Bulldog Armored Personnel Carrier (S. Africa: 1985)
Simba Armoured Personnel Carrier (U.K.: 1986)
Glover Hornet Armoured Car (U.K.: 1986)
CBHcp P4 Light Armorred Personnel Carrier (France: 1986)
Panhard Buffalo Armored Personnel Carrier (France: 1986)
Schutzenpanzer Armored Personnel Carrier (Switzerland: 1986)
ENGESA EE-T4 Ogum Light Tracked Vehicle (Brazil: 1986)
NVH-1 Mechanized Infantry Combat Vehicle (China/U.K.: 1986)
Vickers OMC Rooikat Armored Car (S. Africa: 1986)
Centauro VBC Armored Personnel Carrier (Italy: 1987)
Sarath Infantry Combat Vehicle (India: 1987)
Achzarit Infantry Armored Vehicle (Israel: 1987)
Type 88 K1 Main Battle Tank (S. Korea: 1987)
Vickers OMC RCV 9 Internal Security Vehicle (S. Africa: 1987)
Glover Webb Tactica Armoured Personnel Carrier (U.K.: 1988)
Ferret 80 Scout Car (U.K.: 1988)
PUMA (4 × 4 or 6 × 6) Armored Personnel Carrier (Italy: 1988)
VCC-80 Infantry Combat Vehicle (Italy: 1988)
Bernardini AM-IV Armored Security Vehicle (Brazil: 1988)
Moto Pecas Charrua Armored Personnel Carrier (Brazil: 1988)
General Motors Defense Bison APC (Canada: 1988)
Wiesel 1 Light Armored Weapon Carrier (Germany: 1989)
BMD-3 Airborne Combat Vehicle (Russia: 1990)
BMP-3 Infantry Combat Vehicle (Russia: 1990)
Type 90 Armored Personnel Carrier (China: 1990)
Type 89 Mechanized Infantry Combat Vehicle (Japan: 1990)
TAMSE VCA 155mm Self-Propelled Gun (Argentina: 1990)
ASCOD Infantry Combat Vehicle (Austria/Spain: 1990)
Vickers OMC RG-12 Armored Personnel Carrier (S. Africa: 1990)
Vickers OMC Okapi Armored Command Post Vehicle (S. Africa: 1990)
NP Aerospace Armoured Personnel Carrier (U.K.: 1991)
FNSS Infantry Fighting Vehicle (Turkey: 1991)
Otokar Armored Personnel Carrier (Turkey: 1991)
BRM-23 Reconnaissance Vehicle (Bulgaria: 1991)
Vickers OMC Mamba Mk 2 APC (S. Africa: 1991)
MAV-5 Armored Personnel Carrier (Italy: 1992)
Fennek Scout Car (Netherlands: 1992)
CV9040 Infantry Fighting Vehicle (Sweden: 1993)
Alvis 4/8 Armoured Personnel Carrier (U.K.: 1993)
M1114 Up-Armored HMMWV (U.S.: 1993; High Mobility Multi-Purpose Wheeled Vehicle—also known as Hummer and Humvee)
RH-ALAN LOV Armored Personnel Carrier (Croatia: 1993)
Vickers OMC RG-31 Charger APC (S. Africa: 1993)
Wiesel 2 Light Armored Multi-Purpose Carrier (Germany: 1994)
Pbv 401 (MT-LB) Armored Personnel Carrier (Sweden: 1994)
MOWAG (10 × 10) Armored Combat Vehicle (Switzerland: 1994)
Otokar Akrep (Scorpion) Scout Car (Turkey: 1994)
Otokar Akrep (Scorpion) Armored Personnel Carrier (Turkey: 1994)
ABI Armored Car (Romania: 1994)
BTR-90 Armored Personnel Carrier (Russia: 1994)
Gypsy Armored Personnel Carrier (India: 1994)
Modified M1113 Armored Personnel Carrier (Israel: 1994)
Danto Armored Personnel Carrier (Guatemala: 1994)
Alvis Vehicles Reconnaissance Vehicle (U.K.: 1995)
CV9030 Infantry Fighting Vehicle (Sweden: 1995)
MOWAG Spy Armored Car (Switzerland: 1995)
MOWAG Eagle Armored Car (Switzerland: 1995)
BMP-30 Infantry Combat Vehicle (Bulgaria: 1995)
Snezka Reconnaissance Vehicle (Czechoslovakia: 1995)
MT-LB Tracked Vehicle (Poland: 1995)
BRDM-3 Reconnaissance Vehicle (Russia: 1995)
PRP-4 Reconnaissance Vehicle (Russia: 1995)
Vodnik Multi-Purpose Vehicle (Russia: 1995)
BTR-94 Armored Personnel Carrier (Ukraine: 1995)
WZ 501 Infantry Combat Vehicle (China: 1995)
M113 upgrade (Singapore: 1995)
RN-94 Armored Personnel Carrier (Romania/Italy: 1995)
Vickers OMC RG-32 Scout Armored Vehicle (S. Africa: 1995)
Vickers OMC Kobra Armored Personnel Carrier (S. Africa: 1995)
Scarab Scout Car (U.K.: 1996)
Pandur 6 × 6 Armored Personnel Carrier (Austria: 1996; Pandur II in 6 × 6 and 8 × 8 versions are in development)
Centauro Armored Car (Italy: 1996)
Tatrapan Armored Personnel Carrier (Czechoslovakia: 1996)
BWP 2000 Infantry Fighting Vehicle (Poland: 1996)
Alligator Scout Car (Slovakia: 1996)
DIO Armored Personel Carrier (Iran: 1996)
Shorland (Tenix) S600 Armored Personnel Carrier (Australia: 1996)
General Motors Defense LAV-25 Coyote Recce Vehicle (Canada: 1996)
Stormer 30 Reconnaissance Vehicle (U.K.: 1997)
Greys Panther Reconnaissance Vehicle (U.K.: 1997)
ARIS Arisgator Armored Personnel Carrier (Italy: 1997; modified M113 APC)
BvS 10 Armored Personnel Carrier (Sweden: 1997)
Otokar Cobra Armored Personnel Carrier (Turkey: 1997)
BTR-T Heavy Armored Personnel Carrier (Russia: 1997)
Shorland Armored Patrol Car (Australia: 1997)
Bionix Infantry Fighting Vehicle (Singapore: 1997)
Kentaurus Armored Infantry Fighting Vehicle (Greece: 1998)
Pbv 501 (BMP-1) Armored Personnel Carrier (Sweden: 1998)
Al-Faris 8-400 Armored Car (Saudi Arabia: 1998)
General Motors Defense LAV-III APC (Canada: 1998)
Warrior 2000 Infantry Combat Vehicle (U.K.: 1999)
Armored Duro Armored Personnel Carrier (Switzerland: 1999)
MOWAG Piranha IV Armored Personnel Carrier (Switzerland: 1999)
Otokar Cobra Reconnaissance Vehicle (Turkey: 1999)
TAB-77 Armored Personnel Carrier (Romania: 1999)
Boragh Armored Personnel Carrier (Iran: 1999)
M35 Mine Protected Vehicle (Jordan: 1999)
ADI Bushmaster Infantry Mobility Vehicle (Australia: 1999)
YW 534 Armored Personnel Carrier (China: 1999)
Type 96 Armored Personnel Carrier (Japan: 1999)
Dingo 1 and Dingo 2 All-Protected Carrier Vehicle (Germany: 2000)
2T Reconnaissance Vehicle (Belarus: 2000)
LAV-600 (U.S.: ?; ready for production but not yet built)
Armored Modular Vehicle (Finland: 2000)
Mohafiz Armored Personnel Carrier (Pakistan: 2000)
All-Terrain Tracked Carrier (Singapore: 2000)
Terrex AV81 Armored Infantry Fighting Vehicle (Singapore: 2001)
ARTEC Multi-Role Armored Vehicle (Germany: 2001)
GDLS RST-V Reconnaissance Vehicle (U.S.: 2003; hybrid gas/electric motor, in testing)
Textron Marine and Land Systems LAV-300 (Light Armored Vehicle) (U.S.: 1982)
Dragoon/Dragoon 3 Security Vehicles (U.S.: 1982/1994)
M4 Command and Control Vehicle (U.S.: 1998)
BRDM-2 Scout Car (upgraded) (Poland: 2000)
Satory Military Vehicles VBCI Infantry Combat Vehicle (France: anticipated for 2008)
Mobile Tactical Vehicle Light (U.S.: 2002; upgraded M1113)
Advanced Amphibious Assault Vehicle (U.S.: still in development)
What are all those parts on a tank? Who knew? Here’s a mini-guide to the terminology.
AA. Anti-Aircraft.
AAM. Air-to-Air Missile.
AAMG. Anti-Aircraft Machine Gun.
AAV. Assault Amphibian Vehicle.
AAVC. Assault Amphibian Vehicle Command.
AAVP. Assault Amphibian Vehicle Personnel.
ACAV. Armored Cavalry Assault Vehicle.
ACCV. Armored Cavalry Cannon Vehicle.
ACE. Armored Combat Earthmover.
ACP. Armored Command Post.
Acquisition Range. Different types of targets are categorized for varying ranges of accurate engagement, often using a level of clarity system. Levels of clarity are detection, classification, recognition, and identification, with identification being the most postitive level of clarity. The main categories of target are infantry, armored vehicles, or aircraft.
ACRV. Armored Command and Reconnaissance Vehicle.
Active Armor. See Explosive Reactive Armor (in the “Types of Modern Armor” section).
ACV. Armored Combat Vehicle.
ADAMS. Air Defense Advanced Mobile System.
ADATS. Air Defense Anti-Tank System.
AFD. Automatic Feeding Device (for feeding ammunition).
AFV. Armored Fighting Vehicle.
AGL. Automatic Grenade Launcher.
AGLS. Automatic Gun-Laying System.
AIFV. Airborne Infantry Fighting Vehicle (or Armored Infantry Fighting Vehicle).
AIV. Armored Infantry Vehicle.
Anti-Tank. Functional area and class of weapons characterized by destruction of tanks. In the modern context, used in this guide, the role has expanded to the larger one of anti-armor. Systems and munitions employed against light armored vehicles may be included within the category of anti-tank.
AOS. Add-On Stabilization.
AP HE. Armor-Piercing High Explosive (ammunition).
AP. Antipersonnel/Armor Piercing.
APC. Armored Personnel Carrier; it is used to carry soldiers to the close-combat zone.
APC. Armored Piercing Capped—type of ammunition.
APC-T. Armor-Piercing Capped Tracer (ammunition).
APDS. Armor Piercing, Discarding Sabot.
APDS-T. Armor Piercing, Discarding Sabot Tracer.
APE. Armor-Piercing Explosive (ammunition).
APERS-T. Antipersonnel Tracer (ammunition).
APFSDS. Armor Piercing, Fin-Stabilized, Discarding Sabot.
API-T. Armor-Piercing Incendiary Tracer (ammunition).
Appliqué Armor. Armor added on.
APT. Armor-Piercing Tracer (ammunition).
APU. Auxiliary Power Unit; Auxiliary Propulsion Unit.
AR/AAV. Armored Reconnaissance/Airborne Assault Vehicle.
Armor. Tank armor varies considerably, but basic armor is steel plate, with the thickest plating in the front and the thinnest to the rear of the tank. (See also the “Types of Modern Armor” section.)
ARRV. Armored Repair and Recovery Vehicle.
ARV. Armored Recovery Vehicle.
ASM. Air-to-Surface Missile.
AT. Anti-Tank.
ATGL. Anti-Tank Grenade Launcher.
ATGM. Anti-Tank Guided Missile.
ATM. Anti-Tank Mine.
AUV. Armored Utility Vehicle.
Average Cross-Country (Speed). Vehicle speed (km/hr) on unimproved terrain without a road.
B40. Vietnam-era Soviet shaped anti-tank projectile ammunition.
Barbette. An open gun mounting with protection on the sides and in front.
Basket. The framework on a tank that holds and rotates the turret.
BAT. Sonic and infrared anti-armor system; stands for Brilliant Anti-Armor Technology.
BATES. Battlefield Artillery Target Engagement System (British).
BB. Base bleed, a system used to reduce drag on long-range shells by feeding air through slots at the base of the shell.
Beam Riding. Missile-guidance system using a laser or radar beam to guide the missile to the designated target
Beehive Round. Vietnam-era cannon ammunition that fired 8,500 darts or flechettes, also called the Green Can.
Big Boy. Vietnam-era radio code for a heavy tank.
BITE. Built-In Test Equipment.
Black Can. Vietnam-era ammunition round carrying 1,000 pellets.
Blitzkrieg. Nazi Germany’s version of “Shock and Awe,” in which tank battalions would overwhelm enemy lines and penetrate to their objectives using power, numbers, and speed.
Bogie. Wheel combination in track-laying systems—generally refers to a pair of wheels joined by a common axle.
Bore Evacuator. Sleeve that fits around the barrel, used to remove fumes after firing so that they don’t enter the crew compartment.
Bore. The interior of a gun barrel.
Burst (Rate of Fire). Artillery term: the greatest number of rounds that can be fired in one minute.
Bustle. The part of the tank that overhangs the rear part of the turret.
Caliber/Cal. Measurement of the internal diameter of the barrel; munition diameter (mm or inches), used to classify munition sizes; barrel length of a cannon (howitzer or gun), measured from the face of the breech recess to the muzzle. British calibre...
Canister. Close-range direct-fire ammunition that dispenses a fan of flechettes forward.
CBSS. Closed Breech Scavenging System; compressed air used to force remnants of ammunition out of the gun; used in M551 Sheridan and M60A2 tanks.
CC. Cargo-Carrying (ammunition).
CCM. Counter-Countermeasure.
CCTV. Closed-Circuit TV.
CE. Chemical energy: shaped-charge ammunition, such as HEAT and HESH (see below).
CEV. Combat Engineer Vehicle.
CFV. Cavalry Fighting Vehicle.
Char. French word for tank—stands for chariot.
Chassis. The lower section of the tank, which includes the engine, transmission, and suspension. The tracks are attached to the chassis.
Chobham Armor. British-developed spaced armor with ceramic blocks set in resin between layers of conventional armor. (See also the “Types of Modern Armor” section.)
Christie Suspension. Suspension system designed in the 1920s by J. Walter Christie, which allowed tanks to run on tracks or wheels. Although a U.S. design, it was more adopted in other countries, notably Russia.
CITV. Commanders Independent Thermal Viewer.
CLGP. Cannon-Launched Guided Projectile.
CM. Countermeasure.
Coax. Coaxial.
Coaxial. Pair of machine guns mounted in the same turret or mantlet, aiming and firing together.
Combustible Cartridge Case. A casing made of some combustible material so that it is completely consumed on firing, eliminating the need for cartridge ejection.
Composite Armor. Armor composed of various layers of materials, which is designed to add protection against kinetic, shaped charges and plastic rounds.
Cradle. The mount for the gun barrel.
Cruiser. British designation for a tank that was meant for speed and independent operations—used in the 1930s and 1940s.
CRV. Combat Reconnaissance Vehicle.
CTI. Central Tire Inflation system—automatically inflates and regulates tire pressure.
Cupola. Armored revolving dome on top of the tank—tank commander’s station, often with independent controls and sighting apparatus.
CVR(T). Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked).
CVR(W). Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Wheeled).
Cyclic (Rate of Fire). Maximum rate of fire for an automatic weapon (in rd/min).
Decon. Decontamination.
Depression. The angle below the horizontal that a tank’s gun can reach, which is limited by several factors of design.
DFCS. Digital Fire Control System.
Direct Fire. Line-of-sight firing.
Direct-Fire Range. This describes the range at which a shot can be taken without adjusting for trajectory—in other words, it is the range of a bullet’s trajectory that does not have to be aimed above the height of the intended target. In Russia, they call this the point-blank range.
Ditched. Refers to situations where a tank tries to cross a trench that is too wide or when ground conditions prevent adequate traction for movement, such as very soft, waterlogged ground.
DP. Dual Purpose.
DPICM. Dual-Purpose Improved Conventional Munitions (ammunition).
DPICM-BB. Dual-Purpose Improved Conventional Munitions, Base-Bleed (ammunition).
Drive Sprocket. Transfers power from the transmission to the tracks.
DU. Depleted Uranium.
DVO. Direct-View Optics.
ECM. Electronic Countermeasures.
EFP. Explosively Formed Penetrator.
EGS. External Gun System.
Elevation. The angle above the horizontal that a tank’s gun can point—all things being equal, the higher the angle, the greater the range.
EO. Electro-Optic, Electro-Optical; referring to laser, visual, thermal, low-light, and infrared sights and targeting systems.
EOD. Explosive Ordnance Disposal.
Episcope. A fixed periscope.
ER. Extended Range—referring to various techniques used to extend the effective firing range.
ERA. Explosive Reactive Armor. See also the “Types of Modern Armor” section.
ERFB. Extended Range Full-Bore (ammunition).
ERFB-BB. Extended Range Full-Bore, Base-Bleed (ammunition).
ESRS. Electro-Slag Refined Steel (specially purified steel used in tank guns).
Est. Estimate.
ET. Electronic Timing (ammunition fuze type).
FAAD. Forward Area Air Defense.
FAASV. Forward Area Ammunition Support Vehicle.
FAE. Fuel-Air Explosive (ammunition). A technology used in aerial bombs and artillery shells to disperse the effect of the ammunition and cause intense heat and a high-pressure wave of longer duration along with an increased HE blast range.
FAV. Fast Attack Vehicle.
FCS. Fire Control System.
FEBA. Forward Edge of Battle Area (newspeak for “front line”).
FFAR. Folding-Fin Aerial Rockets.
Fire Height. Measurement of the height of the centerline of the main weapon when it is at 0 degrees elevation.
Flak. WWII term for anti-aircraft guns and fire—based on German word, flugabwehrkanonen or fliegerabwehrkanonen.
Flechette. Former Soviet artillery ammunition that dispenses flechettes (darts) forward over a wide area. Unlike canister rounds, these rounds use a time fuze, which permits close-in direct fire, long-range direct fire, and indirect fire.
FLIR. Forward-Looking Infrared (thermal sensor).
FLOT. Forward Line of Own Troops.
FO. Fiber Optic.
FOO. Forward Operation Officer.
Fording. Describes the depth of water a vehicle can cross without flooding the engine. This can be described “with preparation” or “without preparation.”
FOV. Field of View.
Frag-HE. Fragmentation-High Explosive (ammunition).
Fragmentation. Describes the type of anti-personnel munitions designed to fragment on detonation, such as grenades, some mines and bombs, and so on.
FSU. Former Soviet Union.
FV. Fighting Vehicle.
G/VLLD. Ground/Vehicle Laser Locator Designator.
Gen. Generation. Equipment such as APS and (thermal and II) night sights are often categorized in terms of 1st, 2nd, or 3rd generation of development, with different capabilities for each.
Glacis Plate. Front armor.
GLH-H. Ground-Launched Hellfire-Heavy.
GMC. Gun Motor Carriage—a WWII term for a self-propelled gun.
GP. General Purpose.
GPMG. General-Purpose Machine gun.
GPS. Global Positioning System.
Gradient. The degree of slope that a tank can climb.
Grenade. Explosive device originally designed to be thrown, but now can be launched; often carried on tanks to fire smoke grenades.
Ground Contact Length. The distance from center to center of a vehicle’s front and rear road wheels.
Gun Truck. Vietnam-era term for an armed and armored cargo truck.
Gunship. An armed helicopter, often with guns, rockets, and guided missiles, used in a variety of ways, including tank destroying.
Hard Target. A target that has some kind of protection against conventional small arms and fragmentation weaponry. Will require more sophisticated attack, such as armor-piercing, HEAT, or other penetrating munitions.
HB. Heavy Barreled, referring to machine gun barrels that were made so as not to require water-cooling systems.
HE. High Explosive. See also the “Modern Explosives” section.
HEAP. High Explosive Anti-Personnel.
HEAT. High-Explosive Anti-Tank (also referred to as shaped-charge ammunition).
HEAT-FS. High-Explosive Anti-Tank, Fin-Stabilized (ammunition).
HEAT-MP. High-Explosive Anti-Tank, Multi-Purpose.
Heavy. A relative descriptor for tanks that tended to be larger than those designated as medium or light.
Hedgehogs. Deployment of various combinations of armored vehicles, infantry, and artillery in defensible positions designed to slow enemy advance.
HEFI. High-Explosive Fragmentation Incendiary (ammunition).
HE-Frag. High Explosive-Fragmentation.
HEI. High-Explosive Incendiary (ammunition).
HEP. High-Explosive Plastic.
HEP-T. High-Explosive Plastic-Tracer (ammunition).
HERA. High-Explosive Rocket Assisted.
Herringbone Formation. A formation used by armored units in which they turn their more heavily armored flanks in the direction of march, leaving freedom of movement and also forming a relatively protected zone within for units lacking armor.
HESH. High-Explosive Squash Head (ammunition).
HIP. Howitzer Improvement Program.
HMC. Howitzer Motor Carriage, WWII term.
HMMWV. High Mobility Multi-Purpose Wheeled Vehicle.
Hollow Charge/Shaped Charge. Ammunition that focuses heat and energy in one direction on contact with target, designed to penetrate armor.
Howitzer. Artillery with short barrel and high angle of elevation, originally designed for short range, but modern versions can fire at long range—generally an indirect fire weapon. See also Direct Fire and Indirect Fire.
HRV. Heavy Recovery Vehicle.
HUD. Heads-Up Display.
Hull. Main body of the tank.
HVAP-T. Hypervelocity, Armor-Piercing Tracer (ammunition).
HVSS. Horizontal Volute Spring Suspension.
ICM. Improved Conventional Munition.
Idler. A wheel at the opposite end from the drive sprocket—not powered; used to adjust track tension.
IFCS. Integrated Fire Control System.
IFF. Identification Friend-or-Foe.
IFV. Infantry Fighting Vehicle, a vehicle designed to carry troops and allow them to fight without dismounting, or to provide direct support if they are on foot.
II. Image Intensification (night-sighting system).
ILS. Instrument Landing System.
INA. Information Not Available.
Indirect Fire. Describes firing at a target that cannot be seen, for instance by arcing over an obstacle. Many early siege weapons were designed to arc over castle walls. Most modern artillery is designed for indirect fire, in contrast to tanks and self-propelled guns, which rely primarily on direct fire.
Infantry Tank. British designation of slow, heavily armored tanks meant to move with and support infantry—in use during the 1930s and 1940s.
Infantry. In reference to tanks, this refers primarily to armored vehicles used in support of infantry.
Internal Security. Use of military or paramilitary forces in civil situations to keep order.
IR. Infrared.
I-T. Incendiary-Tracer (ammunition).
ITOW. Improved TOW.
ITV. Improved TOW Vehicle.
JGSDF. Postwar Japanese army, the Japanese Ground Self-Defense Force.
JSDA. Postwar Japanese defense ministry, Japanese Self-Defense Agency, changed to Japanese Defense Agency.
Kampfgruppe. A designation for WWII German brigades, often put together of whatever units were available and named for their commanders.
KE. Kinetic Energy: Ammunition, such as AP, APFSDS-T, and HVAP-T, that uses the momentum of impact to create a lethal effect.
K-Kill. Catastrophic kill (simulation lethality data).
LADS. Light Air Defense System.
LAFV. Light Armored Fighting Vehicle.
LAPES. Low Altitude Parachute Extraction, for dropping heavy equipment from the rear hatch of a cargo plane at very low elevation.
LARS. Light Artillery Rocket System—German system.
LAV. Light Armored Vehicle.
LAW. Light Anti-Armor Weapon.
Light. In pre-1940 terms, a smaller tank, relatively speaking.
LLAD. Low-Level Air Defense.
LLTV/LLLTV. Low-Light-Level Television.
LMG. Light Machine gun.
LOAL. Lock-On After Launch.
LOBL. Lock-On Before Launch.
LOS. Line of Sight.
LRF. Laser Rangefinder (also Low Recoil Force).
LRV. Light Recovery Vehicle.
LTD. Laser Target Designator.
LVT(A). Landing Vehicle Tracked (Armored).
LVT. Landing Vehicle Tracked.
LVTC. Landing Vehicle Tracked Command.
LVTE. Landing Vehicle Tracked Engineer.
LVTH. Landing Vehicle Tracked Howitzer.
LVTP(CMD). Landing Vehicle Tracked Personnel (Command).
LVTP. Landing Vehicle Tracked Personnel.
LVTR. Landing Vehicle Tracked Recovery.
MAC. Medium Armored Car.
Main Battle Tank (MBT). Since the 1960s, this is the description of heavy tanks weighing 30 tons or more.
Mantlet. Armor that protects against incoming fire in the gaps around the inner end of the barrel of the main gun.
Mast-Mounted Sight. Extendable optical or video sight.
Max Effective Range. Maximum range at which a weapon may be expected to achieve a high single-shot probability of hit (50 percent) and a required level of destruction against assigned targets. This figure may vary for each specific munition and by type of target (such as infantry, armored vehicles, or aircraft).
Max Off-Road (Speed). Vehicle speed (km/hr) on dirt roads.
Max. Maximum.
Maximum Aimed Range. Maximum range of a weapon (based on firing system, mount, and sights) for a given round of ammunition, while aiming at a ground target or target set with sights in the direct-fire mode. The range is not based on single-shot hit probability on a point target, but rather on tactical guidance for firing multiple rounds if necessary to achieve a desired lethality effect. One writer referred to this as range with the direct laying sight. Even greater ranges were cited for salvo fire, wherein multiple weapons (for example, tank platoon) will fire a salvo against a point target.
MBA. Main Battle Area.
MBT. Main Battle Tank.
MCLOS. Manual Command to Line of Sight.
MCV. Mechanized Combat Vehicle.
Medium. A midrange tank that was, relatively, heavier than a light tank and lighter than a heavy tank.
MEWS. Mobile Electronic Warfare System.
MG. Machine Gun.
MGMC. Multiple Gun Motor Carriage—a self-propelled vehicle carrying multiple guns, often for anti-aircraft operations.
MICV. Mechanized Infantry Combat Vehicle.
MILES. Multiple Integrated Laser Engagement System.
Mk. Mark—designates a major version of a military design.
MLRS. Multiple Launch Rocket System.
MOPP. Mission-Oriented Protective Posture—describes wearing mission-appropriate clothing.
MRBF. Mean Rounds Before Failure—expected average life of a gun or gun barrel.
MRL. Multiple Rocket Launcher.
MRS. Muzzle Reference System, which can correct aim for degradation of the gun due to wear or sagging.
MTI. Moving Target Indication.
Muzzle Brake. A device mounted at the end of the main gun barrel, which redirects some of the gasses at the muzzle, reducing the recoil that must be absorbed by the turret.
Muzzle Velocity. Speed of the projectile when it leaves the muzzle of the gun.
N/A. Not applicable.
NBC. Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical; often used to describe safety and protection features against those three threats.
Nd. Neodymium; type of laser rangefinder.
NFI. No Further Information.
Normal (Rate of Fire). Artillery term: rate (in rd/min) for fires over a five-minute period.
NVG. Night-Vision Goggle.
NVS. Night-Vision System.
OP. Observation Post.
OPTAR. Optical Tracking, Acquisition, and Ranging.
Ordnance. Military equipment.
PD. Point-Detonating (ammunition fuze type).
Ph. Probability of hit (simulation lethality data).
PIBD. Point-Initiating Base-Detonating (ammunition fuze type).
Pintel. Post attached to a firing point or vehicle, used to replace the base for a weapon mount.
Pk. Probability of kill (simulation lethality data).
POL. Petroleum, Oil, and Lubricants.
Pounder. A British method of designating gun sizes, based on the weight of the shells, used up until about 1950.
PPI. Plan Position Indicator.
Practical (Rate of Fire). Maximum rate of fire for sustained aimed weapon fire against point targets. The rate includes reload time and reduced rate to avoid damage from overuse. Former Soviet writings also refer to this as the technical rate of fire.
Prime Mover. A tracked or wheeled vehicle used for towing heavy equipment.
Protectoscope. A periscope that protects against fragments or projectiles entering the viewer.
Quick Firing. Refers to fixed ammunition in which the cartridge case and the projectile are joined. Some ammunition required separate loading of the projectile and the cartridge.
RAM-D. Reliability, Availability, Maintainability, and Durability.
Range and Bearing Launch. Firing indirectly on a target whose position, both distance and direction, are known.
Range Only Radar. Radar that can determine the distance to a target, but possibly not altitude with airborne targets.
RAP. Rocket Assisted Projectile.
Rate of Fire. The number of rounds a gun can fire, generally per minute.
Rd. Round.
RDF. Ready Deployment Force.
Ready Rounds. Ammunition that is ready for use in a weapon. It may be in an autoloader or in nearby caches.
Recoil Gear. Mechanism that connects the gun to the cradle and absorbs the recoil, returning the gun to firing position by means of a recuperator.
Recon. Reconnaissance.
Reconnaissance Vehicle. Generally a lightly armored, highly mobile vehicle used to gather situational intelligence.
Return Roller. Used to support the tracks and keep them away from the tops of the road wheels.
RF. Radio Frequency.
RHA. Rolled Homogeneous Armor, a standard measurement of the hardness of armor—used to evaluate the penetration ability of anti-tank weaponry.
RHAe. RHA equivalent, a standard used for measuring penetrations against various types of armor.
Rifling. Grooves set in a barrel to impart a rotation to the fired round, which improves both range and accuracy
RISE. Reliability Improvement for Selected Equipment, a U.S. program for improving performance and reliability of various armored vehicles.
RMG. Ranging Machine Gun—a machine gun that operates as a coaxial to the main gun in which the rounds fired have the same ballistic performance as that of the main gun.
Road Wheel. A wheel at a position where it is in contact with the ground, through the tracks.
RP. Rocket Propelled.
RPG. Rocket-Propelled Grenade.
RPV. Remote-Piloted Vehicle.
RTC. British Royal Tank Corps.
Running Gear. Consisting of the transmission, suspension, wheels, and tracks.
Sabot. Refers to the outer cladding of an APDS round, literally means “wooden shoe” in French.
SACLOS. Semiautomatic Command to Line-of-Sight.
SADARM. Sense and Destroy Armor, a seeking artillery system using millimetric wave radar and infrared sensors to seek and destroy enemy targets.
SAM. Surface-to-Air Missile.
SAW. Squad Automatic Weapon, an alternate U.S. term for a light machine gun.
Semi-Active Laser Homing. Refers to a missile system in which the missile follows a laser designator, which may be operated independently by another party.
Semi-Armor Piercing. A round that has been partially hardened to give it some armor-piercing ability.
Semi-Automatic. Refers to a gun that can fire, eject, and reload once with each pull/release of the trigger.
Separate-Loading Ammunition. The propellant and the payload are loaded separately, generally with larger ammunition that must be single-loaded and that would be too heavy to handle if in one piece.
SFM. Sensor Fuzed Munition.
Shoe. An individual link of track.
Shorad. Short-range air defense system.
SICPS. Standard Integrated Command Post System.
Skirt. Armor that hangs vertically from the track guard, protecting running gear, suspension, and the side of the hull, particularly from HEAT rounds.
Skirting Plate. Same as skirt.
SLAP. Saboted Light-Armor Penetrator.
SLEP. Service Life Extension Program—program designed to increase the “lifespan” of weapons in various ways.
Sloped Armor. Armor that is made at angles to cause deflection or imperfect impact of incoming rounds.
SMG. Submachine Gun.
Smoke BB. Smoke Base Bleed—a base bleed shell that emits smoke along its trajectory.
Smoke WP. A shell that emits white phosphorus in flight—also known as WP or Willie Pete.
Smoothbore. A cannon barrel without rifling, often used for finned projectiles that provide their own stabilization in flight.
Snorkel. A pipe that provides air to the engines of submergible vehicles.
SOG. Speed Over Ground.
SP. Self-Propelled.
SPAAG. Self-Propelled Anti-Aircraft Gun.
SPAAM. Self-Propelled Anti-Aircraft Missile.
SPAT. Self-Propelled Anti-Tank.
SPG. Self-Propelled Gun.
SPH. Self-Propelled Howitzer.
Sponson. Early tank development featuring a gun that stuck out the side of the tank.
Spring. Used to absorb vertical movement in the tracks on uneven ground and also to keep the tracks in contact with the ground.
Sprocket. The power transfer toothed wheel sending power from the transmission to the tracks.
SSKP. Single Shot Kill Probability.
Stadiametric. In this guide, a method of range-finding using stadia line intervals in sights and target size within those lines to estimate target range.
Stowage. Allows loading of ammunition within the weapon’s firing rate—used for artillery shells, among other things.
Stowed Rounds. Rounds available for use on a weapon, but stowed and requiring a delay greater than that for ready rounds. (They cannot be loaded within the weapon’s stated rate of fire.)
Sub-Caliber. Diameter smaller than the bore of the barrel, held in place by a sabot.
Submunition. A smaller round or munition carried by a larger one—a bomb, artillery shell, or rocket.
Superstructure. The upper hull assembly of a tank.
Support Roller. A small wheel that guides the track as it runs back up, between the idler and the sprocket.
Sustained (Rate of Fire). Artillery term: rate (in rd/min) for fires over the duration of an hour.
Tactical AA Range. Maximum targeting range against aerial targets, a.k.a. slant range.
Tank Destroyer. A WWII U.S. Army designation for a lightly armored tracked vehicle that carries a powerful gun, designed to ambush enemy armored units.
Tankette. A very small (comparatively) tank meant for a two-man crew, c. 1920s.
TAR. Target Acquisition Radar.
TAS. Tracking Adjunct System, an anti-aircraft system for optical tracking using high-magnification TV imagery.
TEL. Transporter Erector Launcher.
TELAR. Transporter Erector Launcher and Radar.
TGP. Terminally Guided Projectile, referring to the final phase of a projectile attack in which an un-powered, guided, and fin-stabilized projectile completes the attack
Thermal Imaging. Using a heat and video display to sense and track targets.
Thermobaric. HEI volumetric (blast effect) explosive technology similar to fuel-air explosive and used in shoulder-fired infantry weapons and ATGMs.
Time on Target. Refers to a system of artillery in which separate weapons are fired to arrive at a target simultaneously.
TLAR. Transporter-Launcher and Radar.
TOE. Table of Organization and Equipment.
TOF. Time of Flight (seconds).
Top Attack. A missile using proximity sensors designed to detonate above a target, where the armor is thinner.
Torsilastic Suspension. Rubber springs used on some U.S. LVTs. One advantage is that they are not corrosion-prone like metal springs.
Torsion Bar Suspension. A system of independently sprung road wheels that allow greater travel and flexibility; common on modern vehicles, both military and civilian.
Torsion Tube Over Bar. An even more flexible modification of the torsion-bar suspension.
TOW. Tube-launched, Optically tracked, Wire-guided missile.
TP. Target Practice.
Tracer. A bullet or projectile with a phosphorescent base that glows as it’s fired and displays a track to its target, which in turn can be used for aiming. Used in a variety of combat situations.
Traverse. Defines the ability of a gun or turret to rotate from the centerline of the vehicle, up to a 360-degree traverse.
Tread. The distance between the center lines of the tracks or wheels.
Trench. Although tanks were originally developed to overcome wartime trench fortifications, the term came to describe the distance of the largest gap a tank can cross without being ditched. See also ditched.
TRV. Tank Recovery Vehicle.
TTP. Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures.
TTR. Target Tracking Radar.
TTS. Tank Thermal Sight.
Turret Ring. The mounting for the turret, which determines the size of gun that can be mounted.
Turret. Revolving structure at the top of a tank that houses the main gun and often space for the commander or other crewmembers.
UI. Unidentified.
Unditching Beam. A heaving plank of wood carried by early tanks to give extra traction when a tank was ditched.
VADS. Vulcan Air Defense System (an M113 APC with a six-barreled 20mm Gatling machine gun, designated the M163).
VDU. Visual Display Unit.
VEESS. Vehicle Engine Exhaust Smoke System.
Velocity. A measurement of the speed of a projectile at any point in its flight.
Volute. A suspension system used in the 1930s and 1940s.
Vs. Versus.
W/. With (followed by associated item).
WAM. Wide Area Munitions—systems designed to spread “intelligent” submunitions over a wide area.
WP. White Phosphorus (ammunition).
Zippo Track. A Vietnam term for an M113 APC converted to carry a flamethrower, designated the M132A2.
Mines are used to protect perimeters and to cause damage to any enemy who attempts to enter that area. They are often hidden from view or have various methods of locating intruders and detonating. There are different types of mines—specifically, landmines and naval mines.
Explosive landmines were probably first employed during the American Civil War, although they were called land torpedoes at the time. They consisted of various traps, tripwires, modified artillery shells, guns, and other equipment. However, these land torpedoes were not universally popular and were regarded as “infernal weapons.”
During WWI, the Germans developed super-quick fuzed shells that would explode when tanks ran over them. However, it was in WWII that landmines came into more widespread use and began to fill the two main roles that they still fill—anti-personnel (AP) and anti-tank (AT).
Early mines were made of steel and were detectable using magnetic equipment or, in the case of anti-tank mines, which were set only to trigger by a weight of at least 250 pounds, using a bayonet or other long metal probe. During WWII, the Germans attempted to foil such methods by using mines made from pottery, glass, and Bakelite. The Soviets also tried using wooden mines. Today, many mines are made from modern plastics and ceramics, which are impossible to detect by the old means.
The goal of mine sweeping is often to clear one or more safe paths through the minefield, although in some cases it is to clear all the mines. Often the evidence of mine laying can be seen by the regular disturbance of the earth or even by the careless discarding of mine packaging or firing pins on the ground. Aerial reconnaissance can reveal the presence of mines, as can other kinds of intelligence, such as interrogating prisoners, finding minefield markers, and even finding enemy minefield maps.
While mine sweeping was once carried out entirely by hand, there are several more modern methods. Hand sweeping is still in use, and special “prodders” are used—non-ferrous rods that are stuck into the ground at a 45-degree angle. If the prodder hits something solid, the spot is marked or the area is investigated immediately using a grapple that will pull the mine out safely, even if it detonates. Some mines are intentionally buried at an angle so that the careless use of a prodder will actually detonate the mine.
Finding tripwires is very difficult, but it can be done using a thin piece of wire that will locate the tripwire without detonating the mine. A piece of straightened coat hanger can be used in such a role. Although modern mines use metal less and less, modern detectors can find even the smallest amounts of metal, although they are also prone to many false alarms.
Generally, in battlefield situations, speed is essential. There are several techniques in use, such as special mine-clearing tanks with heavy chains that flail the ground in front of them or rollers that extend out front. A specialized unit called the Aardvark Joint Services Flail Unit (JSFU) was used in clearing minefields in Kuwait after the Gulf War.
Some mines were designed to foil minesweeping methods by having double-impulse fuzes, which will explode upon second contact. These could be used in conjunction with an outer rim of single-impulse fuzes to lure minesweepers in and destroy them, or to destroy whichever vehicles are second in a line. To defeat these types of mines, tanks often simply use a front plow and push them out and off to the side.
The fastest way to clear a path through a minefield is to use explosives. Several systems have been developed, such as the British Royal Ordnance Great Viper, which uses eight rockets to carry a 230-meter hose filled with aluminized PE6/A1 explosives across the minefield. When it lands it detonates mines and clears a gap 183 meters long and 7.3 meters wide. It can be defeated by some double-impulse fuzes or blast-proofed mines, however. A tank with a mine plow is often used to further clear the path after this type of method has been employed. Similar systems are in use by the U.S. Army and Marines (M58A5 Mine Clearing Line Charge) and the Chinese Army, which uses a rocket system that will clear a lane 130 meters long and 12–22 meters wide. The American system will clear a path 13.7 meters wide and 100.6 meters long.
Other methods, such as the British Schermuly Rapid Anti-Personnel Minefield Breaching System Mark 2 (RAMBS-2) can be used on a smaller scale and carried by hand to be fired from a rifle with standard ammuntion. It deploys an explosive line 60 meters long and can clear AP mines to a width of about 0.6 meters. The Israeli POMINS II system can clear AP mines and barbed wire simultaneously.
Mines used to be laid by hand, often buried just beneath the surface. The German Tellermine 35 was typical of this type, and it could even be fitted with a special device that would cause it to explode if someone attempted to lift it out of the ground. Other mines included tilt rods, which stuck just above the surface and triggered the mine if pushed at any angle. Today, mines can be laid from the air, using cluster bombs or projected and scattered from ground vehicles.
Modern mines employ not only space-age materials, but digital technologies as well. They can use seismic or magnetic inputs and can often distinguish between different vehicle types and even explode when merely straddled by a vehicle. The Swedish Type FFV 028 is typical of this type. Other mines can be set off the route and triggered by tripwires or other means, such as the French GIAT MIACAHF1 and the Swedish FFV 016. Sensor-based mines, such as the British Hunting LAW80 and the French Manhurin Apilas, can be tripod-mounted and can destroy a tank with one shot of shaped charge.
Mines in modern warfare can be used to create barriers and to force vehicular or pedestrian traffic into specific “killing zones” where they will come under heavy fire—for instance, from anti-tank guided weapons. They can also be used tactically to surround enemy troops. And they can be used randomly to create havoc and the maximum in nuisance value.
There are essentially three types of anti-personnel mines—blast, directional shrapnel, and omnidirectional bounding shrapnel:
Blast mines are small—as small as a tin of shoe polish. They pack enough explosive to blow a man’s foot off, and they were used to maim, demoralize, and disrupt infantry advancement. Among the most widely employed of these mines are the Italian Tecnovar TS-50 and the Soviet PMN. The U.S. equivalent of the 1950s was the M14 anti-personnel mine.
Directional shrapnel mines are exemplified by the US M1A1 Claymore, which blasts 700 ball bearings in a 60-degree arc at a height of close to 6 feet and over a distance of up to 150 yards.
The bounding type of omnidirectional mines, such as the WWII German S.Mi.35 and S.Mi.44 (also known as Sprengmine 35 and 44), are triggered by tripwire or by direct pressure. When triggered, a propellant charge is fired, sending the mine about 3 feet above the ground, where it explodes and fires a container full of ball bearings in all directions, up to 150 feet. Anyone close to this blast will suffer multiple injuries, most likely fatal. Later versions of this type of mine are the Soviet OZM-4 and the Italian Valsella Valmara 69.
Note
Early anti-tank mines were designed to disrupt the mobility of tanks by severing the tracks or damaging wheels. This was called an M kill or mobility kill. Today’s mines, especially those using shaped charges, can destroy a tank and its personnel. Modern mines can be shaped quite differently from those of the WWII era. For instance, one modern British anti-tank mine, the L9 A1 Barmine is a small bar of plastic explosive meant to be “sown” by plow. It has a pressure plate—also made of plastic—that is narrower than the mine, ensuring that when a tank triggers it, there is plenty of explosive under the tracks.
Although the British Navy had used something called floating petards against the French Navy as early as 1627, the first known naval mine was developed in 1776 and used against the British during the American War of Independence. It was made from a keg filled with gunpowder that hung from a float. It wasn’t effective and didn’t destroy the British fleet as planned, but it was only the beginning. Even the famous steamboat inventor, Robert Fulton, designed mines between 1797 and 1812, but naval mines were not used effectively until the American Civil War, where the Confederates deployed mines (called torpedoes) successfully against the superior forces of the Federal Navy.
Note
The famous quote of Rear-Admiral David Farragut, “Damn the torpedoes, full speed ahead!” actually referred to a Confederate minefield during the Civil War at Mobile, Alabama.
In WWI, mines were even more effective, and American and British minelayers placed more than 72,000 mines in the North Sea to combat German submarines. All mines up to this time had been triggered by impact. However, in WWII, new “influence” mines were developed, which could respond to a variety of signals—acoustic, pressure change, and magnetic and physical contact. Such mines could be laid by ship, plane, or sub. More than 500,000 mines were laid by submarines alone during WWII. More than 1,300 Axis ships were destroyed and another 540 were damaged. More than 1,100 Allied vessels were destroyed. Mines were highly effective against the Japanese, crippling their shipping routes during WWII, whereas during the Korean War, the tables were turned as Korean mines disrupted the U.S. Navy’s operations.
During the Vietnam War, Destructor mines were developed that used solid-state technologies fitted into general-purpose bombs, which could be activated by seismic or magnetic inputs.
Modern technologies even include mines that can detect and interpret optical shadows or electrical potential.
As an example of the effectiveness of naval mines, one WWI-vintage mine worth about $1,500 caused $96 million damage to the USS Samuel B. Rogers (FFG-58) in the Persian Gulf in 1988. Today, because mines are relatively simple technologically, there are many mine manufacturers and exporters, and mines are widely available.
There are several types of naval mines:
Bottom Mines. Generally shallow-water mines with a negative buoyancy, so that they rest on the bottom, detonating when a ship passes over. They can be used in deep-water situations where submarines are the target. Bottom mines were used effectively to hinder landing craft during the invasion on D-Day.
Moored Mines. In deep-water situations, a floating mine may be anchored to the sea bottom at a specific depth, depending on its intended target(s).
Drifting Mines. Free-floating mines that stay at or near the surface. These types of mines were limited by the Hague Convention of 1907 and are not used by the U.S.
Attached Mines. These are really bombs that are surreptitiously attached to the hull of an unsuspecting ship.
When we think of mines, we often think of floating explosives in water or hidden explosives that can destroy unwary soldiers on foot or in land vehicles. However, people have developed a variety of specialized mines with different capabilities, such as:
Anti-sweep mines are small mines used to destroy mechanical minesweepers.
Rocket mines, originally developed by the Russians, can fire a homing rocket—generally used by bottom mines to extend the range of destruction.
Torpedo mines are simply torpedoes with triggering devices placed on the bottom. They can be defeated by other anti-torpedo measures, however, such as screens.
Bouquet mines are arrays of floating mines attached to one anchor. They are designed so that if one mine is found by sweepers and detonated, another takes its place.
Ascending mines may lurk beneath the surface, but they cut their moorings when they detect a target, floating up into range and detonating.
Homing mines have small engines that let them move toward their target before detonation.
Active mines are self-propelled mines that can be deployed, for instance in an enemy harbor, and move on their own.
Mines do damage primarily by the force of a blast or by shrapnel, but those aren’t the only ways that mines can be dangerous.
Most mines cause some kind of direct damage from the high explosives used, creating holes in the hull and/or injuring crew members with shrapnel. This is most dangerous to enlisted personnel, who tend to sleep toward the bow of the ship, than to officers, who sleep elsewhere.
The Bubble Jet Effect occurs when the mine’s explosion causes a “hole” in the water, which collapses and then creates a pillar of water that can go more than a hundred meters into the air. This effect can cause severe damage to a ship’s hull and can kill any crewmembers hit by the pillar. In some cases, it can even break a ship apart.
The Shaking Effect occurs when a mine detonates some distance from the ship, causing a resonance that roughly shakes the ship and causes tremendous damage if the explosion is large enough. This is enough to shake engines off their mountings and cause numerous leaks that cannot be stopped. A severely shaken ship often sinks. The most common injury to crewmembers is a broken femur close to the hip. Minesweeper personnel are taught to stand and walk with their knees slightly bent to compensate for the upward jolt from such an explosion—this is known as the minesweeper walk.
Mines are dangerous, even to those who are placing them. Therefore, military geniuses have devised various ways to deploy them.
Mines may be dropped from aircraft, which has many advantages, especially where access to a waterway is restricted or a minefield must be replenished after it has initially been laid.
Traditional surface minelayers were the main method in the past, but aircraft and submarine operations have supplanted them for the most part. Surface laying is primarily slower than laying by aircraft and generally more dangerous due to exposure to enemy fire and even enemy mines.
Submarine mine laying is highly effective. Although a single submarine can only carry a limited number of mines, it can place them very strategically and in complete secrecy. As an example of their effectiveness, WWII subs laid 576 mines, which resulted in 27 sunken ships and another 27 damaged, which means that they damaged or sunk a ship for every 10 mines they placed.
Mines can be attached to ships by divers, small boats, or remote-controlled devices.
Some reports speak of mines being attached to enemy craft using trained animals, such as dolphins or seals. More commonly known are the mine sweeping efforts that actually use dolphins to locate the mines.
Here are some specific types of mines:
Spar Torpedoes. These were early pre-mines (c. 1864) that were actually explosive bombs attached to poles and used to detonate against an enemy ship by prodding it against the hull.
Elia Mine. A typical WWI moored mine that would be dropped off the stern of a minelayer. The cable and sinker mechanism would drop to the bottom, at which time the depth regulator, which hung below the sinker, would cause the cable mechanism to lock, and the mine would then sink to the predetermined depth.
Herz Horns. A German technology for detonating mines was employed by both sides during WWI and WWII. It consisted of projecting lead tubes which, when crushed by contact, would release a bichromate solution or sulphuric acid, which, in either case, would create a simple electrical lead-acid battery cell, and the current would ignite the detonator.
Antenna Mine. This used copper wire that was connected to a buoy above the mine. If a submarine’s hull touched the copper wire, it would cause a slight current to run through the wire, due to the connection of dissimilar metals. This current was amplified and used to detonate the mine.
Parachute Mines. In WWII the British would drop mines from planes. The mines would deploy a small parachute, which would detach when the mine entered the water, at which point the mine would drop to the bottom, and a hydrostatic device would arm it. These mines used magnetic sensors to detect the presence of ships above them.
U.S. MK23 Mod0. A magnetic sensor mine that could be shot from the torpedo tube of a submarine.
Limpet Mines. These attached mines used magnets or explosive nails to attach to the hull of a ship. They were deployed by divers or small boats and used delay fuzes.
Human Torpedo. During WWII, the Italians and the British both employed torpedoes that were driven underwater by divers until close to the target, at which point the torpedo was detached, and the divers would escape before the torpedo would hit the enemy vessel.
Mine MK56. A 2,000-pound mine delivered by aircraft, this is a moored mine that uses a total field magnetometer for target detection. When dropped from an airplane, it sinks to the bottom, at which time the case and anchor separate, and the case floats up to the preset depth. This mine is slated to be replaced by the Littoral Sea Mine.
MK60 CAPTOR. A deep-water mine laid by aircraft that detects enemy subs and launches an MK46 Mod 4 torpedo.
MK62, MK63, MK64, and MK65 Quickstrike. These mines are the state-of-the-art U.S. shallow-water mines, which come in 500- and 1,000-pound versions converted from general-purpose bombs, as well as a 2,000-pound stand-alone version. These use sophisticated programmable and modular technologies with highly sophisticated target identification and triggering devices.
MK67 SLMM. A Submarine Launched Mobile Mine, developed from the MK37 torpedo, it was designed as a bottom mine for shallow-water targets. It can be delivered from long range by firing from the torpedo tubes of subs. A proposed replacement for the MK67 would convert MK48 torpedoes into dual-warhead mobile mines.
Littoral Sea Mine. This has the ability to be triggered by remote control or by its own onboard Target Detecting System (TDS) and will be able to fire Mobile Homing Warheads (MHW).
Blue Peacock was the codename of a British project in the 1950s (also sometimes called the chicken-powered nuclear bomb). The idea was to put some quantity of 10-kiloton nuclear mines in specific target locations around Germany, specifically in the Rhine and northern plains. They planned to detonate the mines using wires or an eight-day timer, but the mines would explode within 10 seconds if disturbed. Each mine weighed 7.2 tons. The project was developed at the Armament Research and Development Establishment at Fort Halstead in Kent in 1954.
The whole project was strange and flawed, and one particular element led to its odd nickname. The problem was that during the winter, the buried mines would not be expected to function correctly, and one of the more harebrained ideas (to mix metaphors) was to include live chickens, with feed and water, in the bomb casing to provide body warmth. Fortunately, the whole project was scrapped in 1958 due to the obvious risks of nuclear fallout and the political ramifications of the destruction it could cause.
Mines are dangerous and scary. They can do terrible harm to individuals and to machinery. They can destroy armored vehicles and sink ships. So it’s no wonder that military technologists have devised ways to disable, avoid, or counter them. Here’s a list of some common mine countermeasures:
Degaussing can defeat magnetic sensors. A crude method involved running a wire around the hull of a ship and passing electrical current through it to nullify the ship’s magnetic field. More modern methods use special degaussing stations that employ large coils to induce a canceling magnetic field in the hull. This solution has various problems, including the need to recalibrate all the ship’s instruments afterward, the requirement that all metal parts remain in the same locations, and the need to repeat the process at least every six months because the ship will slowly regain its magnetic field.
In an attempt to avoid detonating mines, ships are built with low signatures, to avoid deeper mines intended for large ships. Specialized ships, especially minesweepers, can be built of fiberglass or even wood to avoid magnetic sensors, and special low-noise engines are used to avoid acoustic sensors. Hulls are even designed to create minimal pressure to defeat pressure sensors. Slow-moving ships can use sonar to detect anything that might be a mine and take corrective action.
Minesweepers often use a wire of hard steel to cut the moorings of mines, which could then be destroyed or collected.
Paravanes are torpedo-shaped floats that can be pulled away from a ship that is towing them and can cut the wires of moored mines. They can be used in conjunction with a minesweeper or floated off the bow of a ship for added protection.
Agate systems are anti-mine devices that come in several configurations, from towed to independently steered and unmanned drones. Agate stands for Air Gun and Transducer Equipment, and these systems can duplicate the acoustic signature of any ship using airguns, thereby causing acoustic mines to detonate safely. One self-steering version is known as the Agate towfish.
Tidal lifts are inflatable bag systems used to capture mines and tow them to safe locations.
Mine disposal charges are explosive devices that are deployed by remotely operated vehicles and destroy the mines by sympathetic detonation.
Autonomous Unmanned Vehicles are used for surveying an area and detecting the presence of mines.
New FAE (Fuel Air Explosive) bombs create a massive blastwave over a minefield and detonate the mines. (See the following “Bombs” section for more.)
The U.S. Navy runs the Marine Mammal Program that trains and employs dolphins and/or sea lions to locate, detect, mark, and sometimes retrieve naval mines. These animals are also used to guard various sensitive coastal areas from various types of swimmer and diver attacks, according to the U.S. Navy website.
Although there were many precursors to manned flight, the first military aircraft was, ironically, the Wright Flyer, the plane that made history in 1903 by becoming the first machine-powered heavier-than-air plane to fly. The Wright brothers’ Flyer (renamed Wright A) was in military service for two years before being retired to the Smithosonian Institute.
The first time modern aircraft were used in war occured during the Balkan war of 1912–1913, but it was in WWI that air combat first played any significant role and began nearly a century of development and increasing importance of air superiority. WWI saw the first air aces, such as Max Immelmann, Oswald Boelcke, Manfred Von Richthofen (the Red Baron), Georges Guynemer, Rene Fonck, Billy Bishop, and Eddie Rickenbacker, all flying in biplanes or triplanes.
One of the earliest roles of airplanes was reconnaissance, but they were quickly used as attack planes, for ground strafing and for crude bombing (which often involved the pilot or co-pilot manually throwing bombs and grenades from the open cockpit onto ground targets). In fact, the earliest bombers were balloons.
What followed was a further evolution of air combat, with dedicated air superiority fighters and bombers of various configurations. In some ways, the evolution of fighter air combat followed the ancient rules of chivalry, and it could be said, with some stretch of the imagination, that the plane had replaced the horse and the machinegun had replaced the lance, and that aerial dogfights were the equivalent of medieval jousting. At any rate, pilots did often tend to adopt a more chivalrous attitude toward their adversaries and, even into WWII, acted as if they were a class distinct from the foot soldiers and other ground- and sea-based combatants. This chivalry did not necessarily extend to the bomber, which was an indiscriminate killer and destroyer, nor did it extend into the modern era of jet fighters that can kill opponents without necessarily making visual contact at all.
At any rate, this list contains most of the aircraft used in combat for almost the last 100 years. It is a reasonably complete listing of all planes built in any numbers (excluding prototypes [for the most part] and one-offs), including, where possible, the name/designation of the aircraft, its type/role, its country of manufacture, and the year of first introduction. In some cases, I’ve added a few additional notes on points of interest.
Technically, the term dirigible, which derives from the French word dirigeable, specifically refers to the idea that, unlike balloons, dirigibles are lighter-than-air craft that can be steered. It is widely believed that the Germans were the main users of dirigibles during WWI, but in fact the British, French, and Americans also used them. At that time, most were what are called rigid because they were built around a rigid skeleton. In contrast, non-rigid dirigibles are simply bags filled with a lighter-than-air gas, originally hydrogen and later helium. Non-rigid dirigibles are now known commonly as blimps.
Entreprenant (France, 1794)—the first war balloon, used by Napoleon at the Battle of Fleurus
Lebaudy Republique (France, 1908)
ZR-1 USS Shenandoah (U.S., 1923)—dirigible
LZ-1 (1900)
Deutschland (world’s first commercial airship, 1910)
Sachsen (1913)
Note
Zeppelin airships clocked 107,208 miles and carried 34,028 passengers and crew from 1910 to 1914.
At the beginning of WWI, Germany had 10 Zeppelin airships. By the end, they had built 67, of which only 16 survived. The first Zeppelin to function as a bomber was the LZ-38, which bombed London in May, 1915.
After the war, the Zeppelin company made a huge dirigible for the U.S., called the Los Angeles, which flew about 250 flights, including flights to Puerto Rico and Panama. Following that were two additional U.S. airships—the Akron and the Macon.
After the Treaty of Versailles period had passed, Germany built three giant rigid airships, called the LZ-127 Graf Zeppelin, LZ-129 Hindenburg, and LZ-130 Graf Zeppelin II. The Graf Zeppelin first flew in 1928 and made many trips, including circumnavigating the globe in 12 days with only three stops. In all, the Graf Zeppelin made 590 flights and crossed the oceans 144 times in 10 years, carrying more than 13,000 passengers.
The Hindenburg was built in 1936. It was 804 feet long, 135 feet maximum diameter, and contained 7 million cubic feet of hydrogen in 16 cells. It was powered by four diesel engines and could travel up to 82 mph carrying 70 passengers. It had a dining room, a library, a lounge, and observation windows. It carried out several successful flights and carried more than 1,300 passengers before it somehow ignited during a landing operation in 1937 over Lakehurst, New Jersey, killing 35 of the 97 people onboard and also killing the future of Zeppelins as commercial carriers.
The Graf Zeppelin II was built in 1938 but had no particular future and was scrapped in 1940.
Early aircraft used multiple-wing structures for added lift. As engines became more powerful and airfoil technologies improved, almost all aircraft eventually moved to the monowing. This section details some of the multi-winged aircraft produced before the monowing came to dominate the field.
Wright A Recon (U.S.); Wright Bros.; first U.S. Army aircraft
B.E.2 Recon (Britain)
Royal Aircraft Factory F.E.2 Pusher Fighter (Britain); one of the first aircraft to fly with a machine gun
Avro 504 Trainer (Britain)
Sopwith Tabloid Recon/Bomber (Britain); first plane to complete a successful bombing mission of WWI
Deperdussin Monococque (Belgium); personal aircraft of H. Crombez, who brought it with him to fight in WWI
Maurice Farman MF.7 Pusher Biplane Recon (France); used by British (who called it Shorthorn) and Russian air forces, where it saw combat in 1917
Dux 1 Pusher Biplane (Russia); the first armed Russian plane, with a nose-mounted machinegun
Aviatik B II Observation (Austria/Hungary)
Lohner C I Recon Biplane (Austria)
Aviatik B.I Recon (Germany)
Kennedy Giant Heavy Bomber (Britain)
Maurice Farman S.11 Recon/Bomber/Trainer (France)
B.E.2 Recon (Britain)
B.E.8 Bomber (Britain)
Vickers FB.5 “Gun Bus” Pusher Biplane Fighter (Britain)
Sopwith Gun Bus Fighter/Bomber (Britain)
Martinsyde S.1 Obersvation Biplane (Britain)
Sopwith Schneider Biplane Carrier or Float-Equipped Fighter (Britain); featured a gun angled upward for anti-aircraft defense
Sopwith Tabloid Biplane Recon (Britain)
Breguet 1914 Recon Biplane (France)
Caudron G.III Recon Biplane (France)
Henri Farman FH.20 Biplane Recon (France)
Voisin 1 Biplane Fighter/Bomber (France); the first aircraft to shoot down another in mid-air combat; a series of Voison models followed, up to the Voison 10 in 1916; Voison aircraft were also the first genuine bombers created and were used to bomb Zeppelin plants in Germany in 1914
A.E.G B I Recon Biplane (Germany)
Albatros B I Recon Biplane (Germany)
Albatros B II Recon Biplane (Germany); designed by E. Heinkel; Albatros C I variant added a stronger engine and an observer’s gun
Aviatik B I Biplane Recon (Germany); observer might carry a rifle or pistol, or even a machinegun (which required leaving the cockpit to fire); otherwise unarmed
Aviatik B II Biplane Recon (Germany)
D.F.W. B I Recon (Germany)
Gotha LD 5 Recon Biplane (Germany)
Hansa-Brandenburg D Biplane (Germany)
Hansa-Brandenburg W Biplane Recon Seaplane (Germany)
Otto B Biplane Recon/Bomber (Germany)
Rumpler B I Recon (Germany)
Paul Schmitt Seaplane (France)
R.E. 7 Bomber (Britain)
L.V.G C.II Recon (Germany)
Nieuport 11 Fighter (France)
Nieuport 12 Fighter/Recon (France)
Vickers F.B.5 Fighter (Britain)
Bristol Scout Fighter (Britain)
Caudron G.4 Recon/Bomber (France)
Airco D.H.1 Fighter/Recon (Britain)
De Havilland/Airco D.H.2 Fighter (Britain); Fokker E.III killer
Armstrong Whitworth F.K.3 Biplane Recon/Trainer (Britain)
Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.7 Biplane Bomber/Recon (Britain)
Bristol Scout Biplane Recon (Britain)
Short 184 Biplane Torpedo Bomber (Britain); first aircraft to sink a ship with a torpedo, but otherwise unremarkable
Short 320 Long-Range Biplane Torpedo Bomber on Floats (Britain)
Short 827 Biplane Recon/Bomber (Britain)
Breguet Bre.5 Pusher Biplane Fighter (France); also used as a night bomber
Henri Farman F.40 Biplane Bomber/Recon (France)
Caudron G.IV Biplane Bomber (France); 1350 built
Ponneir M.1 Biplane Fighter (France)
Nieuport 10 Sesquiwing Fighter (France)
Nieuport 11 Bébé Biplane Fighter (France)
Nieuport 12 Sesquiwing Fighter (France)
SPAD SA.1 Biplane Fighter (France)
SPAD SA.2 Biplane Fighter (France)
Caudron R.4 Bomber/Recon (France)
A.E.G. B II Recon (Germany); smaller, more maneuverable version of A.E.G. B I (A.E.G. C I was an armed version, and a smaller version of the C I was the C II)
A.G.O. C II Biplane Bomber (Germany); long range and high speed and maneuverability
Aviatik C I/II/III Biplane Recon (Germany)
D.F.W. C I/II Biplane Recon (Germany); armed versions of B I
Fokker B I/B II/B III Biplane Recon/Trainers (Germany)
Fokker M.7 Biplane Recon (Germany)
Friedrichschafen FF 29 Float Biplane Recon (Germany)
Gotha Ursinus G I Biplane Bomber (Germany)
Gotha WD 2 Float Biplane (Germany)
Gotha WD 8/WD 9 Seaplanes (Biplane) (Germany)
Hansa-Brandenburg FB Sesquiplane (Germany)
Lloyd C II Biplane Recon/Trainer (Germany)
L.V.G. C I Recon Biplane (Germany)
L.V.G. C V Recon Biplane (Germany)
N.F.W. B I Biplane Recon/Trainer (Germany)
Rumpler C I Biplane Recon (Germany)
Rumpler G I/G II/G III Biplane Bombers (Germany)
Sablatnig SF 1 Biplane Recon Seaplane (Germany)
Zeppelin-Staaken R VI Bomber (Germany)
Caproni Ca.3 Biplane Bomber (Italy)
Macchi L.1 Recon Biplane (Italy); copy of Austrian Lohner L40
Anatra Anade Recon Biplane (Russia)
Sikorsky Ilya Mourometz Biplane Bomber (Russia); the first four-engine bomber
Grigorovich M-5/M-6/M-7/M-8 Biplane Flying Boat Recon (Russia); developed after four less successful versions (M-1 through M-4); approximately 300 built
RBVZ S-XVI Biplane Fighter (Russia); Sikorsky built 21
Albatros D.I (Germany)
Albatros D.II (Germany)
Armstrong-Whitworth F.K.10 Fighter/Bomber/Recon (Britain); quadruplane (four wings); low production
B.E.12 Fighter/Bomber (Britain)
Curtis JN-4 “Jenny” Trainer (U.S.)
Vickers F.B.12 Fighter (Britain)
Dorand AR.1 Recon (France)
F.E.2 Fighter/Bomber (Britain)
Halberstadt D.II Fighter (Germany)
Hansa-Brandenburg D.I Fighter (Austro-Hungarian Empire)
Martinsyde G.100 “Elephant” Fighter/Bomber (Britain)
Hanriot HD.1 Fighter (France)
Handley Page 0/100 Heavy Bomber (Britain)
Nieuport 16 Fighter (France)
Nieuport 17 “Superbébé” Fighter (France)
R.E.8 “Harry Tate” Recon/Bomber (Britain)
Rumpler C.IV Recon (Germany)
Sopwith 1½ Strutter Fighter (Britain)
Sopwith Pup Fighter (Britain); popular fighter; first to land on a moving ship
Sopwith Tripe (Triplane) Fighter (Britain)
SPAD SA.4 Fighter (France); only 10 built for Russia
SPAD S.VII Biplane Fighter (France); more than 3,500 built
Spad S.XI Recon (France); more than 1,000 built
Hansa-Brandenburg CC Flying Boat Biplane Fighter (Austria)
Hansa-Brandenburg D I Biplane Fighter (Austria)
Lloyd C II Recon Biplane (Austria)
Avro 504 Biplane Trainer (Britain)
B.E.12 Fighter (Britain)
Vickers FB.9 “Streamline Vickers” Fighter/Trainer (Britain)
Vickers FB.12 Pusher Biplane Fighter (Britain); few built
Vickers FB.14 Recon/Fighter (Britain)
Vickers FB.19 Tractor Biplane Fighter (Britain)
Royal Aircraft Factory F.E.8 Pusher Biplane Fighter (Britain)
Handley Page O/100 (H.P.11) Heavy Bomber (Britain); first British heavy bomber
Handley Page O/400 (H.P.12) Heavy Night Bomber (Britain)
Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.8 Recon (Britain); 4,077 built
Dufaux Biplane Fighter (France); featured propeller mounted in center of fuselage
Morane-Saulnier I Fighter (France)
Short Bomber (Britain); replaced by Handley Page O/100 in 1917
Sopwith 1½ Stutter Biplane Fighter (Britain)
Sopwith Triplane Fighter (Britain); though largely unsuccessful, it did inspire the famous Fokker Dr.I triplane
Nieuport 14 Biplane Bomber (France)
Nieuport 17 Sesquiplane Fighter (France)
A.E.G. C IV Biplane Recon (Germany); successful aircraft, with the C IVN used as a night bomber
A.E.G. G IV Bomber (Germany)
Albatros C III Recon Biplane (Germany)
Albatros C V Recon Biplane (Germany); redesigned C III
Albatros C VII Recon Biplane (Germany)
Albatros D I/D II Biplane Fighter (Germany)
Albatros W 4 Biplane Floatplane (Germany); developed from the D II
Brandenburg D I Biplane Fighter (Germany)
Brandenburg KDW Seaplane Fighter Biplane (Germany); based on D I
D.F.W. C IV/C V Recon Biplanes (Germany); C V highly effective, could outmaneuver many enemy fighters and set world altitude record in 1919; more than 1,000 built
Euler D I Fighter/Trainer (Germany)
Fokker D I Biplane Fighter (Germany)
Fokker D II/D III Biplane Fighter (Germany)
Fokker D IV Biplane Fighter (Germany); improved D I
Fokker D V Biplane Fighter/Trainer (Germany)
Freidrichshafen FF 33 Biplane Recon/Fighter on Floats (Germany)
Halberstadt D II Fighter (Germany)
Halberstadt D V Fighter (Germany)
Hansa-Brandenburg C I Recon (Germany)
Hansa-Brandenburg Biplane Seaplane Fighter (Germany)
Hansa-Brandenburg Biplane Torpedo Bomber Seaplane (Germany)
L.F.G Roland C II Recon Biplane/Escort Fighter (Germany)
L.F.G. Roland D I Biplane Fighter (Germany)
Rumpler 6B 1/6B 2 Biplane Fighter (Germany)
Rumpler C IV Long-Range Recon (Germany)
Siemens-Schuckert D I Sesquiplane Fighter (Germany)
Pfalz E IV/E V/E VI Biplane Fighters/Trainers (Germany)
Ansaldo A.1 Balilla Biplane Fighter (Italy)
Hanriot HD-1 Biplane Fighter (Italy); French design, but 831 built in Italy
Macchi L.3 Flying Boat Fighter-Bomber (Italy)
S.I.A S.P.2 Biplane Recon/Trainer (Italy); 400 built; based on French Farman biplanes
Anatra DS Biplane Recon (Russia); improved version of the Anade
Lebed XII Recon Biplane (Russia); 214 built
Grigorovich M-9 Biplane Flying Boat Recon (Russia); developed from M-5, but with several improvements; about 500 built
Grigorovich M-15 Biplane Recon (Russia); about 80 built
Grigorovich M-16 Biplane Recon (Russia); operated on skis
Sikorsky S-XVII Recon Biplane (Russia)
Saveljev Quadruplane (Russia)
Anatra VI (Voisin Iwanov) Biplane Version of French Voisin LAS (Russia); more than 150 built
Gotha G II/G III/G IV/G V Biplane Bombers (Germany); the G IV and G V were the main German bombers of WWI
Zeppelin Staaken R.VI (Germany)
Junkers J.I Observation (Germany)
Heinrich Pursuit Fighter (U.S.)
Nieuport 27 Biplane Fighter (France)
Nieuport 28 Biplane Fighter (France); rejected by French and British; used by U.S.
Airco D.H.4 (Britain); nicknamed the Flying Coffin
Airco D.H.5 (Britain)
Thomas-Morse S-4 Fighter Trainer (U.S.)
Thomas-Morse S-5 Amphibious Fighter (U.S.)
Aviatik D I Fighter (Austria-Hungary)
Albatros D.III (Germany)
Albatros D.V (Germany)
Armstrong-Whitworth F.K.8 Recon Bomber (Britain)
Aviatik D.I Fighter (Germany)
Breguet 14 Bomber/Recon (France)
Bristol F.2b Fighter/Bomber (Britain)
Standard E-1 Fighter/Trainer (U.S.)
Lanzius L I Biplane (U.S.)
Pfalz D.III Fighter (Germany)
Phönix D.I Fighter (Germany)
S.E.5 Fighter (Britain)
Sopwith Bulldog Biplane Fighter (Britain)
Spad S.XII Biplane Fighter (France); mounted with an MG and cannon
Spad S.XIII Biplane Fighter (France); 7,300 built
Spad S.XIV Seaplane Fighter (Biplane) (France)
Sturtevant B Fighter (U.S.)
Curtiss H Flying Boat (U.S./Britain)
Phoenix D I Fighter (Austria)
Sopwith Baby Recon Float Biplane (Britain)
Blackburn Triplane Fighter (Britain)
Fairey Campania Recon (Britain); first aircraft design specifically for use on a carrier
De Havilland D.H.4 Biplane Bomber (Britain)
Airco D.H.5 Biplane Fighter (Britain)
Airco D.H.6 Trainer/Recon (Britain)
Armstrong Whitworth F.K.8 “Big Ack” Biplane Recon/Bomber (Britain)
Fairey Hamble Baby Fighter (Britain)
Fairey N.9 Biplane Seaplane Used for Recon (Britain)
Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5 Biplane Fighter (Britain); 5,205 built
Beardmore W.B.II Biplane Fighter (Britain)
Dorand AR.1 Recon (France)
Breguet Br XIV Biplane Recon/Bomber (France); more than 8000 built
Donnet-Denhaut DD.8 Biplane Flying Boat ASW (France)
Hanriot HD.1 Fighter (France); 1,145 built
Letord 4 Biplane Bomber (France)
Nieuport 24/25/27 Biplane Fighters (France); developments of the Nieuport 17
Nieuport 28 Biplane Fighter (France)
Paul Schmitt 7 Biplane Bomber (France); obsolete when it enterered service; retired within months
Salmson-Moineau S.M.1 Recon Biplane (France)
A.E.G. J I/J II Ground Support Biplane (Germany)
A.G.O. C IV Recon Biplane (Germany); few built
Albatros C VIII Long-Range Recon Biplane (Germany); 400 built
Albatros C X Recon Biplane (Germany); 300 built
Albatros D III Sesquiplane Fighter (Germany); 446 built; Albatros fighters were superior from 1916 to 1917
Albatros D V Biplane Fighter (Germany); approximately 1,612 built
Albatros J I Attack Biplane (Germany); armored fuselage
Albatros W 5 Biplane Torpedo Bomber Seaplane (Germany)
Aviatik D III Biplane Fighter (Germany)
Brandenburg CC Biplane Flying Boat Fighter (Germany)
Brandenburg W 18 Biplane Fighter (Germany); replacement for the Brandenburg CC
Brandenburg W 19 Recon (Germany)
Euler D II Fighter/Trainer (Germany)
Fokker D VI Biplane Fighter (Germany)
Fokker Dr I Triplane Fighter (Germany); only about 320 built, but made famous by the WWI German ace, Baron Manfred Von Richthofen (the Red Baron)
Fokker V.8 Experimental Fighter with Five Wings (Germany); scrapped after the first flight
Friedrichshafen FF 49 Biplane Recon/Fighter (Germany); several hundred built and used in WWI
Friedrichshafen G III Biplane Bomber (Germany)
Gotha WD 11 Biplane on Floats Torpedo Bomber (Germany)
Halberstadt CL II/CL IV Attack (Germany); 900 built
Hannover CL II Fighter/Attack (Germany); 639 built
Junkers J I Attack Biplane (Germany)
L.F.G. Roland D II Biplane Fighter (Germany)
Pfalz D III Biplane Fighter (Germany); approximately 600 built
Pfalz D IV Biplane Fighter (Germany)
Rumpler 7D 4 Fighter (Germany)
Rumpler C VII Recon (Germany); improved Rumpler IV
Sablatnig N 1 Bomber (Germany)
Sablatig SF 5 Biplane Recon Seaplane (Germany)
Siemens-Schuckert D III Sesquiplane Fighter (Germany)
Zeppelin CL II Biplane (Germany); all metal
Zeppelin-Staaken R IV Four-Engine Biplane Bomber (Germany)
Caproni Ca.4 Biplane Bomber (Italy)
Caproni Ca.5 Biplane Bomber (Italy); 640 built
Macchi M.8 Biplane Flying Boat Recon (Italy)
Pomilio PC/PD Recon Biplanes (Italy); total production of both types: 545
Pomilio PE Recon Biplane (Italy); 1,071 built
Fiat R.2 Recon Biplane (Italy); 129 built
S.I.A.I S.8 Biplane Recon/ASW Flying Boat (Italy)
S.I.A 7/7B Recon Biplane (Italy)
S.I.A S.P.3 Recon (Italy); 300 built despite being obsolete
S.I.A S.P.4 Recon (Italy); twin-engined version of S.P.3; 146 built
Yokosuka Yokosho Float Biplane (Japan); first Japanese-designed aircraft; 218 built
Grigorovich M-11 Flying Boat Biplane Fighter (Russia); about 60 built; redesigned M-12 built only in small numbers
RBV S-XX Biplane Fighter (Russia); Sikorsky built only five
Hafeli DH-3 Biplane Recon/Trainer (Switzerland)
Bristol F.2 “Bristol Fighter” or “Brisfit” (Britain); highly successful WWI fighter
Sopwith F.1 Camel Biplane Fighter (Britain)
Orenco B Biplane Fighter (U.S.); never produced
Pfalz D.XII Biplane Fighter (Germany); about 800 built even though the Fokker D VII was preferred
Pomilio PE Recon (Italy); 1,071 built
Salmson 2 Recon Biplane (France); more then 3,200 built, including 705 for the U.S.; used in bomber and attack roles as well
Siemens-Schuckert D.IV Fighter (Germany)
Sopwith 5F1 Dolphin Biplane Fighter (Britain); 1,532 built
Phoenix 20.24 Fighter (Austria/Hungary)
Sopwith T.F.2 Salamander Ground Attack (Britain); 419 built, but never saw action
Caproni Ca.4 Series Heavy Bomber (Italy); tri-wing
Curtiss HA HA Float Plane Fighter (U.S.)
Fokker D.VII Fighter (Germany)
Handley Page V/1500 (H.P.15) Heavy Bomber (Britain)
Martinsyde F.4 Buzzard Biplane Fighter (Britain)
Hannover CL.IIIa Recon (Germany)
Phoenix C I Recon (Austria)
Phoenix D I/D II/D III/Biplane Fighters (Austria-Hungary)
Ufag C I Recon (Austria)
Sopwith Snipe Biplane Fighter (Britain); upgrade of the Sopwith Camel and easier to fly; 497 built in 1918; as many as 1,500 overall; premier RAF fighter post-WWI
Sopwith T.1 Cuckoo Torpedo Bomber (Britain)
De Havilland D.H.9A “Ninak” Bomber/Recon (Britain); post-war use in airlines until 1931
De Havilland D.H.10 Amiens Biplane Bomber (Britain)
Sopwith 5F1 Dolphin Biplane Fighter (Britain)
Felixstowe Fury Triplane Flying Boat (Britain)
Handley Page V/1500 Biplane Bomber (Britain)
Blackburn Kangaroo Biplane Bomber (Britain); limited numbers used for sea patrol
Port Victoria P.V.5a Biplane Seaplane Fighter (Britain)
Sopwith T.F.2 Salamander Attack Biplane (Britain); never saw service
Short Shirl Biplane Torpedo Bomber (Britain)
Sopwith Snipe Biplane Fighter (Britain); replacement for the Camel
Avro 531 Spider Biplane Fighter (Britain)
Vickers Vimy Long-Range Biplane Bomber (Britain); famous for being the first aircraft to make a nonstop crossing of the Atlantic in 1919
Farman F.50 Heavy Biplane Bomber (France)
Hanriot HD.3 Biplane Fighter (France)
Nieuport-Delage NiD-29 Biplane Fighter (France); large numbers built for France, Japan, Argentina, Belgium, Italy, Spain, and Sweden
Caudron R.11 Biplane Bomber (France); not effective as a bomber, but successful as an escort craft
Spad S.XX Fighter (France)
Salmson 2 Biplane Recon (France); more than 3,200 built; 705 used in the U.S.
S.E.A. 4 Biplane Fighter/Recon (France)
A.E.G. G V Bomber (Germany); improved version of the G IV
Albatros C XII Recon Biplane (Germany)
Daimler L6 (D I) Biplane Fighter (Germany)
Dornier Rs I Biplane Flying Boat (Germany); largest plane ever built as of 1918
Fokker C I Biplane Recon (Germany); 250 built after WWI in the Netherlands
Gotha G VIII Biplane Bomber (Germany)
Halberstadt C V/C VIII High Altitude Recon (Germany)
Hannover CL V Biplane Fighter (Germany)
L.F.G. Roland D VI Fighter (Germany)
Linke-Hoffmann R-II “Riesenflugzeug” (Giant Aircraft) Biplane Bomber (Germany); four engines linked to one nose propeller; reportedly the largest single airscrew aircraft ever built
Pfalz D VIII Biplane Fighter (Germany)
Pfalz D XII Biplane Fighter (Germany); about 800 built, but not as popular with pilots as the Fokker D VII
Pfalz D XV Biplane Fighter (Germany)
Rumpler D I Fighter (Germany)
Schneider Biplane Fighter (Germany)
Siemens-Schuckert D IV Fighter (Germany); considered superior to the Fokker D VII, but only 140 were built
UFAG C I Recon (Germany)
Idro-S.V.A. Float Plane Fighter Biplane (Italy); based on Ansaldo S.V.A.
Macchi M.5 flying Boat Biplane Fighter (Italy); 344 built
Macchi M.7 Flying Boat Biplane Fighter (Italy)
Macchi M.9 Flying Boat Biplane Bomber (Italy)
Macchi M.14 Biplane Fighter (Italy)
Macchi M.15 Biplane Recon (Italy)
S.I.A. 9B Light Bomber/Recon (Italy)
Ansaldo S.V.A 3 Ridotto Fighter (Italy)
Ansaldo S.V.A. 5 Bomber (Italy); approximately 2,000 of the S.V.A series were built
Hei 2 Fighter (Japan); designation of a single Spad S.XX fighter in Japanese service
TNCA Microplano Biplane Fighter (Mexico); only one built before the Civil War
Fokker D VII Biplane Fighter (Germany); considered to be the best fighter of WWI
British Fairey III Recon Float Plane (Britain); enduring line of float planes
Besson LB Patrol Triplane (France)
Liore et Oliviere LeO 5 Attack Biplane (France)
Mannesman Prototype Bomber (Germany); found after the war; a triplane bomber with 10 engines (!) estimated to have a range of 10,400 km and 80 hours of flight time; never completed
Fiat B.R. Biplane Bomber (Italy)
S.I.A.I S.16 Biplane Flying Boat Recon (Italy)
Nakajima Type 5 Biplane Trainer (Japan); 118 built
Parnall Panther Carrier Recon Biplane (Britain); featured a hinged fuselage for storage on ships and flotation bags in the event of forced water landing/ditching
Bleriot-Spad S.34 Biplane Trainer (France)
Macchi M.18 Flying Boat Trainer/Transport/Recon (Italy)
Curtiss-Orenco D Fighter (U.S.); biplane
Lewis-Vought VE-7 Bluebird Fighter Trainer (U.S.)
Supermarine Seagull Amphibian Biplane Recon (Britain); Seagull V, named Walrus, was better known; not to be confused with 1948 monoplane by the same name
Gloster Sparrowhawk Biplane Fighter (Britain)
Fokker T.2 (F-IV) Torpedo Bomber (Netherlands); a few used by the U.S. Navy; famous for being the first aircraft to fly nonstop cross-country (Long Island to San Diego in 1923)
Curtis FC Fighter (U.S.); first USN fighter
Thomas-Morse M.B.3 Biplane Fighter (U.S.)
Curtiss TS Biplane Fighter (U.S.)
Gloster Nighthawk Biplane Fighter (Britain)
Breguet Br XIX Biplane Recon/Bomber (France); 3,280 built
Caudron C.59 Biplane Trainer (France); 1,800 built
Farman F.60 Goliath Transport (France)
Caspar-Heinkel U-1 Float Biplane Recon (Germany)
Ansaldo A 300 Multi-Role Biplane (Italy); used as recon, bomber, transport, and fighter
Mitsubishi 2MR Recon Biplane (Japan)
Hafeli DH-5 Recon Biplane (Switzerland)
Huff-Daland LB-1 Single-Engine Biplane Bomber (U.S.); limited production
Fokker CO-4 Recon (Germany)
Fairey Flycatcher Amphibious or Shipboard Fighter (Britain)
Gloster Grebe Fighter (Britain)
Aero A.18 Biplane Fighter (Czechoslovakia)
F.B.A 17 (171) Biplane Flying Boat Trainer (France)
Rohrbach Ro II Flying Boat (Germany)
Gabardini G.8 Biplane Fighter (Italy)
Macchi M.24 Biplane Recon/Bomber (Italy)
Mitsubishi 1MF5 Biplane Fighter/Trainer (Japan)
Yokosuka E1Y Biplane Recon (Japan); 320 built
Fokker C.V Recon Biplane (Netherlands); German design; in use until 1954; Hungarian version called Manfred Weiss WM 9 Budapest, also WM 11, WM 14, and WM 16
Fokker D.XI Fighter (Netherlands); used in various countries
Grigorovich M-24 Biplane Flying Boat (Russia); 60 built; based on the M-9
Dudakov-Konstantinov U-1 Biplane Trainer (Russia); based on British Avro 504k; produced until 1931
Dudakov-Konstantinov MU-1 Float Biplane Trainer (Russia); based on U-1
Polikarpov R-1 Recon Biplane (Russia); development of the British de Havilland DH-9; remained in production until 1931; another version, the R-2, used a different engine
Rosamonde I Biplane Recon/Trainer (China); built with American consultants
Vickers Virginia Biplane Bomber (Britain); in service until 1941
Aero A.11 Recon (Czechoslovakia)
Aero A.24 Biplane Night Bomber (Czechoslovakia)
Nieuport-Delage NiD-42 Biplane Fighter (France)
Spad S.81 Biplane Fighter (France)
Fokker D.XIII Sesquiplane Fighter (Germany); developed in Holland to avoid restrictions of the Treaty of Versailles; ostensibly for sale to Argentina, but really destined for the reborn Luftawaffe
Rohrback Ro III Recon (Germany); carried mast and sails in case of emergencies
Breda A 4 Biplane Trainer (Italy)
Fiat B.R.1 Bomber (Italy); 150 built
Mitsubishi B1M Torpedo Bomber (Japan); 450 built
NVI FK.31 Parasol-Wing Fighter/Recon (Netherlands)
Martin M2O-1 Observation Biplane (U.S.)
Douglas O-2 Observation (U.S.)
Boeing PW-9 Biplane Fighter (U.S.)
Curtis F6C Hawk Fighter (U.S.)
Fairey Firefly Biplane Fighter (Britain); used mostly in Belgium; not to be confused with the 1946 Fairey Firefly
Fairey Fox Biplane Bomber (Britain)
Siddeley/Armstrong Whitworth Siskin III Biplane Fighter (Britain)
Supermarine Southampton Biplane Flying Boat (Britain)
Fairey Titania Biplane Flying Boat (Britain); four-engine biplane
Hawker Woodcock Biplane Fighter (Britain); first RAF nightfighter
Avia BH-21 Biplane Fighter (Czechoslovakia)
Letov S-20 Fighter (Czechoslovakia
Potez 25 Biplane Bomber/Multi-Role (France); 4,000 built
Bleriot-Spad S.51 Biplane Fighter (France)
Bleriot-Spad S.61 Biplane Fighter (France)
Villiers II Shipboard Biplane Fighter (France)
Parnall Peto Biplane Submarine-Based Recon (Britain); never put in production; an experimental craft designed to be stored on submarines and launched by a compressed-air catapult; had floats for water landings
Heinkel HD 26 Float Biplane Recon/Fighter (Germany); intended to take off from the gun turret of a battleship; was never actually put in service, though two prototypes were built
Fiat B.R.2/B.R.3 Light Bombers (Italy)
Fiat CR.1 Biplane Fighter (Italy)
Grigorovich MRL Biplane Flying Boat Recon (Russia); MR-2 based on this
Tupolev R-3 Biplane Recon (Russia); 100 built
M.F.9 Float Biplane Fighter (Norway); only 11 built
Vought FU Fighter (U.S.)
Curtiss P-1 Hawk Biplane Fighter (U.S.); basis for several other fighters and trainers; 115 built
Blackburn Dart Biplane Torpedo Bomber (Britain)
Handley-Page H.P.24 Hyderabad Bomber (Britain)
Handley-Page H.P.33/H.P.36 Hinaidi (Britain); Hyderabad with radial engines
Vickers 56 Victoria Biplane Transport (Britain)
C.A.M.S. 37 Biplane Observation Flying Boat (France); still in service in 1940
Farman F.150 Biplane Bomber/Recon/Torpedo Bomber (France)
Liore et Olivier LeO 203 Heavy Biplane Bomber (France); LeO 206 (1933)
Levasseur PL.5 Biplane Fighter (France)
Levasseur PL.7 Torpedo Bomber (France)
Villiers 10 Floatplane Fighter Sesquiplane (France)
Albatross L 76 Aelus Recon/Trainer Biplane (Germany)
Heinkel HD 17 Biplane Recon Floatplane (Germany)
Caproni Ca.73 Sesquiplane Night Bomber (Italy)
Savoia-Marchetti S.62 Biplane Flying Boat Bomber/Recon (Italy); some used in the USSR
Bartel BM-2 Biplane Trainer (Poland); the first Polish training craft; one built
Grigorovich I-2 Biplane Fighter (Russia)
Grigorovich MUR-1 Flying Boat Biplane Trainer (Russia); based on M-5
Keystone B-1 Biplane Bomber (U.S.); only one built
Eberhart FG Comanche Fighter (U.S.)
Fairey IIIF Float Biplane Recon (Britain); the most successful of the Fairey III line that began in 1919
Avia BH-26 Biplane Fighter (Czechoslovakia)
Avia BH-33 Biplane Fighter (Czechoslovakia); standard Czech Fighter of 1930s
C.A.M.S. 51 Biplane Flying Boat Bomber/Recon (France)
Hanriot H.43 Trainer (France)
Levy-Biche/Levasseur LB 2 Sesquiplane Fighter (France)
Potez 29 Transport/Ambulance Biplane (France)
Ansaldo A 120 Ady Recon (Italy)
Fiat CR.20 Biplane Fighter (Italy)
Romeo Ro.1 Biplane Recon (Italy); licence-built Dutch Fokker C.V
Savoia-Marchetti S.59 Recon/Bomber Biplane Flying Boat (Italy)
Kawasaki KDA 2 Recon Biplane (Japan); 707 built
Fokker T.IV Floatplane Torpedo Bomber/Recon (Netherlands)
Bartel BM-4 Biplane Trainer (Poland); 75 built
Tupolev I-4 Sesquiplane Fighter (Russia); 369 built
Boripatr 2 Biplane Bomber (Thailand)
Curtis F8C Fighter (U.S.); various versions, including dive-bomber versions known unofficially as Helldivers
Boeing F3B Biplane Fighter (U.S.)
Hawker Horsley Biplane Bomber/Torpedo Bomber (Britain)
De Havilland D.H.60 Moth Biplane Liaison (Britain)
Blackburn Ripon Recon/Carrier-Based Torpedo Bomber (Britain)
Boulton-Paul Sidestrand Biplane Bomber (Britain); Mk. V known as Overstrand
Westland Wapiti Biplane Bomber/Recon (Britain)
Nieuport-Delage NiD-62 Fighter (France)
Arado SSD.I Seaplane Version of SD.I (Germany)
Heinkel HD 25 Biplane Recon Floatplane (Germany); made for Japan
Heinkel HD 37 Biplane Fighter (Germany); used in the USSR as the I-7
Yokosuka K2Y Trainer (Japan); based on British Avro 504
Kawasaki Type 88 Model 2 Bomber (Japan); more than 400 built
Bartel BM-5 Biplane Trainer (Poland); 60 built
Heinkel I-7 Biplane Fighter (Russia); special Russian version of HD 37
Polikarpov R-5 Recon/Bomber (Russia); 7,000 built; still in front lines in 1941
Polkarpov Po-2 “Kukuruznik” Biplane Trainer/Night Attack (Russia); nicknamed Nachthexen (Night Witches) by the Germans in WWII; originally called the U-2; as many as 40,000 were built up until the 1950s; it flew night attack missions in WWII and Korea, flying meters above the ground and cutting engines to glide in for a bombing run; it gave a minimal radar signature and was difficult for more advanced fighters to shoot because of its low-altitude flight and speed below their stall speed; many pilots in WWII had more than 1,000 missions logged by the end of the war
Hawker Hart Biplane Bomber (Britain); more than 950 built; Hawker Hartbees version built for and in South Africa
Letov S-16 Biplane Bomber (Czechoslovakia)
Amiot 122 Biplane Escort Fighter (France)
Levasseur PL.14 Biplane Torpedo Bomber/Recon (France)
Levasseur PL.101 Biplane Carrier-Based Recon (France)
Arado SD.II/SD.III Biplane Fighter (Germany)
Heinkel He 55 Biplane Flying Boat Recon (Germany)
Caproni Ca.100 Sesquiplane Trainer/Liaison (Italy); approx. 700 built
Macchi M.41 Biplane Flying Boat Fighter (Italy)
Fokker D.XVI Biplane Fighter (Netherlands); 21 built
Polikarpov I-3 Biplane Fighter (Russia)
Boeing F4B Fighter (U.S.)
Thomas-Morse O-19 Observation Biplane (U.S.)
Fairey Gordon Recon/Bomber (Britain); similar to the Fairey III
Handley Page Heyford Biplane Bomber (Britain); most important British bomber of the mid-1930s
Breguet 270 Sesquiplane Recon (France)
Arado Ar 64 Biplane Fighter (Germany); illegal fighter development between wars
Heinkel He 59 Twin-Float Biplane Recon/Torpedo Bomber (Germany)
Arado SSD I Float Biplane Fighter (Germany)
Breda Ba.19 Biplane Trainer (Italy)
Macchi M.71 Biplane Fighter (Italy); designed for shipboard use; catapult launched; dismantled for stowage
Mitsubishi C1M Biplane Recon (Japan); unknown date; retired before WWII
Shavrov Sh-2 Sesquiplane Amphibian Utility/Trainer (Russia); about 700 built; 16 ambulance versions (Sh-26) were also built
Waco CSO-A Fighter (U.S.)
Boeing P-12 Biplane Fighter (U.S.)
Caudron C.270 Luciole Biplane Liaison (France)
Arado Ar 65 Biplane Fighter (Germany)
Heinkel He 42 Recon/Trainer (Germany)
Caproni Ca.113 Trainer/Utility (Italy); famous acrobatic plane; set altitude records of 14,433m and 15,650m; Ca.114 version built for Peru
CANT 25 Biplane Flying Boat Trainer (Italy)
Aichi E3A Recon Biplane (Seaplane) (Japan); based on Heinkel HD-56
Nakajima E4N Float Biplane Recon (Japan)
Yokosuka E6Y Biplane Recon (Japan); for use with submarines
Grigorovich TSh-2 Attack Biplane (Russia); only 10 built
VL Kotka Biplane Recon (Finland); seven built; served until 1944
Keystone B-6 Panther Bomber (U.S.)
Hawker Osprey Fighter (Britain); based on the Hart Bomber
De Havilland D.H.82 Tiger Moth Biplane Trainer (Britain); in use by the Royal Navy until the late 1960s
De Havilland D.H.83 Fox Moth Biplane Transport (Britain); development of the Tiger Moth
Avro 621 Tutor Biplane Trainer (Britain); 795 built
Liore et Olivier Float Plane Biplane Bomber/Torpedo Bomber (France)
Focke-Wulf Fw 44 Stieglitz Biplane Trainer/Liaison/Observation (Germany)
Heinkel He 45 Biplane Recon/Bomber (Germany); 512 built
Heinkel He 56 Biplane Recon (Germany); also the E3A in Japan
Heinkel He 60/He 61/He 62 Recon Biplanes (Germany)
Fiat CR.30 Biplane Fighter (Italy); 176 built
Breda Ba.25 Biplane Trainer (Italy)
Piaggio P.10 Biplane Recon Seaplane
Nakajima A2N Biplane Fighter (Japan)
Mitsubishi B2M Biplane Torpedo Bomber (Japan); 204 built
Kawanishi E5K Float Biplane Recon (Japan)
Kawasaki KDA-5 Biplane Fighter (Japan); 380 built
Fokker D.XVII Biplane Fighter (Netherlands); 12 built; seven saw action at the beginning of WWII
Curtiss F12C Fighter (U.S.)
Berliner/Joyce OJ Amphibious Observation Biplane (U.S.)
Stampe-Vertongen SV 4 Biplane Trainer (France)
Arado Ar 66 Biplane Trainer/Liaison/Night Bomber (Germany); somewhere between 6,000 and 10,000 built
Heinkel He 60 Recon Float Biplane (Germany)
Heinkel He 72 Kadett Biplane Trainer (Germany)
Fiat CR.32 Biplane Fighter (Italy); developed from the CR.30, but improved; 1,309 built; nearly 300 remained in service in 1940
Yokosuka B3Y Biplane Torpedo Bomber (Japan)
P.W.S.14 Biplane Trainer (Poland)
P.W.S.16 Biplane Trainer (Poland)
Polikarpov I-5 Biplane Fighter (Russia); 803 built
Svenska Aero S.A.14 J 6 Jaktfalk Biplane Fighter (Sweden); in service until 1940
Grumman F3F Fighter (U.S.)
Berliner-Joyce F3J Fighter (U.S.); biplane
Curtiss BF2C Fighter/Bomber (U.S.)
Curtiss C-30 Condor Transport (U.S.)
Curtiss SOC Seagull Biplane Observation (U.S.)
De Havilland D.H.89 Dominie Biplane Trainer (Britain); trainer version of the Dragon Rapide
De Havilland D.H.89 Dragon Rapide Biplane Transport (Britain)
Gloster Gauntlet Biplane Fighter (Britain); considered one of the best British biplane fighters
Hawker Hardy Attack/Utility (Britain); built for Iraq
Hawker Hind Biplane Bomber (Britain)
Hawker Nimrod Biplane Fighter (Britain)
Boulton-Paul Overstrand Bomber (Britain)
Vickers Valentia Biplane Bomber/Transport (Britain)
Vickers Vildebeest Biplane Bomber/Torpedo Bomber (Britain)
Vickers Vincent Light Biplane Bomber (Britain)
Aero A.100 Biplane Bomber (Czechoslovakia)
Letov S.328 Biplane Bomber (Czechoslovakia)
C.A.M.S 55 Biplane Flying Boat Recon (France)
Heinkel HD 38 Biplane Fighter (Germany); used for training only
Heinkel He 51 Biplane Fighter (Germany); used for ground attack mainly; 725 built, some with floats
Yokosuka “Willow” K5Y Biplane Trainer (Japan); 5,570 built, some with floats and some with landing gear
Nakajima Ki.4 Sesquiplane Recon (Japan); 516 built
Polikarpov I-15 Biplane Fighter (Russia); 674 built
VL Tuisku Biplane Trainer (Finland)
Avro 643 Cadet Biplane Trainer (Britain)
De Havilland D.H.87 Hornet Moth Biplane Liaison (Britain)
Blackburn B-6 Shark Biplane Recon/Torpedo Bomber (Britain)
Short S.5, S.12 and S.19 Singapore Biplane Flying Boat Recon (Britain)
Supermarine Walrus Recon (Britain); developed from the Supermarine Seagull; catapult launched
Spad S.510 Biplane Fighter (France)
Arado Ar 68 Biplane Fighter (Germany); last biplane fighter used by the Luftwaffe
Bucker Bu 131 Jungmann Biplane Trainer (Germany)
Bucker Bu 133 Jungmeister Biplane Trainer (Germany); highly aerobatic, many still flying
Gotha Go 145 Biplane Attack/Trainer (Germany); 9,500 built
Heinkel He 50 Biplane Dive Bomber (Germany); built to Japanese specs
Henschel Hs 123 Biplane Attack/Dive Bomber (Germany); in service until 1944, by which time they had all been destroyed
Caproni Ca.111 Biplane Recon (Italy)
Imam Ro.37 Biplane Recon (Italy); more than 630 built
Imam Ro.41 Biplane Fighter-Trainer (Italy); 437 built
Yokosuka “Jean” B4Y Biplane Torpedo Bomber (Japan); 205 built; still in service on the carrier Hosho at the time of Pearl Harbor
Nakajima “Dave” E8N Float Biplane Recon (Japan); 755 built
Watanabe “Slim” E9W Biplane Recon (Japan); for use with submarines
Kawasaki “Perry” Ki.10 Biplane Fighter (Japan); 588 built
Tachikawa “Cedar” Ki.17 Biplane Trainer (Japan); 658 built
P.W.S.18 Trainer (Poland); license-built Avro 621 Tutor
Kocherigin DI-6 Biplane Fighter (Russia)
Polikarpov R-Z attack (Russia); 1,031 built up until 1937
S.E.T. VII Biplane Trainer (Romania); in service until 1944
Hawker Fury Biplane Fighter (Britain); popular pre-WWII fighter, not to be confused with the 1944 monoplane model
Gloster Gladiator Biplane Fighter (Britain); last British biplane fighter
Supermarine Stranrear Biplane Flying Boat Recon (Britain); originally called Southampton Mk. V
Avia B.534/B.634 Biplane Fighter (Czechoslovakia)
Arado Ar 95 Biplane Recon/Torpedo Bomber (Germany); mostly export; Spain used three until 1948
Gotha Go 147 Recon (Germany)
Heinkel He 114 Recon Sesquiplane (Germany)
Caproni Ca.161 Experimental Biplane (Italy); set altitude record of 17,083m
Imam Ro.43 Floatplane Recon Biplane (Italy)
Nakajima A4N Biplane Fighter (Japan)
Koolhoven FK.51 Biplane Trainer/Recon (Netherlands); 142 built
P.W.S.26 Trainer/Dive Bomber (Poland); based on the P.W.S.16
LKOD KOD-1 Biplane Trainer/Liaison (Latvia); license-built Estonian PON-1; also a slightly larger version, the KOD-2
Fairey Swordfish “Stringbag” Biplane Torpedo Bomber (Britain); the most famous and successful biplane fighting aircraft of WWII, served throughout the war as a torpedo bomber, ASW, minelaying, ground attack, and trainer; 2,391 built
Swordfish Mk.II
Grumman J2F Duck Amphibian Utility Biplane (U.S.); used throughout WWII
Curtiss SBC Helldiver Biplane Dive Bomber (U.S.); last U.S.-built combat biplane, not to be confused with the Curtiss SB2C Helldiver monoplane used in WWII
Hawker Hector Biplane Recon/Bomber (Britain)
Saunders-Roe A.27 London Biplane Flying Boat (Britain)
Fairey Seafox Biplane Float Plane Recon (Britain); launched from carriers by catapult; in service until 1943
Dornier Do 17 Bomber (Germany); various versions
Dornier Do 18 Recon (Germany)
Caproni Ca.164 Sesquiplane Trainer (Italy)
Aichi “Laura” E11A Biplane Flying Boat (Japan)
Watanabe K6W Floatplane Trainer (Japan)
Fokker S.IX Biplane Trainer (Netherlands)
Fokker T.V Medium Bomber (Netherlands)
Polikarpov I-152 Fighter (Russia); 2,408 built
Liuchow Kwangsi 2 Biplane Trainer (China)
I.A.R. 37 Biplane Recon (Romania)
Kawanishi “Alf” E7K Float Biplane Recon (Japan); 530 built
Koolhoven FK.52 Biplane Recon/Fighter (Netherlands); obsolete and few built
Borovkov-Florov I-207 Biplane Fighter (Russia); very small biplane
Beriev KOR-1 Float Biplane Recon (Russia); catapult launched; also land version
Manfred Weiss WM 21 Solyom Biplane Recon (Hungary); based on the WM 9/11/14 series, which in turn were based on the Fokker C.V
Westland Wallace Biplane (Britain)
Fiat CR.42 Falco (Italy); possibly one of the best biplane fighters ever built, but obsolete by the time it was flown; 1,780 built between 1939 and 1943; one prototype reached speeds of 520 km/h
Mitsubishi “Pete” F1M Recon Sea Biplane (Japan); 1,118 built; used in multiple roles during WWII
Polikarpov I-153 Biplane Fighter (Russia); 3,437 built; in service until 1943
I.A.R. 38 Recon (Romania)
I.A.R. 39 Recon/Trainer (Romania); some in use into the late 1950s
Antonov “Colt” An-2 Biplane Multi-Role STOL Transport (Russia); more than 18,000 built, including new versions, the An-2P in 1968 and An-3 more recently, as well as specialty versions (An-4, An-6); still in use
Mitsubish G1M Biplane Bomber (Japan); probably 1930s; obsolete before WWII
Hiro G2H Monoplane Bomber (Japan); probably 1930s; obsolete before WWII
Hiro H1H Biplane Flying Boat (Japan); probably 1930s; not in service during WWII
Hiro H2H Biplane Flying Boat (Japan); probably 1930s; not in service during WWII
Hiro H3H Biplane Flying Boat (Japan); probably 1930s; not in service during WWII
Kawanishi H3K Biplane Flying Boat Recon (Japan); probably 1930s
Hiro H4H Monoplane Flying Boat (Japan); probably 1930s; not in service during WWII
Itoh Biplane Fighter (Japan)
Yokosuka K1Y Floatplane Trainer (Japan)
Kawasaki Ki.3 Biplane Light Bomber (Japan); early 1930s?; 244 built
Fizir Triplane Trainer (1920s); among several built by Yugoslavian designer Rudolf Fizir
Etrich A II Taube Recon (Austria/Germany); early monoplane design; used in WWI; wing design based on the Zanonia macrocarpa seed
Morane-Saulnier L Fighter/Recon (France); more than 600 built
Nieuport IV (France)
Fokker M.1 “Spin” or “Spider” (Germany); Anthony Fokker’s first aircraft; later used as a trainer; followed by several versions (2-4)
Caproni Ca.18 Recon (Italy); designation (Ca.18) applied retroactively in the 1920s
Macchi Parasol-Wing Recon (Italy)
Sikorsky S-12 Observation (Russia)
Morane-Saulnier N “Bullet” Fighter (France); 1,210 built
Morane-Saulneir P Recon (France)
Blériot XI Recon (France)
Morane-Saulnier P Recon (France)
Fockker A I Trainer/Recon (Germany)
Fokker M5 (Germany)
Morane-Saulnier AR Trainer (France); more than 400 built
R.E.P N Recon (France)
Fokker E I/II/III/IV Fighter (Germany); dominant for its time with synchronized MGs; best-known version was the E III
Pfalz E I Fighter (Germany); partly based on the Morane-Saulnier H
Pfalz E III Parasol-Wing Fighter (Germany)
Siemens-Schuckert E I Fighter (Germany)
Junkers J 2 Fighter (Germany); the first all-metal monoplane fighter; only six built
Mosca MB Fighter (Russia); Italian design
Bristol M.1c Fighter (Britain)
Felixstowe F3/F5 Recon (Britain, 1917/1918)
Morane-Saulnier N Recon/Fighter (France); first French Fighter
Dornier Rs III Flying Boat (Germany)
Thulin K Fighter (Sweden); most used by the Dutch Navy with fixed machine guns mounted
Loening M-8 Observation (U.S.)
Martinsyde F.4 Buzzard Fighter (Britain)
Junkers CL.I Ground Attack (Germany)
Brandenburg W 29 Fighter (Germany)
Brandenburg W 33 Fighter (Germany)
Fokker D VIII (also Fokker E V) Fighter (Germany)
Fokker V.37 Ground Attack Fighter (Germany)
Junkers CL I Fighter-Bomber (Germany)
Junkers D I Fighter (Germany); used to destroy observation balloons; highly dangerous
Kondor E 3 Fighter (Germany); only about 10 were completed before the end of WWI
Armstrong-Whitworth Ara Fighter (Britain)
Junkers F.13 Transport/Utility (Germany); some remained in service until 1943
Martin NBS-1 Bomber (U.S.)
Gourdou-Leseurre GL-21 Fighter (France)
Gourdon-Leseurre G-22 Fighter (France)
Dornier Do H Falke Fighter (Germany); early single-seat fighter; radical for its time, but never employed
Dornier Do J Wal Flying Boat (Germany); produced in Italy because of the Treaty of Versailles
Junkers H 21 Recon (Germany); 100 used in the USSR to suppress resistance to Stalin; built in the USSR
Junkers Ju 20 Recon (Germany)
Vought UO Catapult-Launched Observation Craft (U.S.)
Blackburn Blackburn Recon (Britain)
Avia BH-9 Recon/Trainer (Czechoslovakia)
Heinkel He 1/He 2/He 4/Float Plane Recon (Germany); built for the Swedish Navy
Caproni Ca.36 Recon (Italy)
Piaggio P.8 Recon (Italy); designed for dismantling and stowing in a submarine hangar
Avro 555 Bison Recon (Britain)
Hawker Danecock Fighter (Britain); only 15 built all together, 12 of them in Denmark as the Hawker Dankok
Gloster Gamecock Fighter (Britain)
Junkers K 30 Transport/Bomber (Germany); used in Spain and USSR
Ansaldo AC 2 Parasol-Wing Fighter (Italy); based on French Dewoitine D.1
Ansaldo AC 3 Parasol-Wing attack (Italy); in 1936 set altitude record of 11,861 meters
Savoia-Marchetti S.55 Flying Boat Bomber/Transport (Italy)
Vought O2U Corsair Observation (U.S.)
Martin T3M Torpedo Bomber (U.S.)
Martin T4M Torpedo Bomber (U.S.)
Morane-Saulnier MS.130 Trainer (France)
Wibault Wib 7 Fighter (France)
Dornier N Bomber (Germany); land version of the Wal; also built in Japan as the Ka.87
Heinkel He 5 Float Plane Recon (Germany); improved version of He 4
Junkers K 53 Fighter (Germany); for export
Junkers W 34 Transport/Liaison (Germany); 1,991 built
Polikarpov I-1 Fighter (Russia)
Fokker F.VII Transport (Netherlands); a remarkably reliable aircraft; in 1926, an F-VII named the Josephine Ford flew Richard Byrd and Floyd Bennett over the North Pole, and in 1928 Amelia Earhart became the first woman to cross the Atlantic, while Charles Kingford-Smith was the first pilot to cross the Pacific Ocean in the same year, both also in Fokker F.VIIs
Spirit of St. Louis (U.S.); based on a Ryan M-2; one of the most famous planes ever built; specifically constructed for Charles Lindbergh’s famous flight from New York to Paris in May 1927
Armstrong Whitworth Atlas Recon (Britain)
Loire-Gourdou-Leseurre LGL-32 Fighter (France)
Heinkel He 8 Recon Float Plane (Germany); development of He 5 built for the Danish Navy
Klemm L 25 Trainer (Germany)
Potez 36 Folding Wing Utility (France)
Nakajima Recon Floatplane (Japan)
Plage i LaÊkiewicz/Lublin R-X Parasol-Wing Recon/Liaison (Poland); included several derivatives over the next few years: R-XIV and R-XV (1930)
Tupolev ANT-9 Transport (Russia)
Tupolev TB-1 Bomber (Russia); 212 built; one made a flight from Moscow to New York
Anbo V Trainer (Lithuania)
Bristol Bulldog Fighter (Britain)
De Havilland D.H.80 Puss Moth liaison (Britain)
Gordon-Leseurre GL-810 Observation Float Plane (France)
Hanriot H.16 Trainer (France)
S.I.A.I S.67 Flying Boat Fighter (Italy); only three built, but all three were in service until 1935
Tupolev R-6 Recon Fighter (Russia); 435 built
Tupolev TB-3 Bomber (Russia); four-engine version of TB-1; 818 built
VL Viima Trainer/Liaison (Finland)
Dewoitine D.26 Trainer (France); one remained in use until 1970
Dewoitine D.27 C.1 Fighter (France)
Lockheed JO Utility (U.S., 1931 to 1955); first twin-engine plane to land on a carrier
Latecoere Late 290 Seaplane Torpedo Bomber (France)
Caudron C.270 Luciole Liaison (France)
Nakajima Type 91 Fighter (Japan); 450 built
P.W.S.10 Parasol-Wing Fighter (Poland)
Plage i LaÊkiewicz/Lublin R-XIII Recon/Liaison (Poland); 220 built
Tupolev ANT-14 Propaganda Plane (Russia); based on ANT-9
Martin BM Dive Bomber (U.S.); first U.S. Navy dive bomber
Grumman FF Goblin Fighter (U.S.)
Hawker Audax Observation/Fighter (Britain)
Bloch MB.80 Ambulance (France)
Morane-Saulnier MS.230 Advanced Trainer (France); more than 500 built
Morane-Saulnier MS.315 Parasol-Wing Trainer (France)
Nieuport-Delage NiD-121 Fighter (France)
Caudron C.400 Phalene Utility Aircraft (France); in service until 1960
Heinkel He 70 Blitz Recon (Germany)
Junkers Ju 60 Transport/Liaison (Germany)
Savoia-Marchetti S.66 Transport/SAR (Italy)
Mitsubishi 2MR8 Recon (Japan)
PZL P.7 Fighter (Poland)
R.W.D.13 Liaison (Poland); folding wings
Grokhovskii G-63 Glider (Russia); passengers lay prone inside the wing
Grigorovich ShON Attack (Russia); counter-insurgency aircraft
Anbo IV Recon/Trainer (Lithuania)
Northrop A-13 Fighter (U.S.)
Curtiss F11C-2 Goshawk Fighter (U.S.)
Stampe-Vertongen SV 4 (France)
Hawker Demon Fighter (Britain)
De Havilland D.H.84 Dragon Attack/Transport (Britain)
Morane-Saulnier MS.224 Fighter (France)
Heinkel He 46 Recon/Attack Parasol Wing Monoplane (Germany); 481 built; some in service until 1943
Junkers Ju 52 “Auntie Ju” Transport (Germany) 4,835 built; Swiss Air Force used it from 1939 until 1981
Mitsubishi Ki.1 Bomber (Japan); 118 built
Mitsubishi Ki.2 Bomber (Japan); 61 built
PZL P.11 Fighter (Poland); 250 built
Tupolev ANT-25 Long-Range Experimental Bomber (Russia); flew over the pole from Moscow to San Jacinto, California
Cheranovski BICh-11 Experimental Rocket Plane (Russia); never built, but was an early experiment in airplane design featuring a tailless fighter with twin rocket engines
Tupolew I-14 Fighter (Russia)
Grigorovich I-Z Fighter (Russia)
Beriev MBR-2 Flying Boat Recon (Russia); about 1,400 built; used through the end of WWII
Tupolev TB-4 Bomber (Russia); six-engine version of TB-3
F+W C-3603 Recon/Attack (Switzerland)
I.A.R. 14 Fighter/Trainer (Argentina)
Martin B-10B Bomber (U.S.)
Grumman F2F Fighter (U.S.)
Bloch 210 Bomber (France)
Potez 39 Observation (France)
Potez 54 Bomber/Recon (France)
Curtiss A-12 Shrike Fighter (U.S.)
Curtis A-18 Shrike Fighter (U.S.)
Boeing P-26 “Peashooter” Fighter (U.S.)
Airspeed Envoy Transport (Britain); used as a bomber in South Africa
Amiot 143M Bomber/Recon/Transport (France)
Dewoitine D.510 Fighter (France)
Farman F.220 Bomber (France)
Caudron C.440 Transport (France); 1,702 built
Morane-Saulnier MS.275 Parasol-Wing Fighter (France)
Messerschmitt Bf 108 Taifun Trainer/Liaison (Germany)
Dornier Do 15 Wal Flying Boat Recon (Germany)
Breda Ba.27 Fighter (Italy); only 11 built for use in China
Breda Ba.64 Attack (Italy)
Caproni Ca.132 Bomber (Italy)
Caproni-Bergamasca Ca.301 (also called A.P.1) Fighter/Attack (Italy)
Savoia-Marchetti S.72 Bomber (Italy); six or more made for China; based on the S.71
Savoia-Marchetti S.73 Transport (Italy)
Savoia-Marchetti S.M.79 Sparviero Bomber/Torpedo Bomber (Italy); various versions made through 1944 (many for export to Brazil, Iraq, Romania, and Yugoslavia); 1,370 built
Aichi “Susie” D1A Dive Bomber (Japan); based on the He 50; 590 built; production stopped in 1940
Kawasaki Ki.5 Fighter (Japan); only four built
R.W.D.8 Parasol-Wing Trainer (Poland)
TsAGI A-7 Observation Autogiro (Russia); first autogiro to carry armament
Tupolev ANT-20 Maksim Gorky Propaganda Plane (Russia); giant eight-engined plane; only one built—it was destroyed in a midair collision, but it carried 72 passengers and contained a bar, buffet, film processing lab, movie theater, laundry, pharmacy, and printing press; named after author Aleksei Maksimovich Peshkov, known as Maxim Gorky
Grigorovich PI-1 Fighter (Russia)
Rogozarski PVT Trainer (Yugoslavia)
Noorduyn C-64 Norseman Transport (U.S.)
Kellet KG-1 Autogiro (U.S.)
Curtiss P-36 Hawk Fighter (U.S.); 1,424 built in all versions
Bristol Bombay Bomber/Transport (Britain)
Avro 643 Cadet Trainer (Britain)
Handley Page H.P.54 Harrow Bomber/Transport (Britain)
Cierva Rota C.30/C.40 Autogiros (Britain, 1935/1938); used to calibrate top-secret radar installations during the Battle of Britain
Renard R 31 Recon (Belgium)
Caudron C.600 Aiglon Liaison (France); used throughout WWII
Dewoitine D.500 Fighter (France)
Morane-Saulnier MS.138 Trainer (France)
Mureaux 110 (115) Bomber/Recon (France)
Potez 58 Liaison/Observation (France)
Potez 65 Troop Transport (France)
Dornier Do 22 Recon/Torpedo Bomber (Germany)
Focke-Wulf Fw 56 Stosser Trainer/Fighter (Germany); more than 900 built
Klemm Kl 35 Trainer (Germany); used in various countries
Breda Ba.65 Attack (Italy); based on Ba.64; 219 built
Caproni Ca.133 STOL Bomber/Transport (Italy); 525 built
Caproni Ca.135 Bomber (Italy); used largely in Hungary and Peru
Nardi FN.305 Trainer/Liaison (Italy); 500 built
Savoia-Marchetti S.M.81 Pipistrello Bomber/Transport (Italy); some continued as transports until 1951; 584 built
Nakajima Ki.8 Fighter (Japan); only five built
Tachikawa “Spruce” Ki.9 Trainer (Japan); 2,618 built
L.W.S.3 Mewa Parasol-Wing Recon (Poland)
Tupolev ANT-29 Fighter (Russia); when the gun system proved impractical, its designer (Kurchevski) was arrested and “disappeared”
BOK-2 Research Craft (Russia)
Bolchivitinov DB-A Bomber (Russia); limited production
Polikarpov I-17 Fighter (Russia)
Tupolev SB Bomber (Russia)
Northrop/Douglas A-17 Nomad Fighter (U.S.)
S-43 Flying Boat (Sikorsky JRS) (U.S.)
Douglas O-46 Observation (U.S.)
Douglas TBD Devastator Torpedo Bomber (U.S.)
Avro 652 Anson Trainer (Britain); called Faithful Annie, it was used until 1968; 11,022 built
Aero A.304 Bomber/Recon (Czechoslovakia)
Farman F.222 Bomber (France)
Latecoere Late 298 Seaplane Torpedo Bomber/Recon (France)
Loire 43 Fighter (France)
Loire 130 Shipboard Flying Boat (France)
Dornier Do 23 Bomber (Germany); based on Do 13
Heinkel He 111 Bomber (Germany); various versions up through 1943; 7,300 built
Heinkel He 112 Fighter (Germany); lost competitions to the Bf 109, but several versions were built and flown in other countries
Henschel Hs 126 Parasol-Wing Recon (Germany); more than 600 built
Junkers Ju 86 Bomber/Recon (Germany); not effective as a bomber, but untouchable at high altitudes in reconnaissance role
Fiat B.R.20 Cicogna Bomber (Italy); 84 sold to Japan; fared poorly in WWII
Caproni Ca-309 Ghibli Recon Bomber (Italy)
Saiman 202 Liaison (Italy); used throughout and after WWII
CANT Z.501 Gabbiano Recon (Italy); 454 built
Mitsubishi “Nell” G3M Bomber (Japan); 1,048 built
Mitsubishi “Babs” Ki.15 Bomber (Japan); 439 built
Mitsubishi “Sally” Ki.21 Bomber (Japan); 2,064 built; first built in 1936 and upgraded during the war; retired in 1943 as obsolete
Fokker D.XXI Fighter (Netherlands)
PZL P.23 Karas Attack/Tactical Bomber (Poland)
Polkarpov I-16 Fighter (Russia); 7,005 single-seat versions and 1,639 two-seat versions built
Grigorovich IP-1 Fighter (Russia)
Tupolev MDR-4 Flying Boat Recon (Russia)
Yakovlev UT-1 Trainer (Russia); 1,241 built; used as attack aircraft in 1941
Douglas B-18 Bolo Bomber (U.S.)
Vought SB2U Vindicator Dive Bomber (U.S.)
Vought V-143 Fighter (U.S.)
Fairey Battle Bomber (Britain); 2,419 built; obsolete in WWII and used primarily as a trainer
Bristol Blenheim Bomber (Britain); 4,422 built
Bristol Blenheim Mk.IF Nightfighter (Britain)
Miles M.14 Magister Trainer (Britain); 1,393 built
Vickers Wellesley Bomber (Britain)
Vickers Wellington Bomber (Britain); main British bomber at the outbreak of WWII; various versions—11,461 built in all
Noorduyn Norseman Transport (Canada); used extensively during WWII
Loire 210 Fighter (France)
Besson/ANF-Mureaux MB.411 Recon (France); used by the Free French during WWII
Romano R.82 Trainer (France)
DFS 230 Assault Glider (Germany); extensively used by German airborne units; had room for eight
Siebel Fh 104 Hallore Liaison/Light Transport (Germany)
Focke-Wulf Fw 58 Weihe Transport/Trainer (Germany); 1,987 built
Caproni Ca.310 Libeccio Recon Bomber (Italy)
CANT Z.506 Airone Torpedo Bomber/Recon Floatplane (Italy); 344 built
Nakajima “Thora” Ki.34 Transport (Japan); 318 built
PZL P.43 Karas Attack (Poland); developed from P.23
R.W.D.14 Observation (Poland)
Tupolev MTB-2 Four-Engine Flying Boat (Russia)
Yakovlev UT-2 Trainer (Russia); 7,243 built; in service well past WWII
Polikarpov VIT-1/VIT-2 Anti-Tank Attack (Russia)
Ikarus IK-2 Fighter (Yugoslavia); only 12 built, but eight saw action against Germany in 1941
Rogozarski SIM-X Trainer (Yugoslavia)
Hawker Hurricane Fighter (Britain); Hurricane was the premier British fighter during the early stages of WWII until the Spitfire could be put up in sufficient numbers, with many Hurricanes defending during the Battle of Britain; noted for stability in flight and durability, even though it was inferior to enemy fighters in other ways; in all, 14,533 Hurricanes were built
Arado Ar 79 Liaison (Germany)
Arado Ar 96 Trainer/Multi-Role (Germany); in production until 1948 (in Czechoslovakia); 11,546 built
Boeing C-98 Transport (U.S., 1938)
Brewster F2A (Buffalo) Fighter (U.S.)
Grumman JRF/G-21A Goose Multi-Role Amphibious Flying Boat (U.S.)
Westland Lysander Liaison (Britain); used to fly people out of occupied Europe during WWII; 1,652 built
Blackburn B-24 Skua Dive Bomber (Britain); in service until 1941
Bloch 131 Recon/Bomber (France)
Bloch MB.150 Fighter (France)
Bloch 200 Bomber (France)
Morane-Saulnier MS.406 Fighter (France)
Potez 63 Fighter/Recon (France); more than 1,250 built in various versions
Fieseler Fi 156 Storch Liaison/Recon STOL Aircraft (Germany); 2,549 built; much copied in the USSR and Japan
Heinkel He 100 Fighter (Germany); used surface evaporation cooling to reduce drag and set a new speed record; limited production
Heinkel He 113 Fighter (Germany); never existed, but was used in propaganda, with pictures of the He 100
Siebel Si 201 STOL Liaison (Germany)
Breda Ba.88 Lince Fighter-Bomber (Italy); used in North Africa, but with disappointing results
Nardi FN.310 Transport (Italy)
Piaggio P.50 Bomber (Italy)
Mitsubishi “Claude” A5M Fighter (Japan); 1,094 built
Nakajima “Nate” Ki.27 Otsu Fighter (Japan); 3,387 built; possibly the most maneuverable monoplane fighter ever built
Mitsubishi “Ann” Ki.30 Bomber (Japan); 704 built
Kawasaki “Mary” Ki.32 Bomber (Japan); 854 built
Tachikawa “Ida” Ki.36 Attack (Japan); 1,334 built; production ended in 1943
Fokker G.I Fighter (Netherlands); used by the Dutch at the beginning of the war and by the Luftwaffe afterward; 62 built
PZL P.37 Los Bomber (Poland)
Tupolev ANT-20bis Transport (Russia); six-engined replacement for the ANT-20
Nyeman R-10 Bomber (Russia); 490 built
Rogozarski SIM-XIV-H Seaplane (Yugoslavia)
Supermarine Spitfire Fighter (Britain)
Messerschmitt Bf 109 Fighter (Germany); about 35,000 built; main Luftwaffe fighter in WWII; several versions made
Junkers Ju 87 “Stuka” or “Sturzkampfflugzeug” Dive Bomber/Anti-Tank (Germany); more than 5,700 built; universally feared
Republic AT-12 Guardsman Trainer (U.S.)
Vultee A-19 Fighter (U.S.)
Boeing C-75 Stratoliner Transport (U.S.)
Seversky P-35 Fighter (U.S.)
Consolidated PBY Catalina Recon (U.S.); famous WWII flying boat
Handley Page H.P52 Hampden “Flying Suitcase” Medium Bomber (Britain)
Martin Maryland Bomber (Britain)
Miles Master Trainer (Britain); 3,302 built
Armstrong Whitworth Whitley Bomber (Britain); early night bomber; 2,900 built
Caudron C.710 Cyclone Fighter (France)
Dewoitine D.520 Fighter (France); best French fighter of WWII; some were flown by Germans, Bulgarians, Romanians...
Farman F.223/224 Transport/Bomber (France)
Koolhoven F.K.58 Fighter (Netherlands); 13 in French service in WWII
Liore-et-Olivier H-246 Transport Flying Boat (France)
Latecoere Late 611 Flying Boat Recon (France); only one was built, but it stayed in service until 1947
Liore et Olivier LeO 450 Bomber (France); retired in 1957
Liore-Nieuport LN 40 Dive Bomber (France)
Arado Ar 196 Floatplane Recon (Germany); catapult launched
Messerschmitt Bf 110 Fighter (Germany); used as intercepter, fighter-bomber and nightfighter; 6,100 built
Bucker Bu 181 Bestmann Trainer, Utility (Germany)
Dornier Do 215 Bomber/Night Fighter/Recon (Germany)
Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor Recon/Transport (Germany); one of these was Hitler’s personal transport, the Immelmann III
Heinkel He 115 Torpedo Bomber/Recon (Germany); not a good torpedo bomber, but good in other roles; more than 500 built
Caproni Ca.311 Recon Bomber (Italy)
Caproni-Vizzola F.5 Fighter (Italy)
Macchi M.C.200 Saetta Fighter (Italy); 1,153 built
Savoia-Marchetti S.M.75 Transport (Italy)
Savoia-Marchetti S.M.82 Marsupiale Transport (Italy)
CANT Z.1007 Alcione Bomber (Italy); 564 built
Nakajima “Kate” B5N Torpedo Bomber (Japan); 1,150 built
Nakajima “Liz” G5N Shinzan Bomber (Japan); only six built
Mitsubishi “Pine” K3M Trainer/Transport (Japan); 624 built
Tachikawa “Ida” Trainer (Japan); 1,389 built
Koolhoven F.K.58 Fighter (Netherlands); built for France; only 13 became operational
Chertverikov “Mug” Che-2 Flying Boat Recon (Russia); called MDR-6 until 1941; several models
Ilyushin DB-3 Bomber (Russia); 1,528 built
Polykarpov I-180 Fighter (Russia)
Bisnovat SK-1 Experimental Aircraft (Russia); research in high-speed aircraft
Yakovlev Ya-22 Fighter/Recon (Russia)
Anbo VIII Light Bomber/Attack (Lithuania); production stopped when USSR occupied Lithuania in 1940; the designer was later shot in Moscow
VL Pyry Trainer (Finland)
Junkers Ju 88 Fighter/Bomber/Recon/Dive Bomber/Nightfighter (Germany); versatile aircraft; 10,774 built (some sources say 15,000)
North American A-36 Apache Dive Bomber (U.S.); dive bomber version of P-51 Mustang; about 500 made; nicknamed Invader
North American AT-6G Texan Trainer (U.S.)
Beech AT-11 Kansan Trainer (U.S.)
Vultee BT-13 Valiant Trainer (U.S.)
Beech C-45 Expeditor (Various Versions) Transport (U.S., 1940s); more than 4,000 built
Grumman F4F Wildcat Fighter (U.S.)
Interstate L-6 Grasshopper Liaison/Observation (U.S.)
Vought OS2U Kingfisher Amphibious Observation (U.S.); 1,519 built; used with USN, Royal Navy, and U.S. Coast Guard
Fairchild PT-19 Cornell Trainer (U.S.); 4,845 built
Lockheed PV Recon/Bomber (U.S.)
Brewster SB2A Buccaneer Dive Bomber (U.S.)
XSBA-1 Dive Bomber (U.S.)
Curtiss SNC Falcon Trainer (U.S.)
Fairey Albacore Torpedo Bomber (Britain)
Blackburn B-26 Botha Recon/Bomber (Britain)
Boulton Paul Defiant Fighter (Britain)
Fairey Fulmar Fighter (Britain)
Douglas Havoc Nightfighter (version of the U.S. A-20 Bomber) (Britain); some were outfitted with nose-mounted searchlights to illuminate targets for Hurricane fighters
Bloch MB.152 Fighter (France); three were used by the British during the Battle of Britain
Percival Proctor Recon/Trainer (Britain)
Blackburn B-25 Roc Fighter/Trainer (Britain); designed as a fighter, but was a dismal failure; relegated to trainer role
Short S.29 Stirling Bomber (Britain); first British four-engine heavy bomber, but replaced ultimately by Lancaster and Halifax; 2,375 built
Fokker T-VIII W Float Plane/Torpedo Bomber (Netherlands); some used in Britain and Holland
Westland Whirlwind Twin-Engined Fighter (Britain)
Avia Av.135 Fighter (Czechoslovakia)
Amiot 354 Bomber (France)
Block 174 Recon/Bomber (France); used by Luftwaffe as trainers
Liore et Olivier LeO H-43 Recon (France)
NC.223 Bomber (Based on Farman F.222) (France)
Blohm und Voss Bv 138 Flying Boat Recon (Germany)
Focke-Wulf Fw 189 Uhu Recon/Trainer/Anti-Tank/Nightfighter (Germany); 864 built
Heinkel He 280 Jet Fighter (Germany); the first jet fighter to fly, but abandoned in favor of the Me 262; only 9 were built
Henschel Hs 293 Rocket-Powered Radio-Guided Missile (Germany); 2,300 fired; some later versions used wire-guided controls in case of radio jamming
Junkers Ju 188 Bomber/Recon (Germany); based on Ju 88; 1,036 built
Caproni Ca.313 Recon Bomber (Italy); 215 built
Caproni Ca.314 Recon Bomber (Italy); improved Ca.313; 425 built; 1,000 ordered by the Luftwaffe (though obviously not all delivered)
Fiat G.50 Freccia Fighter (Italy); 780 built
Reggiane Re.2000 Falco I Fighter (Italy); used primarily in Sweden and Hungary
Mitsubishi “Babs” C5M Recon (Japan)
Aichi “Jake” E13A Recon Seaplane (Japan); 1,418 built
Yokosuka “Cherry” H5Y Flying Boat (Japan)
Kawanishi “Mavis” H6K Flying Boat Recon (Japan); 217 built
Kawasaki “Lily” Ki.48 Bomber (Japan); most effective as a night bomber; 1,977 built
Mitsubishi “Sonia” Ki.51 Attack (Japan); 2,388 built
Koolhoven FK.56 Trainer/Recon (Netherlands); few were built because of the German invasion in May, 1940
Antonov A-7 Transport Glider (Russia, 1940); 400 built; could carry six soldiers
Archangelsky Ar-2 Bomber (Russia); 200 built
Belyayev DB-LK Bomber (Russia)
Lavochkin, Gorbunov and Goudkov LaGG-1 Fighter (Russia)
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-1/MiG-3 Fighters (Russia); short career, but 3,422 built
Petlyakov Pe-8 Four-Engine Bomber (Russia); only 81 built
Arkhangelsky SBB Bomber (Russia); final version of SB
Antonov Shs Liaison (Russia); version of the German Fieseler Fi-156 Storch
Sukhoi Su-2 Bomber (Russia); more than 500 built until 1942; about 60 variants, called Su-4, were also built
Saab B 5 Attack (Sweden); version of the Northrop A-17/Douglas 8A
Commonwealth CA-1/CA-3 Wirraway Trainer/Attack (Australia); developed from the North American NA-33; various versions
I.A.R 80 Fighter (Romania); 240 built
Rogozarksi IK-3 Fighter (Yugoslavia); only 12 built, but six operational fighters downed 10 German aircraft
Yakovlev Yak-1 Fighter (Russia); 8,721 built
Mitsubishi “Zeke” A6M Reisen Fighter (Japan); the legendeary “Zero,” a superior carrier-based fighter when it first appeared, but lightly built and increasingly fragile when faced with heavier and superior Allied fighter; 10,964 built
Dornier Do 217 Bomber (Germany); 1,750 built in various versions, including several nightfighter variants
Douglas SBD Dauntless Dive Bomber (U.S.)
Lockheed C-60 Lodestar Transport (U.S.); military version B-34 Ventura
Cessna C-78 Bobcat Transport/Trainer (U.S.); 3,414 built
Grumman J4F Widgeon Amphibious Utility (U.S.)
Douglas A-20 Light Bomber/Nightfighter (U.S.); 7,385 built, 3,125 delivered to Russia
Martin A-30 Baltimore Bomber (U.S.); 1,575 built; used in Britain only
Douglas C-47 Skytrain Transport “Dakota” (U.S.)
Douglas C-53 Skytrooper Transport (U.S.)
Douglas C-54 Skymaster Transport (U.S.)
Waco G-4 Assault Glider (U.S.); used at D-Day; could carry 15 troops or a jeep and its crew; 13,900 built
Howard GH Nightingale Transport/Ambulance (U.S.)
Taylorcraft L-2 Grasshopper Liaison Craft (U.S.)
Piper L-4 Grasshopper Liaison/Observation (U.S.); 4,461 built; much used in WWII
Stinson L-5 Sentinel Liaison/Observation (U.S.)
Curtiss O-52 Owl Observation (U.S.)
Bell P-39 Airacobra Fighter (U.S.); 9,558 built
Curtiss P-40 Warhawk Fighter (U.S.); used by the legendary Flying Tigers
Consolidated PB2Y Coronado Recon (U.S.)
Armstrong Whitworth Albemarle (Britain)
Martin Baltimore Bomber (Britain); British A-30, based on A-22; 1,575 built for the RAF
Vought Chesapeake Dive Bomber/Trainer (Britain)
Taylorcraft Auster Observation (Britain, approx. 1941); standard WWII observation and liaison craft; in use until 1964
Hawker Typhoon Fighter Bomber (Britain)
Arsenal-Delanne 10 Fighter (France); flown by Germany after the fall of France
Arado Ar 231 Recon Float Plane (Germany); designed for storage on U-boats, it could be disassembled and stored in six minutes, but few were built
Dornier Do 24 Recon (Germany)
Messerschmitt Me 210 Fighter (Germany)
Messerschmitt Me 321 Transport Glider (Germany); had to be towed by the five-engined He 111Z
Fiat CR.25 Fighter/Recon (Italy)
Nardi FN.316 Trainer (Italy)
Fiat G.12 Transport (Italy); 104 built
Macchi M.C.202 Folgore (Italy); 1,200 built
Piaggio P.108 Bomber/Transport (Italy)
Savoia-Marchetti S.M.84 Bomber/Torpedo Bomber (Italy); 309 built
Mitsubishi “Mabel” or “Kate 61” B5M Torpedo Bomber (Japan)
Aichi “Val” D3A Dive Bomber (Japan); 1,495 built; used as a fighter as well
Yokosuka “Glenn” E14Y Recon (Japan); the only aircraft to drop bombs on the U.S. mainland—four firebombs in the Oregon forest, meant to cause a forest fire and damage wood production; years later, the pilot, Nobuo Fujita, visited Oregon and presented his family’s 400-year-old ancestral samurai sword to the city of Brookings; sword is on display in the local library
Mitsubishi “Betty” G4M Bomber (Japan); 2,446 built; late in the war it was used to carry MXY-7 Ohka suicide planes
Kawanishi “Oak” K10W Trainer/Liaison (Japan); 176 built; version of the North American AT-6
Kabaya Ka-1 Recon/ASW Autogiro (Japan); 240 built
Nakajima “Oscar” Ki.43 HayabU.S. Fighter (Japan); various versions; 5,919 built
Nakajima “Tojo” Ki.44 Shoki Fighter (Japan); 1,225 built
Mitsubishi “Dinah” Ki.46 Recon (Japan); 1,742 built
Tachikawa “Hickory” Ki.54 Trainer (Japan); 1,368 built
Kawasaki “Thalia” Ki.56 Transport (Japan); 121 built; based on Lockheed 14
KokU.S.i “Theresa” Ki.59 Transport/Liaison (Japan); 59 built
KokU.S.i “Gander” or “Goose” Ku.8 Transport Glider (Japan)
Showa/Nakajima “Tabby” L2D Transport (Japan); 485 built; based on Douglas DC-3
Mitsubishi/Yokosuka “Tina” L3Y Transport (Japan)
Gribovskii G-29 Assault Glider (Russia); approx. 100 built; took off on wheels and landed on a skid
Beriev KOR-2 Recon (Russia)
Lavochkin, Gorbunov and Goudkov LaGG-3 Fighter (Russia); 21 different versions; 6,258 built in all
Iisunov “Cab” Li-2/Li-3 (Russia); version of C-47/DC-3 built by the Soviets; 2,800 built
Petlyakov Pe-2 Bomber (Russia); 11,427 built
Petlyakov Pe-3 Fighter/Nightfighter (Russia)
Yakovlev Yak-2/Yak-4 Bombers (Russia); about 600 built
Yermolayev Yer-2 Bomber (Russia); little-known bomber; about 320 built
Saab B 17 Dive Bomber/Recon (S 17) (Sweden); in service until 1948
I.A.R. 81 Fighter/Fighter-Bomber (Romania); different versions as fighter or fighter-bomber
Consolidated B-24 Liberator Bomber (U.S.); 19,256 built
Grumman F6F Hellcat Fighter (U.S.); 12,275 built
Curtiss P-60 Fighter (U.S.)
Douglas P-70 Nightfighter (U.S.)
Martin PBM Mariner Recon/ASW (U.S.)
Curtiss SO3C Seamew Recon (U.S.)
Curtiss SB2C Helldiver Dive Bomber (U.S.); versatile aircraft, though the first versions had problems; used successfully in WWII; more than 7,000 built
Consolidated C-87 Liberator Transport (Disarmed B-24 Bomber) (U.S.)
General Aircraft Hamilcar Glider (Britain); could transport a 7-ton tank and other heavy equipment; used in “Operation Overlord”
Airspeed Horsa Assault Glider (Britain); used in WWII during invasions of Sicily, Normandy, and Germany; could carry troops or transport equipment; 3,655 were built
Miles M-25 Martinet Target Tug (Britain); 1,793 built to tow targets
Supermarine Seafire Carrier Fighter (Britain); in service until 1952
Hawker Sea Hurricane “Hurricat” Fighter (Britain); early versions catapulted from special “CAM” ships and then ditched at sea after mission; later versions could take off and land from carriers
Breguet Br 482 Bomber (France)
Arado Ar 232 Transport “Taunsenfussler” (Centipede) (Germany); limited production
Arado Ar 240 Nightfighter (Germany); limited production
Gotha Go 242 Assault/Transport Glider (Germany); 1,528 built
Gotha Go 244 Transport (Germany); version of Go 242 with an engine; quickly withdrawn
Heinkel He 219 Uhu Nightfighter (Germany); the first production aircraft to feature ejection seats; only 219 built
Henschel Hs 129 Ground Attack (Germany); heavily armored; 879 built
Junkers Ju 252 Transport (Germany)
Junkers Ju 290 Transport/Recon (Germany)
Messerschmitt Me 323 Gigant Transport (Germany); Me 321 fitted with captured French engines
Siebel Si 204 Liaison/Trainer (Germany); 1,500 built, mostly by SNCAC in occupied France
Reggiane Re.2001 Ariete I Fighter (Italy)
Reggiane Re.2002 Ariete II Fighter-Bomber (Italy)
Fiat R.S.14 Recon/Bomber (Italy)
Yokosuka “Judy” D4Y Suisei Dive Bomber (Japan); based on He 118; 2,157 built; also used in kamikaze attacks
Kawanishi “Emily” H8K Recon (Japan); 167 built
Aichi H9A Trainer (Japan)
Nakajima “Irving” J1N Gekko Fighter (Japan); various versions; 479 built
Kawasaki “Nick” Ki.45 Toryu Fighter (Japan); 1,701 built
Nakajima “Helen” Ki.49 Donryu Bomber (Japan); 819 built
Kawasaki “Topsy” Ki.57 Transport (Japan); 507 built
KokU.S.i “Stella” Ki.76 Liaison/ASW (Japan)
Tachikawa Ki.77 Experimental Long-Range Bomber (Japan); meant to fly from Tokyo to New York, but abandoned after the loss of one of two prototypes built; one made a flight from Tokyo to Berlin of 16,435 km
Polikarpov BDP-2 Assault Glider (Russia); could carry 20 soldiers; took off with wheels and landed on skis
Bereznyak-Isaev (Bolkhovitinov) BI Rocket Fighter (Russia); possibly the world’s first rocket-engined fighter, but canceled after eight when handling problems were discovered
Shcherbokov Shche-2 Transport (Russia); about 750 built
Yakovlev Yak-7 Fighter-Bomber/Trainer (Russia); 6,399 built
Yakovlev Yak-9 Long-Range Fighter (Russia); the ultimate of the Yak series; 14,579 built during WWII; total production through 1948 was 16,769
Focke-Wulf Fw 190 Fighter (Germany); 20,001 built; one of the best fighters of WWII
De Havilland Mosquito Fighter/Bomber/Recon (Britain); operated at night over Germany safely because no German nightfighter could catch it
Grumman TBF Avenger Torpedo Bomber (U.S.)
Lockheed P-38 Lightning Fighter (U.S.)
Avro 683 Lancaster Bomber (Britain); the most important British bomber of WWII; flew 156,000 missions, many at night; 7,378 were built
Ilyushin “Bark” Il-2 “Sturmovik” Attack (Russia); mainstay of Soviet ground attack; 36,163 built
Lockheed C-101 Transport (U.S.)
Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress Bomber (U.S.)
North American B-25 Mitchell Bomber (U.S.)
Boeing B-29 Superfortress Bomber (U.S.); 3,895 built; dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki; the most expensive weapon of WWII, more expensive than the Manhattan Project, at a cost of around $3 billion
Curtis C-46 Commando Transport (U.S.)
Chance-Vought F4U Corsair Fighter (U.S.)
General Motors FM Wildcat Fighter (U.S.)
Vickers Warwick Search and Rescue (Britain); originally built as a bomber; 850 built
Blohm und Voss Bv 222 Wiking Transport/Recon (Germany); six-engined flying boat
Dornier Do 335 Pfeil Fighter (Germany); unusual design with front engine driving the nose propeller and a rear engine driving a rear propeller; only 28 were built before the end of WWII
Messerschmitt Me 264 Prototype Long-Range Strategic Bomber (Germany); more important for propaganda purposes than reality, this long-range bomber was supposed to have carried 39,400 liters of fuel and 1800 kg of bombs with range to attack the U.S.
Messerschmitt Me 410 Hornisse Fighter (Germany); 1,160 built
Mistel Composite Unmanned Bomb (Germany); consisted of an unmanned Ju 88 packed with a 3,800-kg shaped charge and attached to another plane, a Bf 109 or Fw 190, to be released as a bomb; first tested in 1943; 250 were delivered, but with minimal success
Focke-Wulf Ta 154 Nightfighter (Germany)
Fiat G.55 Centauro Fighter (Italy); best of the Italian fighters
Macchi M.C.205V Veltro Fighter (Italy)
Reggiane Re.2005 Sagittario Fighter (Italy); only 43 built before Italy surrendered
Imam Ro.57 Fighter (Italy)
S.A.I 207 Fighter (Italy); 2,000 ordered, but only a dozen built; superceded by the S.403, which was never completed
Savoia-Marchetti S.M.95 Transport (Italy)
Mitsubishi “Jack” J2M Raiden Fighter (Japan); 480 built; high speed and climb
Kyushu K11W Shiragiku Trainer/Utility/ASW (Japan); 789 built
Kawasaki “Tony” Ki.61 Hien Low-to-Medium-Altitude Fighter (Japan); 3,078 built
Kawanishi “Rex” N1K Kyofu Float Plane Fighter (Japan); approx. 90 built
Kawanishi “George” N1K Shiden Fighter (Japan); land-based version of the Kyofu; 1,453 built
Ilyushin “Bob” Il-4 Bomber (Russia); redesigned DB-3; approx. 6,800 built; 5,256 of the Il-4
Lavochkin La-5N Fighter (Russia); 9,920 built
Lavochkin La-7 Fighter (Russia); improved La-5N; 5,753 built
Polikarpov MP Motorized BDP-2 Assault Glider (Russia)
Tupolev “Bat” Tu-2 Bomber (Russia); 2,527 built; 1,100 before the end of WWII; some were used during the Korean War
Yakovlev Yak-6 Transport/Liaison (Russia); around 1,000 built
F.F.V.S. J 22 Fighter (Sweden); 200 built; in service until 1952
Commonwealth CA-12/CA-13 Boomerang Fighter (Australia); about 250 built
MAVAG Hejja II Fighter (Hungary); license-built version of the Italian Reggiane Re 2000
Morko Moraani Fighter (Finland); converted Morane-Saulnier MS.406 and MS.410 fighters with new engines
Yakovlev Yak-3 Interceptor Fighter (Russia); 4,848 built
Republic P-47 Thunderbolt Fighter (U.S.)
North American P-51 Mustang Fighter (U.S.)
Curtiss 2B2C Helldiver Dive Bomber (U.S.)
Bell P-63 Kingcobra Fighter (U.S.); 2,421 delivered to USSR out of 3,303 built; only country to use them in combat
Fairey Barracuda Torpedo Bomber (Britain); 2,572 built
Bristol Beaufighter Attack Fighter (Britain); 5,918 built
Fairey Firefly Mk. I Fighter (Britain); Mk.5 version in 1947 was used as ASW aircraft and was in production until 1956
Heinkel He 177 Greif Heavy Bomber (Germany); 1,094 built, but a dismal failure
Martin B-26 Marauder Bomber (U.S.); 5,266 built
Douglas A-26B Invader Fighter (U.S.)
Fairchild C-61 Forwarder Transport (U.S.)
Lockheed C-121 L-749 Transport (U.S.)
Grumman F7F Tigercat Fighter (U.S.)
Bell P-59 Airacomet Fighter (U.S.); first U.S. jet, but not very successful
Interstate TDR Remote-Controlled Attack Plane (U.S.)
Hawker Fury Mk. I Fighter (Britain); not used in the RAF, but some bought by Iraq
Handley Page H.P.57 Halifax Bomber (Britain); flew 75,532 missions during WWII
De Havilland Hornet Fighter (Britain); very small fighter—smaller than the Mosquito; remained in service until 1955
Miles M.38 Messenger Liaison (Britain)
Hawker Tempest Fighter (Britain); 1,418 built
Bachem Ba 349 Natter Rocket-Powered Fighter (Germany); unusual fighter that was designed to fire rockets into Bomber formations, then break apart—the pilot and engine were to be recovered by parachute; only 36 built, but it was designated as operational; probably never used
Avia S 99 Fighter (Czechoslovakia, c.1944); Czech version of the German Bf 109; also the Avia S 199, famous only as the first fighter used in the Israeli air force
Blohm und Voss Bv 40 Glider Interceptor (Germany); experimental head-on intercepter; never employed; seven prototypes built
Blohm und Voss Bv 155 High-Altitude Fighter (Germany); development of the Me 155, but too late to be produced before the war ended
Blohm und Voss Bv 246 Hagelkorn (Hailstorm) Radio-Guided Glide Bombs (Germany); approximately 1,100 built, but never used
Fieseler Fi 103 Reichenberg Manned V-1 (Germany); concept of a manned V-1 flying bomb in which the pilot would aim the bomb, then bail out; 175 were built but never used
Junkers Ju 287 Jet Bomber Experimental (Germany); one built, but development continued by the Soviets after the war
Junkers Ju 352 Herkules Transport (Germany)
Junkers Ju 388 Recon (Germany); also bomber and nightfighter variants
Focke-Wulf Ta 152 Fighter (Germany)
Nakajima “Jill” B6N Tenzan Torpedo Bomber (Japan); 1,268 built
Aichi “Grace” B7A Ryusei Torpedo Bomber (Japan)
Nakajima “Myrt” C6N Saiun Recon (Japan); after carriers were all sunk, it was converted into a nightfighter; 463 built
Yokosuka D3Y Myojo Trainer (Japan); may also have been used as a kamikaze suicide plane
Aichi “Paul” E16A Zuiun Recon/Dive Bomber Floatplane (Japan)
Nakajima J5N Tenrai Fighter (Japan); only six built
Mitsubishi “Peggy” Ki.67 Hiryu Bomber (Japan); 727 built
Tachikawa “Patsy,” “Pat” Ki.74 High-Speed, High-Altitude Recon Bomber (Japan); 16 built
Mitsubishi Ki.83 Long-Range Fighter (Japan); a superior fighter, but only four prototypes were built before the war ended
Nakajima “Frank” Ki.84 Hayate Fighter (Japan); 3,382 built
Kawasaki Ki.100 Fighter (Japan); 396 built
Kawasaki “Randy” Ki.102 Fighter (Japan); 238 built
Mitsubishi Ki.109 Fighter (Japan); 22 built; poor performance in combat
Yokosuka “Frances” P1Y Ginga/Kyokko Bomber/Nightfighter (Japan); 1,098 built; at the end of the war, many were sent on suicide missions
Ilyushin Il-16 Ground Attack (Russia); low numbers; never entered service
Yakovlev Yak-10 Liaison (Russia); only about 40 built
Saab B 18 Bomber (Sweden); S 18 Recon version and T 18 Torpedo Bomber version as well
DoFlug D-3802 Fighter (Switzerland)
VL Myrsky Fighter (Finland)
Arado Ar 234 Blitz Jet Bomber (Germany); first jet bomber; 274 built
Gloster/Armstrong Whitworth Meteor Jet Fighter (Britain); first Allied jet fighter; 3,875 built; in service until 1961
Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet Rocket-Powered Fighter (Germany); the first rocket-powered fighter
Northrop P-61 Black Widow Nightfighter (U.S.)
Budd RB Conestoga Transport (U.S.); all steel transport plane; few built
Curtiss SC Seahawk Recon (U.S.)
TBM Avenger Torpedo Bomber (U.S.)
Bristol Buckingham Bomber (Britain)
Avro Lincoln Bomber (Britain)
Short S-25 Sunderland Flying Boat (Britain); in service until 1959
Avro 685 York Transport (Britain); transport based on Lancaster bomber
Focke-Wulf 03-10225 Long-Range Bomber (Germany); never built, but designed to carry 3000 kg of bombs with a battery of 13 defensive guns; speed of 580 km/h and range of 9,050 km
Nakajima “Rita” G8N Renzan Bomber (Japan); only four built
Kyushu “Lorna” Q1W Tokai ASW (Japan); 153 built, but had little to no success against Allied submarines
Mersserschmitt Me 262 Jet Fighter (Germany); one of Germany’s secret weapons; the first operational jet fighter; too late to change the course of the war; 1,430 were completed; later built in small numbers in Czechoslovakia as the Avia S 92
Convair B-32 Dominator Bomber (U.S.)
Boeing B-50 Superfortress Bomber (U.S.)
Douglas C-74 Globemaster Transport (U.S.)
Grumman F8F Bearcat Fighter (U.S.)
McDonnell FH Phantom Fighter (U.S.)
Ryan FR Fireball Fighter (U.S.)
Douglas A-1 Skyraider Fighter (U.S.); many versions and many nicknames; in use until the late 1970s
Northrop P-79 Flying Wing Rocket Fighter (U.S.); experimental only
Lockheed P-80 Shooting Start Fighter (U.S.); first U.S. operational jet fighter; several versions created
Blohm und Voss Ae.607 Jet Fighter (Germany); never built
Arado Ar E.381 Parasite Miniature Fighter (Germany); rocket powered; never built
Heinkel He 162 Salamander Jet Fighter (Germany); 275 built; 150 delivered; 800 in production at the end of the war
Heinkel He 274 High-Altitude Bomber (Germany/France); designed in Germany, but completed and used in France until 1953
Horten Ho IX (Ho 229) Jet Fighter-Bomber (Germany); flying-wing configuration; only three built; sometimes called the Go 229
Henschel Hs 132 Jet Dive Bomber (Germany); a jet-engined dive bomber in which the pilot lay prone in the cockpit; ready for testing when the war ended
Junkers Ju 488 Long-Range Bomber Prototype (Germany); reportedly assembled in occupied France and destroyed by French Resistance en route to Germany
Messerschmitt P.1101 Variable Geometry Jet Fighter (Germany); first of its kind; never developed, though a prototype was built
Heinkel Sk 274 Bomber (Germany); intended to be a long-range bomber designed for a one-way mission to New York; never built
Focke-Wulf Ta 183 Jet Fighter Plan (Germany); though never built, it may have influenced the designs of post-war jet fighters, such as the MiG-15, the Saab J29, and the Pulqui II
Mitsubishi “Sam” A7M Reppu Fighter (Japan); meant to replace the A6M, it suffered a series of misfortunes that lead to only 10 being built
Yokosuka D5Y “Special Attack Plane” (Japan); probable kamikaze plane
Yokosuka “Baka” MXY7 Ohka Suicide Manned Bomb (Japan); later versions included a jet engine; 852 built; only 80 used in combat
Mitsubishi J8M Shusui Fighter (Japan); copy of the German Me 163 rocket interceptor; seven built; only one flew
Nakajima Ki.87 High-Altitude Fighter (Japan); one built before the war ended
Rikugun Ki.93 Fighter-Bomber (Japan); still in testing at the end of the war
Kawasaki Ki.108 High-Altitude interceptor (Japan); intended to counter the B-29, which could fly higher than Japanese fighters; only four built before the end of the war
Nakajima Ki.115 Tsurugi Kamikaze Plane (Japan); 105 built, but never used
Nakajima Kikka Jet Fighter (Japan); smaller copy of the German Me 262; built but flown only twice
Aichi M6A Seiran Attack (Japan); designed to be carried and launched from submarines; only 30 built
Mikoyan-Gurevich I-250(N) Fighter (Russia); had a primitive jet booster, in service until 1950 as the MiG-13
Ilyushin “Beast” Il-10 Attack (Russia); 14,966 built in the USSR and another 7,000 in Czechoslovkia
Lovochkin La-126 Fighter (Russia)
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-8 Research Aircraft (Russia)
Saab J 21 Fighter (Sweden); not successful as a fighter, but converted to attack aircraft as A 21; about 300 built
Northrop B-35 Flying Wing Bomber (U.S.); only 15 built
Bell X-1 Experimental Jet (U.S.); Chuck Yeager flew this plane to be the first to exceed the sound barrier
De Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk Trainer (Britain); 1,292 built; retired in 1997
De Havilland D.H.104 Devon Transport (Britain)
Blackburn B-37 Firebrand Carrier Fighter/Torpedo Plane (Britain); bulky and largely unsuccessful
D.H.108 Experimental Craft (Britain); first British plane to break the sound barrier
De Havilland D.H.98 Sea Hornet Nightfighter (Britain); naval version of the Hornet
De Havilland Vampire Fighter-Bomber (Britain); in service with Switzerland until the 1990s
Vickers Viking Transport (Britain)
Nord 1100 Ramier Liaison (France); version of the German Me 208
Morane-Saulnier MS.470 Vanneau Trainer (France); several versions created (472, 474, 475) in succeeding years
Ilyushin “Coach” Il-12 Transport (Russia); 663 built, though the number could be as high as 3,000
Lavochkin La-9 (La-130) Fighter (Russia); development of the La-126; 1,895 built
Sukhoi UTB-2 Trainer (Russia); derived from the Tu-2
Yakovlev “Moose” Yak-11 Trainer (Russia); developed from the Yak-3 Fighter
Yakovlev “Creek” Yak-12 Liaison (Russia); many built in USSR as well as Poland and China
Yakovlev “Max” Yak-18 Trainer (Russia); more than 9,000 built; possibly as many as 3,500 still in service
Nanchang CJ-5 Trainer (China); Chinese version of the Yak-18; first aircraft built by communist China; 379 built
Pilatus P2 Trainer (Switzerland)
Convair C-99 Transport (U.S.); one built; in service 10 years
Douglas C-118 Liftmaster Transport (U.S.)
Fairchild C-119 “Flying Boxcar” Transport (U.S.)
Lockheed P-2 Neptune ASW/Recon (U.S.)
Handley Page Hastings Transport (Britain)
Slingsby T.21 Sedbergh Trainer (Britain)
Dassault MD 311 Flamant Liaison (France)
Fiat G.46 Trainer (Italy)
An-2/An-3/Y-5 Colt Biplane Transport (USSR/Poland/China); Polish version is the PZL LALA-1
Ilyushin Il-22 Jet Bomber (Russia); first Soviet jet bomber, but the Il-28 was preferred
Mikoyan-Gurevich “Fargo” MiG-9 Jet Fighter (Russia); 550 built
Tupolev “Bull” Tu-4 Bomber (Russia); copy of the B-29 Superfortress; 420 built; some went to China for use as AEW aircraft
Tupolev Tu-12 Jet Bomber (Russia); only about 50 built
Tupolev “Bosun” Tu-14 Jet Bomber (Russia); only about 100 built
Yakovlev “Feather” Yak-15 Fighter (Russia); about 280 built
Yakovlev “Feather” or “Magnet” Yak-17 Fighter (Russia); about 430 built
Saab 91 Safir Trainer (Sweden); widely used trainer throughout the world; in service with the Swedish air force until 1966
Martin AM Mauler Fighter (U.S.)
Republic F-84 Thunderjet Fighter/Bomber (U.S.)
North American F-86 Sabre Fighter (U.S.)
North American FJ-1 Fury Fighter (U.S.)
Martin P-5 Marlin ASW/Recon Flying Boat (U.S.); 284 built; used in Vietnam for coastal patrol
North American P-82 Twin Mustang Nightfighter (U.S.)
Lockheed T-33 Trainer (U.S.)
De Havilland Canada DHC-2 Beaver Transport (Britain)
Hawker Sea Fury Carrier Fighter-Bomber (based on 1944 Hawker Fury) (Britain)
Fairey Primer Trainer (Britain)
Supermarine Seagull Recon (Britain); not to be confused with 1921 biplane by the same name
Hawker Sea Hawk Carrier-Based Jet Fighter-Bomber (Britain); about 537 built
Vickers Valleta Transport (Britain)
Piaggio P.136 SAR (Italy)
LIM-1 Fighter (Poland); license-built MiG-15
Ilyushin “Beagle” or “Mascot” Il-28 Jet Bomber (Russia); approximately 2,000 built; some reverse engineered in China; still in service
Lavochkin La-11 Fighter (Russia); developed from La-9; 1,182 built
Yakovlev “Mare” Yak-14 Transport Glider (Russia)
Yakovlev Yak-16 Transport (Russia)
Yakovlev “Flora” Yak-23 Fighter (Russia); mainly an export fighter, as the MiG-15 was more advanced
Mikoyan-Gurevich “Fagot” MiG-15 Fighter (Russia); superior to any Western fighter when introduced in Korea; 18,000 built; the “Midget” was a trainer version
Martin B-61 Matator Unmanned Bomber (U.S.)
McDonald F2H Banshee Fighter (U.S.)
Grumman F9F-5 Panther Fighter (U.S.)
Lockheed F-94 Nightfighter (U.S.)
Bristol Brigand Attack (Britain)
SCAN N 1400 Noroit Patrol/Rescue (France)
Dassault MD-450 Ouragan Fighter (France)
S.A.I. Ambrosini S.7 Trainer (Italy)
Beriev “Madge” Be-6 Flying Boat Recon/ASW (Russia); in service through most of the 1960s
Lavochkin “Fantail” La-15 Fighter (Russia); about 500 built; used until 1954 but less successful than the MiG-15
Tsybin “Mist” Ts-25 Cargo Glider (Russia); exact date unknown
CASA 201 Alcotan Transport (Spain)
Douglas A2D Skyshark Fighter (U.S.); cancelled because of the unreliability of the Allison T40 engine
Grumman AF-2S Guardian ASW/Attack (U.S.)
North American B-45 Tornado Bomber/Recon (U.S.); first U.S. Air Force jet bomber
Douglas C-124 Globemaster II Transport (U.S.)
Boeing F3D Skynight Nightfighter (U.S.)
Consolidated Vultee L-13 Liaison/Observation (U.S.)
Northrop C-125 Raider Transport (U.S.)
Supermarine Attacker Fighter (Britain)
English Electric Canberra Bomber (PR MK.9 Recon Version) (Britain); 974 built; some may still be in service
Percival Provost Trainer (Britain)
Nord 2501 Noratlas Transport (France)
SIAI-Marchetti S.M.102 Transport (Italy)
Fokker S.11 Instructor Trainer (Netherlands)
Saab J 21R Fighter (Sweden); jet version of the Saab J 21
Boeing B-47 Stratojet Bomber (U.S.)
Piper L-18 Utility (U.S.)
De Havilland Canada U-1 Otter Transport (Canada)
De Havilland D.H.112 Venom Fighter-Bomber/Nightfighter (Britain); standard ground attack plane of the RAF at the time; redesigned Sea Venom used as a naval aircraft
Westland Wyvern Attack (Britain); used during the crisis in the Suez in 1956
Morane-Saulnier MS.733 Alcyon Trainer (France)
Breguet Br 761 Provence Transport (France)
Breguet Br 960 Vultur Attack (France)
Fiat G.59 Fighter/Trainer (Italy); 30 built for Syria
Saab J 29 Tunnan (Barrel) Jet Fighter (Sweden); about 661 built
214-D Trainer/Transport (Yugoslavia)
Soko J20 Kraguj Attack/Trainer (Yugoslavia); date approximate
Ikarus S-49 Fighter (Yugoslavia)
Valtion Lentokonetehdas VH Vihuri Trainer (Finland)
F9F-6 Cougar Fighter (U.S.)
Republic F-84F Thunderstreak Fighter/Bomber (U.S.)
Sikorsky HO5S Utility (U.S.)
Karman HTK Trainer/Utility (U.S.)
Grumman S-2 Tracker ASW (U.S.)
De Havilland DH.114 Heron Transport (Britain)
Supermarine Swift Recon/Fighter (Britain)
Sud-Est SE 530 Mistral Fighter (France); French version of British Vampire
Dassault Mystere IV Fighter (France)
Fokker S-14 MachTrainer (Netherlands)
CASA 202 Halcon Transport (Spain); larger and more modern CASA 201
Convair B-36 Bomber (U.S.)
Boeing C-97 Stratofreighter Transport (U.S.)
North American F-86D Sabre Fighter (U.S.)
Northrop F-89 Scorpion Fighter (U.S.)
Huntington Percival Pembroke Transport (Britain)
Scottish Aviation Prestwick Pioneer STOL Transport (U.K.)
Mikoyan-Gurevich I-350 Fighter (Russia); also the I-360, which became the prototype for the MiG-19
Ilyushin “Crate” Il-14 Transport (Russia); somewhere between 1,000 and 3,500 built, depending on the source
Saab A 32A Lansen Attack (Sweden)
Douglas A-3 Skywarrior Bomber (U.S.)
Lockheed C-121 L-1049G Transport (U.S.)
Convair C-131 Samaritan Transport (U.S.)
Republic RF-84F Recon (U.S.)
Corvair F-102 Delta Dagger Fighter (U.S.)
North American FJ-2 Fury Fighter (U.S.)
Grumman E-1 Tracer Carrier-Based AEW (U.S.)
Cessna T-37 “Tweetie Bird,” “Tweet,” “Super Tweet,” and “Dragonfly” Trainer/Attack (U.S.); 1,268 built (another 577 A-37 light attack aircraft developed from the T-37); retired in 2004
Cessna C-126 Arctic Rescue (U.S.)
Boulton Paul Balliol Trainer (Britain); first ever aircraft employing only turboprop power
Hawker Hunter Fighter Bomber (Britain); highly successful and revered post-WWII jet fighter; 1,985 built; in service nearly 50 years
Max Holste MH-1521 Broussard Liaison/Transport (France)
Dassault MD 452 Mystere II Fighter (France)
Dassault Mystere IVN Nightfighter (France)
Sud-Ouest SO 4050 Vautour Attack/Fighter/Bomber (France, 1954/1956); various versions
LIM-5 Fighter (Poland); license-built MiG-17
Mikoyan-Gurevich “Fresco” MiG-17 Fighter (Russia); was used by at least 22 countries
Tupolev “Badger” Tu-16 Bomber (Russia); used in a variety of roles; Chinese version designated H-6
DINFIA IA 35 Huanquero Transport/Trainer/Recon (Argentina)
Boeing B-52 Stratofortress Bomber (U.S.)
Martin B-57 Intruder Bomber (U.S.)
Fairchild C-123 Provider Transport (U.S.)
Grumman U-16 Albatross Utility (U.S.)
Bell V-3 Experimental VTOL Adjustable Rotor/Propeller Craft (U.S.)
Blackburn Beverley Transport (Britain)
Avro 696 Shackleton Recon (Britain); maritime version of the Lincoln; last piston-engined RAF aircraft; AEW version in service until 1991
Scottish Aviation Twin Pioneer STOL Transport (Britain)
Vickers Valiant Nuclear Bomber (Britain)
Avro Canada CF-100 Canuck Fighter (Canada); retired in 1981
Potez 75 Pusher-Propeller attack (France)
Antonov “Camp” An-8 Transport (Russia)
Myasichew “Bison-A” M-4 Bomber (Russia); converted to tankers after the development of the ICBM
Tupolev “Boot” Tu-91 Naval Attack Bomber (Russia)
Tupolev “Bear” Tu-95 Bomber (Russia); various versions and roles; continued production past 1995; Tu-142 is an ASW version of Tu-95
Yakovlev “Flashlight,” “Mangrove,” “Mandrake” Yak-25 Fighter/Recon (Russia); about 165 Yak-25RV recon were built and about 480 fighter versions; also about 180 Yak-27 “Mangrove” Recon planes were built
Hispano HA-200 Seata Trainer (Spain); Egyptian version built as Al Kahira, designed by Willy Messerschmitt
CASA 207 Aztor Transport (Spain)
Hispano HA-200 Seata Trainer (Spain)
Douglas B-66 Destroyer ELINT (U.S.)
Lockheed C-130 Hercules STOL Transport (U.S.); the standard of post-war transports; created in many versions, including C-130J, which entered service in 1995
Boeing C-135 Tanker (U.S.)
Douglas F4D Skyray Fighter (U.S.)
North American F-100 Super Sabre Fighter (U.S.); the first supersonic fighter to be operational
Cessna O-1 Bird Dog Liaison (U.S.); 3,400 built; in service for 20 years
Gloster Javelin Fighter (Britain); in service until 1967
Fairey Gannet ASW (Britain); in service until 1978
Breguet Br 1050 Alize ASW (France)
Dassault Super Mystere Assault (France)
Dassault Etendard Fighters/Fighter-Bombers (France, 1956–1991); various versions
Potez/Fouga/Aerospatiale CM.170 Magister Trainer (France); retired in 1997
Dornier Do 27/28 Utility/Trainer/Transport (Germany); manufactured in Spain due to restrictions following WWII
Beriev “Mallow” Be-10 Jet Flying Boat ASW (Russia)
Myasichew “Bison-B” 3M Bomber (Russia); converted to tankers after the development of the ICBM
Mikoyan-Gurevich “Farmer” MiG-19 Supersonic Fighter (Russia); approximately 2,000 built in the USSR and possibly twice as many in China
Hispano HA-1112 Fighter (Spain); based on the German Bf 109G fighter
Pilotus P-3 Trainer (Switzerland); in service until 1993
Lockheed U-2 Recon (U.S. 1956)
McDonnell F3H Demon Fighter (U.S.)
Grumman F11F Tiger Ship-Based Fighter (U.S.); used by Blue Angels
McDonnell F-101 Voodoo Fighter (U.S.)
Douglas C-133 Cargomaster Transport (U.S.)
Piaggio P.149 Trainer (Italy)
213 Vihor Trainer (Yugoslavia)
Vought F-8 Crusader Fighter (U.S.)
Northrop B-62 Snark Pilotless Bomber/Cruise Missile (U.S.)
Lockheed F-104A Starfighter Fighter (U.S.); used for astronaut training; set altitude record of 36,273 meters
Republic F-105 Thunderchief Fighter (U.S.)
Supermarine 525 Scimitar Fighter-Bomber (Britain); small numbers produced; in service until 1969
Canadair CL-28 Argus ASW/Recon (Canada)
Aero 3 Trainer (Czechoslovakia); 3,568 built
Nord 3400 Liaison/Recon (France)
Morane-Saulnier MS.760 Paris Liaison (France)
Fuji T-1 Trainer (Japan)
Fokker F.27 Friendship Transport (Netherlands); commercial and military uses; also known as the Fairchild F-27 or FH-227
Antonov “Clod” An-14 Pchelka Transport (Russia); approx. 300 built
Saab A 32B Lansen Fighter (Sweden)
Hispano HA-100 Triana Trainer (Spain)
U-10 Super Courier Utility (U.S.)
De Havilland Sea Venom Fighter (Britain); naval version of the Venom; also licensed to France as the Aquilon
Aero “Maya” L-29 Delfin Trainer (Czechoslovakia); more than 2,000 delivered to USSR between 1963 and 1973
Fiat G.91 Attack (Italy); 411 bought by Germany
Fiat/Aeritalia G.91 Attack (Italy)
TS-8 Bies Trainer (Poland)
Mikoyan-Gurevich “Fishbed”/“Mongol” MiG-21 Fighter (USSR); various versions; more than 10,000 built in various versions worldwide; Chinese exports are called F-7
Sukhoi “Fishpot” Su-9 Fighter (Russia); about 1,000 built
Pilatus Porter and Turbo Porter PC-6 Utility (Switzerland); used in a variety of places, including in Vietnam, in a James Bond film, by numerous skidiver groups, etc.; many still in use
Lockheed F-104G Starfighter Fighter (U.S.)
Grumman V-1 Mohawk Recon (U.S.)
English Electric/BAC Lightning Fighter (Britain, 1960–1988); Mach 2+ twin-engined fighter
Avro Vulcan V-Bomber (Britain)
TS-11 Iskra Trainer (Poland)
Antonov “Cub” An-12 Transport (Russia); larger than the C-130; about 900 were built
Tupolev “Blinder” Tu-22 Supersonic Bomber (Russia); only about 250 built because of limited range; some exported to Libya and Iraq
Cessna O-2 Observation (U.S.)
Northrop T-38 Talon Trainer (U.S.); supersonic trainer intended to stay in service until 2020
Cessna U-17 Skywagon Utility (U.S.)
Hawker Siddeley Argosy Transport (Britain)
Handley Page Victor V-Bomber (Britain); Victor K Mk.2 tanker (1974); retired in 1993
Antonov “Coke” An-24 Transport (Russia); used by 15 air forces worldwide; 1,465 built; reverse-engineered version in China is the Y-7
Beriev “Mail” Be-12 Chaika Amphibious ASW/SAR (Russia)
Soko G-2 Galeb Trainer (Yugoslavia)
Soko J-1 Jastreb Attack (Yugoslavia); attack version of the Galeb; single seat
HAL HF-24 Marut Jet Fighter (India); designed by Kurt Tank, formerly of Focke-Wulf
Folland Gnat Jet Fighter/Trainer (Britain)
Tupolev “Cookpot” Tu-124 Transport (Russia)
Yakovlev Yak-28 (Russia); several versions: “Brewer” bomber, “Firebar” interceptor, “Maestro” trainer, and “Brewer-D” recon, “Brewer-E” ECM
Shenyang/Nanchang CJ-6 Trainer (China); designed and built in China; 1,796 or more built
Pazmany PL-1 Chiensou Trainer (Taiwan, approx. 1962); American design
Northrop F-5 Freedom Fighter (U.S.); type F-5e (1973) limited use in U.S. forces, but used by 28 countries
Mirage IVA Bomber (France); retired in 1996
Mitsubishi MU-2 Airliner/SAR (Japan)
IA 50 Guarani Trainer (Argentina)
North American A-5 Vigilante (U.S.)
Grumman C-2 Greyhound Transport (U.S.)
Lockheed C-141 Starlifter Transport (U.S.)
Beagle Basset Utility (Britain)
De Havilland Sea Vixen Fighter (Britain); in service until 1972
NAMC YS-11 Tranport (Japan)
Dassault Mirage III Fighter-Bomber (France)
Douglas A-26K Fighter (U.S.)
Cessna T-41 Mescalero Trainer (U.S.); military version of the Cessna 172; 864 used by the U.S.A.F.; total production of all versions of the 172 (170, 172, 175, 182) was more than 60,000
North American/Rockwell V-10 Bronco Recon (U.S.)
Blackburn/Hawker Siddeley Buccaneer Attack (Britain)
Dassault-Breguet Atlantique ASW (France); used by French, German, Dutch, and Italians
Ilyushin Il-18 Transport (Russia)
Sukhoi “Fitter”/“Moujik” Su-7 Attack (Russia); began as a Mach 2 tactical fighter, but ultimately was used as a fighter-bomber
Saab J 35 Draken Jet Fighter (Sweden); 606 built
Saab MFI-9 Trainer (Sweden)
Nanchang “Fantan” Q-5 Attack (China); development of the MiG-19, about 1,000 built
Short S.C.5 Belfast Transport (Britain)
McDonnell Douglas A-4 Skyhawk Fighter (U.S.); 2,960 built; in service for 22 years
Lockheed SR-71 Recon (U.S.); Mach 3+ delta-wing spy plane; fastest known aircraft to serve in any air force
Tupolev “Fiddler” Tu-128P Fighter (Russia); about 200 built; possibly the largest fighter ever built; based on T-28 bomber; retired in 1990
Saab 105 Jet Trainer (Sweden); several versions; still in use with upgraded Williams-Rolls Royce FJ44 engines
Shenyang JJ-5 Jet Trainer (China); more than 1,000 built; created by combining the MiG-17 airframe with the MiG-15UTI cockpit; a trainer version was the JJ-6; recon version is JZ-6
Neiva T-25 Universal Trainer (Brazil)
Cessna A-37B Dragonfly Jet Fighter/Trainer (U.S.)
McDonnell F4 Phantom II Fighter (U.S.); more than 5,000 built; used in Vietnam and since
North American T-28 Trainer (U.S.); so easy to fly that it wasn’t a good enough challenge as a trainer; some modified for attack and COIN duties and redesignated as AT-28D
Mirage 5 Attack (France); export version of Mirage III; Israel’s Kfir Fighter is a copy of the Mirage 5; also sold to Abu Dahbi, Belgium, Columbia, Egypt, Gaboon, Libya, Pakistan, Peru, Venezuela, Zaire
Aermacchi M.B.326 Jet Trainer/Attack (Italy); 761 built
Sukhoi “Fishpot”/“Maiden” Su-11 (Russia); developed from Su-9
Sukhoi “Flagon” Su-15 Fighter (Russia); about 1,500 built; famous for shooting down a Korean Airlines 747
Kurnass “Heavy Hammer” (Israel); Israeli version of the F-4 Phantom II
LTV A-7 Corsair II Fighter (U.S.)
BAC 167 Strikemaster Trainer/Attack (Britain)
Lockheed/Aeritalia F-104 (Italy); improved version of the F-104 fighter
Tupolev “Moss” Tu-126 AWACS (Russia)
Hindustan HJT-16 Kiran Jet Trainer (India)
General Dynamics FB-111 Bomber (U.S.)
Lockheed P-3 Orion ASW/Recon (U.S.)
Hawker/BAe Harrier VTOL Ground Attack (Britain); many versions created and improved over the years
Hunting/Percival/BAC Jet Provost Trainer (Britain)
BAe Nimrod Recon/ASW (Britain)
Canadair CL-215 Firefighting (Canada)
MBB 223 Flamingo Trainer/Utility (Germany)
Kawasaki-Lockheed P-2J Recon/ASW (Japan); version of the Lockheed P-2 Neptune
Fokker F.28 Frienship (Netherlands); various models both commercial and military
Antonov “Curl” An-26 (Russia); developed from An-24; about 1,000 built; used by more than 30 countries; built in China as the Y-7H
Mikoyan-Gurevich “Flogger” MiG-23 Fighter (Russia); more than 5,800 built in various versions
Sukhoi “Fitter” Su-17/Su-20/Su-22 Attack (Russia); various versions; export versions, Su-20 and Su-22, produced from 1973–1976
CASA 223 Flamingo Trainer/Utility (Germany/Spain)
Fairchild C-26Metro III Transport (U.S.)
Aerospatiale N 262 Fregate Transport/Trainer (France)
Dassault Mirage F1 Fighter (France)
Aerfer-Aermacchi AM-3 Utility (Italy); used by the South African air force as the “Bosbok”
SIAI-Marchetti S.m.1019 Observation/FAC (Italy)
Shin Meiwa PS-1 Recon/ASW (Japan)
Mikoyan-Gurevich “Foxbat” MiG-25 Mach-3 Long-Range Interceptor/Recon Plus Tactical Bomber Version (MiG-25RB “Foxbat-B”) (Russia); about 1,200 built, mostly interceptors; production ended in 1983
Grumman A-6 Intruder Attack (U.S.)
Lockheed C-5A/B Galaxy Transport (U.S., 1971/1982)
General Dynamics F-111 Fighter (U.S.)
Britten-Norman Defender Utility STOL (AEW/ELINT versions also) (Britain)
Ilyushin “May” Il-38 Recon/ASW (Russia)
Saab MFI-15 Safari Trainer (Sweden)
F+W C-3605 Target Tug (Switzerland); modified from C-3603
IAI Nesher Fighter (Israel); copy of the French Mirage 5 when France refused to deliver 50 Mirage 5s ordered and paid for; Israel managed to steal the plans for the engine and plane and built their own copy
Grumman E-2 Hawkeye AEW (U.S.)
Aero L-39 Albatros Trainer (Czechoslovakia); 2,828 built
SIAI-Marchetti SF.260 Trainer (Italy); more than 700 built
Saab MFI-17 Supporter Trainer (Sweden)
IAI 102 and 202 Arava Transport/EW (Israel)
CASA C-212 Aviocar (Spain); used for maritime patrol, ASW (anti-submarine warfare), ECM (electronic counter measures), and ELINT (electronic intelligence)
Douglas C-9 Transport (U.S.); version of DC-9 airliner
Boeing E-4 Command Center Aircraft (U.S.)
McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle Fighter (U.S.)
Beechcraft T-34 Mentor Trainer (U.S.)
BAe/Scottish Aviation Beagle Bulldog Trainer (Britain)
Sepecat Jaguar Ground Attack (Britain)
Mikoyan-Gurevich “Flogger” MiG-27 (Russia); ground attack version of MiG-23
PAC CT-4 AirTrainer (New Zealand)
Embraer EMB-110 Bandeirante Transport (Brazil)
Grumman F-14 Tomcat Fighter (U.S.)
Lockheed S-3 Viking ASW (U.S.)
VFW 614 Jet Transport (Germany); only 19 built, most scrapped; three still in service in the Luftwaffe
Antonov “Cock” An-22 Transport (Russia); about 100 built; at the time, the largest aircraft in the world, capable of transporting a main battle tank
Antonov “Clank” An-30 Cartography Plane (Russia); based on An-24
Ilyushin “Candid” Il-76 Transport (Russia); main Soviet transport, including Il-78 “Midas” tanker and A-50 “Mainstay” AWACS
Sukhoi “Fencer” Su-24 Attack (Russia); variable geometry wings; also some versions for reconnaissance
FMA IA 58 Pucara Attack (Argentina)
GAF Nomad Transport (Australia)
Beech C-12 Huron Transport (U.S.)
IAI F-21Kfir Fighter (Israel [used by U.S.])
Westland Commando Transport (Britain)
Fiat/Aeritalia G222 Transport (Italy)
Piaggio P.166 Transport (Italy)
Kawasaki C-1 STOL Transport (Japan)
Shin Meiwa U.S.-1 SAR (Japan)
Mitsubishi T-2 Fast Jet Trainer (Japan)
Antonov “Cash” An-28 Transport (Russia); based on An-14
Yakovlev “Forger” Yak-38 (Yak-36MP) VTOL Fighter-Bomber (Russia); about 231 built
Pilatus PC-7 Turbo-Trainer (Switzerland)
Atlas C4M Kudu Transport (South Africa)
Valmet L-70 Vinka Trainer (Finland)
Fairchild A-10 Thunderbolt II Fighter (U.S.)
General Dynamics/Lockheed F-16 Fighting Falcon Fighter (U.S.)
BAE Hawk Jet Trainer (Britain)
Tupolev “Backfire” Tu-022M Bomber (Russia); various versions up to 1985, at least; still in use past 2000; also known as the Tu-26
Hindustan Ajeet Fighter (India); developed from the Folland Gnat
T-CH-1 Chung Sing Trainer (China); developed from the North American T-28
Boeing E-3 Sentry AWACS (U.S.); based on the Boeing 707; several models built
Beechcraft T-44 Trainer (U.S.)
Dassault-Breguet/Dornier Alpha Jet Trainer/Strike Fighter (France/Germany)
Mitsubishi F-1 Attack (Japan); combat version of the T-2 trainer
Antonov “Cline” An-32 Transport (Russia); special version of An-26 for “high and hot” conditions
Saab JA 37 Viggen STOL Jet Fighter (Sweden); multiple versions, including fighter-bomber, attack, tactical recon, sea surveillance, trainer, and pure fighter; attack version AJ 37
Embraer EMB-111 Maritime Patrol (Brazil)
Embraer EMB-121 Xingu Business Jet (Brazil)
Piper U-11 Utility (U.S.)
Sepecat Jaguar Ground Attack (Britain); “international” export version of Sepecat Jaguar; Sepecat stands for “Societe Europeenne de Production de l’Avion d’Ecole de Combat et d’Appui Tactique” or, in English, “European Producion Company for Combat Training and Tactical Support Aircraft”
Fuji KM-2 Trainer (Japan)
Antonov “Coaler” An-72 STOL Transport (Russia); versions An-71 AEW and An-74 for polar operation
Ilyushin “Coot-A” Il-20 ECM (Russia)
Myasichev “Mystic” M-17 Balloon Interceptor (Russia); originally designed to hunt U.S. high-altitude reconnaissance balloons, but also used for recon missions as well as ecological survey and earth protection missions
Sukhoi “Frogfoot” Su-25 Attack/Anti-Tank (Russia); counterpart to the U.S. A-10; used in Afghanistan; several versions
FWA AS 202 Bravo Trainer (Switzerland)
CASA C-101 Aviojet Trainer (Spain)
Shenyang “Finback” J-8 Fighter (China); several versions have been built, including the J-8IIM version, with Russian radar and avionics, which made its first flight in 1990
McDonnell Douglass F-18a Hornet Fighter (U.S.)
BAE Sea Harrier Harrier Jet (Britain); version of the Harrier used for small carriers
Shanghai Y-10 Transport (China); only two prototypes built, but one was flown for years all over China and also to and from Tibet
General Dynamics EF-111A Electronic Warfare (U.S.)
Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk Fighter (U.S.)
Panavia Tornado IDS Multi-Role Fighter (Britain, Germany, Italy); could carry a vast array of weapons and used many methods to avoid detection; the most advanced NATO fighter made in Europe at the time; used in England, Germany, Italy, and Saudi Arabia; the Tornado multi-role aircraft is operational in five different forms: Tornado GR 1 interdictor/strike aircraft for close air support; counter air attack, and defense suppression; GR 1A tactical reconnaissance aircraft; Tornado GR 1B long-range maritime attack aircraft; and Tornado F3 long-range air defense fighter. The GR 4 is a mid-life update of the GR 1. The Tornado entered service in 1980 and ceased production in 1998.
Embraer EMB-312 Tucano Trainer (Brazil)
Schweizer G-7 Motorized Training Glider (U.S.)
Northrop Tacit Blue Experimental Stealth Craft (U.S.); only one built, flown from 1982–1985
Dassault-Breguet Atlantique 2 (ATL.2) ASW (France); upgraded from 1965 Atlantique
Aerospatiale Epsilon Trainer (France)
Pavania Tornado Attack (Germany, Britain, France, Italy)
ENAER Pillan Trainer (Chile)
Y-12 STOL Transport (China)
McDonnell Douglas V-8 Harrier Attack (U.S.)
Dassault-Breguet Mirage 2000 Fighter (France)
Mikoyan-Gurevich “Foxhound” MiG-31 (Russia); developed from MiG-25 with possible linking radar systems used to establish search patterns
CASA-IPTN CN-235 Transport (Spain/Indonesia)
IAI Kfir Fighter-Bomber/Fighter (Israel); Israeli version of the French Mirage
Datwyler MD3 Trainer (Switzerland)
Soko G-4 Super Galeb (Yugoslavia); completely new aircraft, not an extension of the Galeb
Cessna U-27 Caravan Utility (U.S.)
Shorts 330 Transport (Britain); used by different air forces, the U.S.A.F. designates it the Shorts C-23 Sherpa
Let L-410 Turbolet Light Transport (Czechoslovakia); able to operated from primitive airstrips
Saab 340 Airliner (Sweden); also used as SAR and AEW
AIDC AT-3 Tsu Chiang Trainer (Taiwan)
Harbin SH-5 Flying Boat Patrol (China)
Rockwell B-1B Bomber (U.S., 1986); intended to replace the B-52, but cancelled in favor of the B-1B Lancer
Rockwell B-1B Lancer (U.S.); can carry a staggering array of ordnance, totaling up to 75,000 pounds, including thermonuclear bombs
Cessna T-47 Radar Trainer (U.S.)
Grob G 115 Trainer/Airliner (Germany)
Aermacchi M.B.339 Trainer/Attack (Italy)
Antonov “Condor” An-124 Ruslan Transport (Russia)
Mikoyan-Gurevich “Fulcrum” MiG-29 Fighter (Russia); more than 2,000 built; called Baaz in India
HAL HPT-32 Deepak Trainer (India)
Embraer EMB-120 Brasilia (Brazil)
Soko J-22/IAR 93B Orao Attack (Romania/Yugoslavia)
Pilatus PC-9 Trainer (Switzerland)
Sukhoi “Flanker” Su-27 Attack (Russia)
ENAER T-35T Aucan Trainer (Chile); turboprop development of the Pillan
Voyager (U.S.); record-setting endurance airplane whose flight of more than 25,000 miles lasted just about exactly nine days, without refueling; Voyager carried 1,200 galllons of fuel; it weighed 9,750 lbs at takeoff and only 1,858 upon landing at the end of the flight
Schweizer G-8 Motorized Recon Glider (U.S.)
Promavia Jet Squalus Trainer (Italy, Belgium)
Shorts Tucano Trainer (Britain); version of the Brazilian Tucano turboprop trainer for the RAF, replaces the Jet Provost
PZL 130 Turbo-Orlik Trainer (Poland)
Sukhoi Su-33 Fighter (Russia); carrier version of Su-27
Tupolev “Blackjack” Tu-160 Bomber (Russia); the largest combat aircraft ever built, similar to the B-1B, but much larger; capable of low-altitude penetration at transonic speeds or high altitude at Mach 1.9; can carry nuclear weapons with a range of at least 1,800 miles
Atlas Cheetah Fighter-Bomber (South Africa); based on the Mirage III; many upgrades using Israeli technology; was due to be phased out and replaced in 2007 by Saab JAS-39 Gripens
I.A.R. 99 Soim Trainer/Attack (Romania)
Northrop B-2 Spirit Stealth Bomber (U.S.)
Northrop Grumman E-8 Recon (U.S.)
Kawasaki T-4 Jet Trainer (Japan)
Antonov “Cossack” An-225 Mriya Space Shuttle Transport (Russia); grounded due to the end of the Buran space shuttle project; the first aircraft to fly with a gross weight over 1,000,000 lbs
Myiasichev M-17RM/M-55 High-Altitude Recon (Russia); twin-engine version of the M-17 “Mystic”
Aeritalia-Embraer-Aermacchi AMX Light Attack (Italy/Brazil)
IRGC Fajr (Iran)
FMA IA 63 Pampa Jet Trainer (Argentina)
McDonnell Douglas T-45 Goshawk (Britain)
V-23 Skytrader STOL Utility (U.S.)
Aerospatiale TB 31 Omega Trainer (France)
Grob G 520 Strato 1 Surveillance (Germany)
Siai Marchetti/Agusta S.211 Trainer (Italy)
Yakovlev “Freestyle” Yak-41 VTOL Fighter (Russia); project began in 1975; meant to be the world’s first supersonic VTOL fighter; it was never put into production due to budget constraints; the Yak-141, with added stealth technologies, is the continuation of the project, but that has not been put into production yet either
Valmet L-90TP Redigo Trainer (Finland)
McDonnell Douglass C-17 Globemaster III Transport (U.S.)
Rockwell/DASA Ranger 2000 Trainer (Germany)
PZL I-22 Iryda Trainer (Poland)
Antonov An-70 Transport (Ukraine); replacement for the An-12; larger version An-170
Sukhoi Su-34 Fighter-Bomber (Russia); ground attack version of Su-27, sometimes called Su-32FN
Sukhoi Su-35 Fighter (Russia); improved Su-27
AIDC Ching-Kuo Fighter (Taiwan)
Pilatus P-12 Transport (Switzerland); “Eagle” version is being developed for surveillance
IAI/Elta Phalcon 707 (Israel); Boeing 707 with Israeli Phalcon AWACS and AEW&C electronic systems
Schweizer U-38 Covert Surveillance (U.S.)
Grob G 850 Strato 2 Surveillance (Germany); all composite construction; set many world records; G850C model could remain airborne for up to 50 hours at a stretch
Shenyang J-11 Fighter (China); license-built Russian Su-27
Sukhoi Su-37 Multi-Role Combat Fighter (Russia); further improved Su-27
Suchoi Su-39 Trainer (Russia)
Yakovlev Yak-130 Trainer (Russia)
Saab JAS 39 Gripen Multi-Role Fighter/Attack/Recon (Sweden)
IAI Astra SPX Business Jet (Israel); some are used as ECW and transport
Parastou Trainer (Iran); developed from the Beech Bonanza
Aero L-159 Trainer/Attack (Czechoslovakia, 1997); rare jet fighter that can land on grass or non-reinforced runways
Beriev Be-200 Amphibian Transport (Russia, 1997)
CASA C-295 Transport (Spain); improved version of the CN-235
Boeing/McDonnell Douglas F/A-18E/F Super Hornet Fighter (U.S., 2002)
Mikoyan-Gurevich “Fulcrum” MiG-35 Fighter (Russia, first flight 2000); development of the MiG-29 with advanced features; has not entered service so far
Boeing C-40 Transport (U.S., 2001)
Mitsubishi F-2 Fighter (Japan, 2001)
Antonov An-38 Transport (Russia, 2002); replacement for An-28
Samsung KTX-2 Jet Trainer (Korea, 2005?)
HAL LCA (Light Combat Aircraft) Supersonic Fighter (India, 2010?)
J-10 “Jian-10” (“Fighter-10”) changed to “Qian Shi-10” (“Attack 10”) (China, approx. 2003)
J-XX Stealth Fighter (China); reported to be in development
R-3 Black Manta Stealth Recon (U.S.)
Raytheon/Beech/Pilatus T-6 Texan II Trainer (U.S., 2001); replacing all T-37B Tweets by 2008 as primary trainer
Fleetwing BQ-1/2/3 Radio-Controlled Bomb (U.S.)
Tupolev Tu-330 Transport (Russia); quote from Tupolev’s website: “According to Customer request the aircraft can be produced in following versions: refueler, ambulance a/c, hospital a/c, ecological monitoring a/c, a/c for hunting industry and fishery, icing survey, a/c for initial exploration under extraordinary conditions, fire fighting a/c, tanker to carry liquefied natural gas, repeater a/c, special administrative a/c (cabin+two motor cars) etc.”
Mikoyan-Gurevhich MiG-AT Advanced Trainer (Russia); not known whether this will enter production
Azaraksh Fighter (Iran); supposedly a reverse-engineered F-5 fighter; much speculation
JF-17 (FC-1/Super 7 Thunder Dragon) Multi-Role Fighter (China, 2007); entered the Pakistani Air Force in 2007
Lockheed F-22 Raptor Stealth Fighter (U.S., operational 2005)
PZL M-26 Iskierka Trainer (Poland, 2006)
Mikoyan 1-42 Multi-Purpose Fighter (Russia, 2006?); reported to be superior to the F-22
Dassault-Breguet Rafale Assault Fighter (France, c.2008–2012)
V-22 Osprey Tilt-Rotor Aircraft (U.S., 2005)
TsAGI 2-EA Autogiro (Russia, 1931); one built
TsAGI 5-EA Helicopter (Russia, 1933); another experimental helicopter
TsAGI A-4 Autogiro (Russia, 1934); 10 built
Focke-Achelis Fa 61 Experimental Helicopter (Germany, 1937); probably the first workable helicopter; only two built
Focke-Achelis Fa 269 Convertiplane (Germany, 1941); projected design for a vertical takeoff and landing craft where the rotors would swivel to act as propellers during flight
Flettner FL 282 Kolibri Observation Helicopter (Germany, 1941); large orders were placed, but only 24 were completed
Sikorksy R-4 Hoverfly Utility Helicopter (U.S., 1943); first U.S.A.F. helicopter
Sikrosky R-5 Observation/Utility (U.S., 1943)
Piasecki HRP-1/HRP-2 “Flying Banana” Helicopter (U.S., 1943/1948)
Focke-Achelis Fa 223 Drache Helicopter (Germany, 1943); development impeded by Allied bombing
Doblhoff WNF 342 Helicopter (Germany, 1943); first helicopter with tipjet drive using compressed air jets
Sikorsky R-6 Utility (U.S., 1944)
Hiller H-23 Raven Observation/Utility (U.S., 1946)
Kamov Ka-8 Helicopter (Russia, 1947); used alcohol for fuel
Westland Dragonfly (Britain, 1950); version of Sikorsky S-51
Kamov “Hat” Ka-10 Helicopter (Russia, 1950)
Piasecki HUP Retriever Utility Helicopter (U.S., 1950)
Sikorsky H-19 Chikasaw Utility (U.S., 1951)
Bristol 192 Belvedere Transport (Britain, 1951)
Boeing-Vertol H-21 Work Horse Transport (U.S., 1952)
Bell H-13 Observation (U.S., 1950s)
Kellett-Hughes H-17 Transport (U.S., 1952)
Kamov “Hen” Ka-15 Helicopter (Russia, 1952)
Yakovlev “Horse” Yak-24 Helicopter (Russia, 1952); about 100 built
Piasecki H-16 (U.S., 1953)
Sikorsky HR2S SAR/Transport Helicpoter (U.S., 1953)
Sikorsky H-34 Choctaw Utility (U.S., 1955)
Sikorsky H-37 Mojave Transport (U.S., 1955)
Bell HSL ASW Helicopter (U.S., 1955)
Kamov “Hog” Ka-18 Helicopter (Russia, 1955)
Kaman H-43 Huskie SAR (Search and Rescue) (U.S., 1958)
Hiller H-12 Utility (U.S., 1950s); reordered in 1986
Hughes H-55 Osage Trainer (U.S., 1961)
H-50 Gyrodyne Unmanned Helicopter (U.S., 1962)
Sikorsky H-52 SAR (U.S., 1962)
Boeing-Vertol H-46 Sea Knight Transport (U.S., 1964)
Sikorsky H-54 Tarhe Transport/Crane (U.S., 1964)
Kamov “Hormone” Ka-25 ASW/SAR/Utility Helicopter (Russia, 1965); also Kamov “Helix-A, D” Ka-27 redesign in 1981
Kamov “Helix-B” Ka-29/Ka-31 ASW/Attack Helicopter (Russia, 2003)
Kamov “Helix-C” Ka-32 Utility Helicopter (Russia, 1981?); civil helicopter in several versions, including Ka32T (1993) with advanced avionics
Kamov “Hokum A” Ka-50 Gunship (Russia, 1982); also Ka-40 export versions and Ka-52 “Alligator” two-seat version; also known as V-80 “Werewolf” or “Black Shark”
Kamov Ka-60 Attack Helicopter (Russia, 1998); included in Metal Gear Solid 2
Kamov Ka-226 “Hoodlum” Transport (Russia, 2000)
Sikorksy H-3 Sea King ASW (U.S., 1966)
Hughes OH-6 Cayuse Observation (U.S., 1966)
Mi-1 “Hare” Liaison and Utility Helicopter (Russia, 1949)
Mi-4 “Hound” Utility Helicopter (Russia, 1952); used also in the U.S. and Korea; about 3,500 built
Mi-6 “Hook” Transport Helicopter (Russia, 1957); for several years the largest and fastest helicopter in the world (speed 300km/h)
Mi-2 “Hoplite” Utility Helicopter (Russia, 1961); replacement for the Mi-1
Mi-8 “Hip” Transport Helicopter (Russia, 1962); along with Mi-14 and Mi-1, the most commonly produced helicopter in the world
Mi-10 “Harke” Crane Helicopter (Russia, 1964); based on Mi-6
Mi-12 “Homer” Transport (Russia, 1969); the largest helicopter of its time; only two built
Kamov “Hoodlum” Ka-26 Utility Helicopter (Russia, 1970)
Mi-14 “Haze” Helicopter (Russia, 1978); based on Mi-8; has a float and is used in ASW, SAR, and mine sweeping
Mi-22 “Hook-C” Airborne Command Post Helicopter (Russia, 1972); based on Mi-6
Mi-26 “Halo” Muti-Role Helicopter (Russia, 1977); another largest in the world helicopter; empty weight 28,200 kg
Mi-24 “Hind” Attack Helicopter (Russia, 1978); used in various countries; heavily armed and can carry up to eight troops
Mi-17 Utility Helicopter (Russia, 1980); improved “hot and high” export version of the Mi-8
Mi-28 “Havoc” Attack Helicopter (Russia, 1982); can fly sideways or backward at up to 100 km/h and forward at 300 km/h
Mi-34 “Hermit” Light Helicopter (Russia, 1986)
M-28N Night Attack Helicopter (Russia, 1996); night attack version of M-28
Mi-38 Passenger Helicopter (Russia, 2007); carries 30 passengers
Bristol 171 Sycamore Light Multi-Role Helicopter (Britain, 1951)
Mi-4 Hound Jet Helicopter for ASW and Transport (Russia/China)
Mi-8 Hip Multi-Role Transport/Attack Helicopter (Russia, 1960)
Agusta A 109 Multi-Purpose Helicopter (Italy, 1976)
Mi-14 Haze (Russia)
Mi-17 (Mi-8MT) Hip H Multi-Role Helicopter (Russia)
Mi-24 Hind/Mi-25 Hind D/Mi-35 Hind E Assault Transport and Gunship (Russia)
Agusta A 129 Mangusta Anti-Tank Helicopter (Italy, 1990)
Mi-26 Halo Heavy Transport (Russia)
Mi-28 Havoc Attack Helicopter (Russia, 1982)
Ka-25 Hormone ASW Helicopter (Russia)
Sud-Ouest SO 1220 (1221) Djinn Light Utility Helicopter (France, 1954)
Ka-27 Helix A/Ka-29 Helix B/Ka-32 Helix (Russia); multi-use helicopters, including combat, transport, and assault (Helix B)
Ka-50 Hokum/Ka-52 Hokum B/Black Shark/Werewolf Battle Helicopters (Russia); deployment uncertain due to budget constraints
AS 565 Panther/SA 360 Dauphin 2/Z-9 (France)
Hirundo A109 (Italy)
Mangusta A129 Attack Helicopter
Alouette 2 (France)
Alouette III (France)
SA 330 Puma/AS 532 Cougar (France)
AS 532UL Cougar Mk I UL/Horizon (France)
AS 550 Fenec (France)
EC635 Light Utility Helicopter (LUH) (Germany)
Merlin HM. 1/EH101 Merlin/EH101 Cormorant (European Helicopter Industries—Britain/Italy)
Westland Wessex Transport (Britain, 1966); based on Sikorsky S-58
Lynx (Britain, 1978)
NH90 (NHIndustries—coalition of France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, and Portugal, 2006)
MBB Bo-105 Utility/Anti-Tank/ASW/Transport/SAR Helicopter (Germany, 1975–present)
Bell H-1 Hueycobra Gunship (U.S., 1967); other versions included EH-1 (electronic warfare); UH-1 (utility); VH-1 (VIP Transport), and TH-1 (training)
Hiller ROE Rotorcycle (U.S., 1959); experimental foldable one-man helicopter
Boeing-Vertol H-47 Chinook Transport (U.S., 1962)
Aerospatiale SA 315 Lama Utility Helicopter (France, 1969); set altitude record for helicopters (12,442 meters)
Bell H-58 Kiowa Observation (U.S., 1969)
Sikorsky H-60 Utility/Armed (U.S., 1980)
Aerospatiale H-65 Dauphin SAR (U.S., 1982)
Hughes H-64 Apache Attack Helicopter (U.S., 1986)
Harman H-2 Seasprite ASW Helicopter (U.S., 1987)
Boeing-Sikorsky RAH-66 Recon/Attack (U.S., 2005?)
CSH-2 Rooivalk Attack Helicopter (South Africa, 1998)
PAH-2 Tiger (Germany/France, 2002?)
SA 341/SA 342 Gazelle (France, 1967)
Super Frelon (France, 1962)
Scout (1958), Wasp (1963) utility helicopters (Britain)
Bombs are (usually) unpowered missiles dropped from above. They generally are made to fall headfirst, often with the stabilizing aid of fins. They employ various kinds of triggering devices and can carry a large quantity of explosives or other material. They often create damage by blast and by fragmentation effects, although incendiary bombs are also often used, and other types of modern bombs have been developed.
Various items have been dropped down upon enemies for centuries, including stones of all kinds, boiling oil and water, excrement, and...well, just about anything that could be heaved off the edge of a castle or fortress. However, today’s bombs got their start with the invention of aircraft, and the earliest such weapons were simply held by hand and dropped out of the open cockpits of biplanes. Bombs were also dropped from balloons and the German Zeppelins.
Bombers were developed in WWI, however—planes whose sole purpose was to drop bombs on various targets. In addition to bombing from their infamous Zeppelins, the Germans developed the Gotha bomber and used it to attack English cities. The Russians, Italians, French, and British all developed bombers. The famous Russian bomber, the Ilya Mourometz, was the first four-engine airplane, and it entered the war in 1913, bombing over Germany and the Baltic states.
Compared to later wars, the bombs that fell during WWI were not very effective; however, they did cause widespread alarm and even panic when dropped directly over cities, such as during the air raids over London. Ultimately, those raids stopped when the maneuverable Sopwith Camel biplanes began shooting the German Gothas out of the sky too regularly.
WWI-vintage bombs generally had little or no penetrating power and simply exploded where they landed, lacking also timed fuzes. By WWII, bombs had grown considerably in size. Early WWII bombs weighed between 2,000 and 8,000 pounds. These high-explosive bombs (which the Brits called Cookies) were often combined with incendiary bombs. Dropped together over urban areas, they could cause great firestorms, such as the one in Dresden. Fragmentation bombs were also used, which could cause damage to property and personnel.
Special bombs were also developed, such as skip bombs, which would bounce and skip across water, used specifically as dam busters, and the great earthquake bombs—the 10,000 pound Tall Boy and the 22,000 pound Grand Slam, which were designed to penetrate the earth before detonating, effectively causing a localized earthquake and destroying underground targets. The Germans also developed a rocket-assisted armor-piercing bomb, the PC 100 RS. Toward the end of the war, the Germans reportedly had also developed a radio-guided bomb, which could be dropped at high altitude and guided by radio waves, sighting by a flare that lit up at the back of the bomb.
Of particular importance in the Pacific were the dive bombers, which dropped relatively smaller bombs from very low altitudes at the ends of a diving run. Both the Japanese and the Americans had success with dive bombers. The Japanese also were successful with torpedo bombers, which laid torpedoes down near their targets, then accelerated away. In the case of the Americans, who had terribly unreliable torpedoes, it was the dive bombers that helped them win the war in the Pacific by taking out the Japanese carriers.
Generally, there are several types of bombs, which can be divided into different categories:
Bombs are most effective if they detonate at just the right moment, which varies with the situation and the intended target. At times, it’s useful for the bomb to trigger immediately upon impact. In other cases, it’s useful for the bomb to trigger some time after impact, and in still other cases, it’s helpful to delay the bomb’s arrival at the target for a short time. The first two cases are handled by fuzes of various kinds. The third case is dealt with by retarding the bomb’s descent, using parachutes or retarding devices attached to the bomb that slow its descent—for instance, to allow the aircraft that dropped it time to get out of blast range.
Various methods are used to detonate bombs, and they use a specific set of terms. Here are some of the basics:
Arming Time (Safe Separation Time [SST]). The amount of time or the number of vane revolutions required for the firing train to be aligned or the bomb to be fully armed.
Delay. Refers to any time the functioning time of a fuze is more than 0.0005 seconds.
External Evidence of Arming (EEA). Some physical means by which a fuze’s state (armed or safe) can be determined.
Functioning Time. The time it takes to detonate after impact or a preset time.
Instantaneous. Describes a fuze that activates in 0.0003 seconds or fewer.
Nondelay. Describes a fuze that activates between 0.0003 seconds and 0.0005 seconds.
Proximity (VT). Describes the action that causes a fuze to fire when an object of determined size or other characteristics is detected at a predetermined distance from the bomb.
Safe Air Travel (SAT). Describes the distance that the bomb travels in an unarmed state from the releasing aircraft.
Most fuzes are either mechanical or electrical. Mechanical fuzes are similar in principle to the operation of a gun hammer and primer, but they usually entail several steps of ignition, such as priming charge and booster charge(s) before the main explosive is detonated. But in the case of a mechanical fuze, it is the mechanical force of the bomb hitting the target that initiates the sequence. They are armed usually by the rotation of the vanes in the tail after release, which cause the mechanisms inside the bomb to arm. Mechanical fuzes should be safe in storage and in transit and remain safe until they have fully cleared the delivery aircraft. They should only detonate in the intended manner, whether that be instantaneous or on some delay, and they should not detonate if accidentally released or jettisoned.
Modern electrical fuzes are similar to mechanical fuzes, but they are initiated differently. Generally, they receive a charge of electricity into onboard capacitors just before they are released from the aircraft. Delay is created by various electrical circuitry, which controls the initiation of the firing sequence, and may contain timers or impact-sensitive switches. Whether they are mechanical or electric, fuzes are triggered in different ways. For instance:
Impact Fuze (Nose). A simple mechanical fuze that triggers on impact.
Impact Fuze (Tail). A simple mechanical fuze that triggers on impact.
Impact Fuze (Side). A simple mechanical fuze that triggers on impact.
Mechanical Timer Fuze. A timer, such as a clockwork device, that delays the triggering of the bomb for a set time.
Proximity Fuze. A fuze that uses some sort of signal, such as radar or radio waves, to detect proximity to its target and initiate detonation.
All-Ways Fuze. A fuze that will trigger no matter how the bomb impacts the target.
Hydrostatic Fuze. A fuze that is triggered when immersed in water.
Many modern fuzes can be set for more than one possible triggering method.
Modern bombs are almost always fitted with some kind of stabilization method, generally in the form of fins attached to the back end of the bomb. Bombs are generally shaped to be aerodynamic, and the fin assemblies help them fall in a smooth arc to the target, nose first. Modern fin assemblies vary in shape and intended use. Some are fixed, such as the conical fin assembly, while others, such as the Snakeye, can be optionally opened to retard the fall of the bomb for some situations.
Military research is ongoing, and the search continues for more effective bombs in different configurations. This section discusses a few types of modern bombs.
Conventional bombs that simply drop from a plane without any steering mechanisms are often known as dumb bombs. In contrast, smart bombs can be guided, or in some cases can even guide themselves, to a target. They are like dumb bombs with the addition of sensor systems, control systems, and some sort of adjustable flight mechanism, usually adjustable fins. In essence, a smart bomb is a heavy glider that will fall with some control. It derives forward motion from the plane that drops it. Most smart bombs have proximity fuzes or impact fuzes.
The first smart bombs from WWII used radio waves. More modern smart bombs feature TV/infrared (IR) or laser guidance. With TV and IR, bombs can be controlled manually by an operator, usually in the bombing aircraft, using the visual signals sent by the bomb itself. Such bombs can also be locked onto a target through video surveillance and will guide themselves to the target automatically once they are dropped.
Laser-guided smart bombs use a sensor that can detect a specific frequency of laser light, which is shined on a target by a remote operator. The bomb will home in on the reflected laser light from the target. Just before dropping the bomb, it is programmed with a specific pulse pattern, which it seeks. It will not respond to a laser signature unless it has this specific pulse pattern.
The main drawback of these types of bombs is that they must maintain visual contact with the target. Smoke and clouds or other atmospheric conditions can disrupt their effectiveness.
Newer technology uses the JDAM, or Joint Direct Attack Munitions (GBU 31/32), to equip existing dumb bombs with sophisticated guidance systems, consisting of a tail kit that contains an inertial guidance system and a GPS receiver. Combined, these allow the bomb to “know” its position in space. Before dropping the bomb, the aircraft’s computer identifies the GPS location of the target and feeds that and the current position into the bomb’s onboard GPS. The bomb can find its way to the target—accurate to within 40 feet, and generally more accurate than that—even in bad weather or through smoke and other visual barriers, since the GPS signals are not affected by such conditions. JDAM kits are also far more economical than other smart bomb options, costing only around $20,000 per tail kit, compared with $120,000 for a laser-guided bomb.
Cluster bombs may be dropped from the air or launched from ground facilities. The main housing scatters smaller bombs (bomblets), which can have various uses, such as anti-personnel, physical infrastructure destruction, or even the delivery of chemical weapons or mines. Ninety-four nations have signed a treaty prohibiting the use of cluster bombs for the indiscriminate damage they do to noncombatants, even long after they have been dispersed. Here are some cluster bomb models:
MK20, CBU-99, CBU-100 Anti-Tank Bombs. Air-launched freefall weapon used against armored vehicles. These bombs release 247 Mk 118 antitank bombs when dropped, weighing approximately 490 pounds. At the preset time, two shaped charges cut the bomb in half and release the bomblets, which spread in freefall trajectories. Mk 118 bombs will release a shaped charge warhead when they strike a hard surface, such as armor or concrete. If they hit a soft surface, such as earth or sandbags, they allow the bomb to penetrate, and an inertia-driven firing pin then detonates the “stab detonator” and fires off the warhead.
CBU-78/B and B/B GATOR. Drops 60 mines from each unit. They can drop either the BLU-91/B, an armor-piercing warhead that uses a magnetometer sensor, or a BLU-92/B fragmentation mine with tripwire sensors.
Modern Fire Bombs. Modern fire bombs (as distinguished from the incendiary bombs used during the two World Wars) are non-stabilized (lacking fins) bombs that are filled with fuel gel (the new terminology for what has been called NAPALM) and used against troops and various installations, or even on terrain to burn it away. The MK77 Mod 4 fire bomb used by the U.S. military weighs about 500 pounds and carries 75 gallons of fuel gel. Upon impact, the bomb will rupture and the fuzes will detonate, rupturing the igniters and setting fire to the mixture. The fuel gel is made to adhere to surfaces, causing maximum destructive effect.
BBU-55 Fuel Air Explosive (FAE) Bomb. Dropped in clusters of three, these bombs create a cloud of ethylene oxide about 50 feet across by 8 feet high. When this cloud is detonated, it creates a blastwave approximately five times that of TNT. FAEs are often used to clear minefields.
This list includes a few specific types of bombs to open your imagination and allow your destructive impulses further fuel.
Matra Durandal. A penetration bomb that is dropped and retarded in descent until it reaches the proper angle, then rocket-boosted into its target for maximum penetration. It is used effectively to damage enemy runways and other targets.
HOBOS. Electro-optical bombs, also known as HOBOS (homing bomb systems) use TV technology to guide them by means of movable fins. They can be locked onto a target before dropping or guided while falling by the crew, using pictures sent back from the TV unit in the bomb.
Paveway Bombs. Paveway bombs are guided by laser. They are conventional bombs with special equipment added to allow them to home in on a laser beam and change course by means of movable fin assemblies. The laser is generally beamed from a support aircraft, not the one dropping the bomb. There are different versions of the Paveway bombs, for different targets and purposes.
Bunker Busters. Bunker busters are bombs intended to penetrate to targets that are far underground or are protected by thick concrete structures. Early bunker busters were the WWII-era Tall Boy and Grand Slam, but the need for new technology has resurfaced, so to speak, with the targets in the Middle East, which are often dug deep into the ground. The GBU-28 or BLU-113 is 19 feet long and 14.5 inches in diameter. It is fashioned from artillery barrels of hard steel and filled with nearly 650 pounds of tritonal explosive, which is a mixture of TNT and aluminum powder (about 20 percent). The aluminum powder improves the speed at which the explosive reaches its maximum pressure, which is called brisance. This bomb weighs 4,400 pounds. It is laser guided and uses adjustable front fins for steering and fixed, retractable back fins for stabilization. Because this bomb is very heavy and very strong, but very narrow by comparison, it can penetrate very deep—up to 100 feet into earth and 20 feet into concrete when dropped from a plane. Typically, bunker buster bombs have been fitted with delay timers that cause them to detonate after maximum penetration, but even more precise hard target smart fuzes (HTSF) are being employed that use an accelerometer to detect the exact perfect moment to detonate the bomb. A light (2,000-pound) version, the GBU-27/GBU-24 or BLU-109, is also being used. One material that is considered ideal for bunker buster bombs is depleted uranium (DU), which is 1.7 times heavier than lead and 2.4 times heavier than steel, almost five times harder than steel, and will burn with an extremely hot and intense flame when heated in an oxygen environment. However, the down side is that DU leaves radioactive material on the battlefield, and when it burns, the smoke can be very damaging to the human body. Another favored but politically problematical bunker buster is the tactical nuke, which can do tremendous damage but would inevitably leave a very large crater and spew radioactive fallout into the atmosphere.
E-Bombs. No specific electromagnetic (EMP) weapons are officially in existence, but research into them has been going on for decades. The idea of an EMP weapon is that it would create a powerful electromagnetic pulse that would destroy just about anything that uses electricity or electronics without direct loss of life or other destruction of property. There are several types of proposed EMP weapons, varying from large-scale bombs to small and simple weapons that could disrupt equipment in a small area. A design was even published in Scientific American in 2001 that shows a small weapon made up of some wire coils and a charge of high explosive in a specialized casing. By passing a current through the coil and then detonating, the explosive would cause a moving short circuit through the coil, compressing the magnetic field and generating an intense electromagnetic burst. The idea behind EMP weapons is based on a 1925 theory by physicist Arthur Compton (known as the Compton Effect) that postulates that a large amount of electromagnetic energy can knock electrons loose from atoms of material with low atomic numbers, such as oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere. It is thought that this happened during early atmospheric tests of nuclear weapons in the ’50s, where street lamps in Hawaii were blown out by blasts that were hundreds of miles away.
MOAB. The Massive Ordnance Air Burst—one of the largest conventional bombs ever built. It weighs 21,000 pounds and measures 30 feet long and 40.5 inches in diameter. It is guided by satellite and is designed to detonate about 6 feet above the ground, causing it to disperse more of its enemy laterally, as opposed to a conventional impact bomb, which sends the bulk of its blast into the ground or into the air. This bomb replaces the Daisy Cutter, a Vietnam-era bomb that weighed 15,000 pounds and could create an instant helicopter landing site by clearing trees in a 500-foot diameter circle with one blast. The largest bomb ever created was the T-1, which weighed 43,600 pounds. Even though the MOAB is very large, its blast is miniscule when compared to a nuclear bomb.
GBU-15. The U.S. Guided Bomb Unit is an unpowered glide weapon used to destroy enemy high-value targets and is dropped from F-15 aircraft. It weighs about 2,500 pounds and has a range of between 5 and 15 nautical miles. Its guidance systems use television or imaging infrared seeker via man-in-the-loop link, autonomous GPS/INS. It costs in excess of $240,000 per unit.
JDAM (Joint Direct Attack Munitions) GBU 31/32. A guided air-to-surface bomb using either a 2,000-pound BLU-109/MK 84 warhead or a 1,000-pound BLU-110/MK 83. They have a range up to 15 miles and use GPS/INS guidance systems. JDAMs were developed after the Desert Storm operation to provide munitions that could be used in low-visibility conditions. In addition, they can be launched from very high or very low altitudes and with a variety of versatile approaches by the launching aircraft.
I was about to begin a list of ships and offer a lot of information about them, but then I discovered that the work I was about to do was already being done. So, instead, I’m sending you to Wikipeda, specifically to en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Ships. I think you’ll find plenty of good information there.
Depth charges were created as a direct response to the German U-boats of WWI. The first depth charge, the British “D” type Mk III, weighed 300 pounds and carried an explosive, usually TNT, which was triggered at a preset depth by an internal pressure-activated trigger device, called a pistol. It could go as deep as 300 feet and was rolled off racks at the stern of the boat. This was the standard method of dropping depth charges, but projecting systems were developed even during WWI, such as the K-gun, which could toss a charge 150 feet from the boat, could be launched to the sides as well as to the stern, and could be used to create patterns of explosions.
Depth charges had a small blast radius, but the effects of pressure waves could damage a submerged sub sufficiently to force it to the surface. Creating patterned explosions increased the likelihood of crippling a target submarine.
More improvements were added during WWII, including the use of a stronger explosive—Torpex—and casings that would sink faster, giving the sub less time to take evasive action. However improved they were, they weren’t terribly effective because the submarines were made better as well, and could survive depth-charge damage unless the charge hit within five meters (15 feet) of the sub’s hull—a matter of chance. In one documented case, German sub U-427 survived 678 depth-charge attacks.
More effective was the hedgehog, a device that fired an array of 24 bombs ahead of the launching ship. Guided by sonar, they only exploded on contact, but they were responsible for more “kills” than standard depth charges.
Modern anti-submarine weapons include the CAPTOR mines (see the “Mines” section earlier in this chapter), acoustic torpedoes, and ASROC, or anti-submarine rockets. Current research includes what are called organic anti-mine systems, including the ARCI sonar system, which is supposed to be 100-percent effective for SSNs to detect mines with sufficient time to avoid them, as well as the Airborne Mine Countermeasures (OAMCM) and the Airborne Laser Mine Detection System (ALMDS).
Torpedoes were invented in the late 19th century. A torpedo is a self-propelled explosive device designed to operate in and under water. Torpedoes are often fired from submarines, although they were also fired from aircraft during WWII. One estimate contends that torpedoes have been responsible for 25 million tons of wreckage at the sea bottom since their invention by Robert Whitehead.
The term torpedo was derived from a species of fish that can deliver an electric shock. The word was applied to various devices used against shipping, some of which we would call mines today. Ultimately, the modern use of the word took hold and has remained. One early device that used the name was the so-called Harvey torpedo, which was an explosive device that was towed on a long cable behind another boat. As it swung out from the towing boat, it could be brought into contact with the enemy and detonated. But this design was subject to many hazards and limitations and was supplanted by Whitehead’s torpedo.
One other “torpedo” of note was the so-called spar torpedo, which was an explosive charge at the end of a long pole, which was detonated by pushing it against an enemy ship by hand. The charge was ignited by a percussion cap. These weapons were actually used successfully during the American Civil War.
What is most amazing is that most of the core technologies and refinements that formed the basis of torpedoes used in WWII had already been developed and implemented by the turn of the century. Of course, there were further refinements, but the essentials of the torpedo were worked out long before they came into common use in warfare.
Early torpedoes used compressed-air engines, which underwent several phases of improvement—the most significant of which was the introduction of heated systems, which improved performance significantly. The heated air produced much more pressure and therefore more range and speed.
To maintain the torpedo’s depth, Whitehead created a mechanism, which for years was referred to only as The Secret. It was a chamber sealed at atmospheric pressure containing a pendulum and a hydrostatic valve. Water pressure would cause movement of a moveable disk, which would cause changes in the equilibrium of the system and would translate to a system of levers that would control the horizontal rudders. The rudders would tilt up if the torpedo was too deep or down if it was too shallow. The system worked remarkably well, with a tolerance, even in its earliest form, of +/− 6 inches, and was adopted in all subsequent torpedoes, at least through the WWII era.
To further stabilize the torpedo’s run, gyros were added, which would prevent the torpedo from wandering laterally. By oriented the gyro’s axis in the direction of the torpedo’s travel and attaching it to gimbals that could relay the pressure from the gyro when the course deviated, it was possible to fire air jets to either side, based on the pressure from the gyro, and correct the torpedo’s course. This resulted in significant increases in accuracy. The addition of servo motors from the balance chamber assembly increased the ability of that mechanism to affect the movement of the horizontal rudders far more efficiently. All of these improvements were in place by WWI.
The contra-rotating propeller system, two propellers rotating in opposite directions on the same axis, was adopted for most torpedoes because it reduces the “swirl” effect of one propeller, recovering some efficiency, and it also further stabilizes the motivational force.
A parallel development with the compressed air torpedo was the electric torpedo. The first ones, built as early as 1873, had to remain wired to the ship or base that fired them. One version, built in 1889, could travel more than 2 miles carrying 400 pounds of explosives. The first self-contained electric torpedoes were developed around 1880 to 1890. The Germans perfected electric torpedoes around the end of WWI but really didn’t put them into practice until WWII. Electric torpedoes had several advantages, not the least of which was that they left no “tracks,” as the air-compressed ones did—expelling exhaust air into the water, leaving a trail of bubbles. Electric torpedoes were also essentially silent, which became more and more important as time went on and sonar technology developed.
During WWII, the German G7e type came in three forms. The T2 torpedo had a range of 5,400 yards and a speed of 30 knots. The T3 and T3a had a range of 8,000 yards at 29 knots. The batteries in these weapons weighed 1,500 pounds, and the motor another 250. However, they were very successful and accounted for significant loss of Allied shipping during WWII. Based on research and analysis of captured G7e torpedoes, the U.S. created the Mk 18 electric torpedo, which was successfully used during the war.
A more modern U.S. torpedo is the Mk44, which is electric powered and can be fired from aircraft, ships, or subs or from the ASROC system.
Modern torpedoes usually use active or passive acoustic or wake-homing devices, allowing them to “find” their targets. Although it is well known that water transmits sound very well and over very long distances, it is also a very problematic medium for acoustic seeking devices. There is quite a bit of “noise” and distortion in water, based on various effects, such as reflection from the surface and/or the seabed, Doppler effects, and other effects. Modern acoustic sensors must attempt to filter out the noise in order to get true readings.
Many modern torpedoes actually use wire-guided systems, which allow direct two-way communications between the torpedo and its home ship. Among other things, this allows the operators to bypass torpedo countermeasures, such as bubble screens and distractive noisemakers. This type of system is used by both the U.S. Mk48 and the British Spearfish torpedo, although in either case if the wire breaks, the torpedo can perform on seeker mode alone. Both systems run the heavyweight torpedo (HWT) out near the target at high speed, which can interfere with the acoustic signal, carrying out the final phase of attack at lower speed, where the signal is not degraded by the water flow over the acoustic head.
Passive sensors are still useful against surface ships because they make a lot of noise, but today’s submarines are very quiet, and active sensors are required.
Torpedoes with narrow depth-bands will often move in a helical search pattern, while those with more depth range may use a sinuous (snakelike) pattern.
Another type of system, used against surface ships, is called wake homing. The torpedo can sense the wake of a ship, and it crisscrosses the wake boundaries until it reaches the ship and makes contact. A somewhat more difficult but more efficient method is called wake nibbling, in which the torpedo can detect the wake and follow its boundary to the ship, instead of crisscrossing.
There are two main classifications of torpedoes—lightweight (LWT) and heavyweight (HWT).
Modern torpedoes are extremely sophisticated, compared to their predecessors. An example is the U.S.-made Mk 46, which can be digitally programmed for a variety of behaviors. It can work on active or passive sensors and can use different search patterns, different depth settings (including a search ceiling set to prevent it from attacking its own ship), and a variety of other options. The redesigned version—the Mk 46 Mod 5—extends its capabilities significantly, including a sonar transducer, transmitter, and receiver, which allow it to detect submarines, even when their hulls are coated with Anechoic tiles. It has a search speed of around 30 knots and a range of 15 kilometers. It has improved sensor signal to noise and can reject false targets, and it can be programmed to recognize and attack the most vulnerable part of a ship—the control room. Another model, the M50 Barracuda, is claimed to be a dual-speed torpedo with even more improved sensing. Other LWTs include the British Stingray, the French Mu 90 Impact, the Swedish wire-guided Tap series (42, 43, 431/432, Tp43XO), and the Indian Shyena, which is named after a bird of prey known for its swift dive.
Whereas lightweight torpedoes are primarily used for close-range attacks from aircraft, heavyweight torpedoes are used as a standoff weapon, generally from a submerged submarine. Though torpedoes are categorized by their diameter, the most common size for heavy torpedoes is 21 inches (533mm), although there are larger sizes, ranging up to 36 inches.
Some heavyweight torpedoes include the U.S. Mark 48, the German DM2A3 and DM2A4, as well as the WWII-era GE7 series, the Russian Type 53-65 torpedoes, and the famed Japanese torpedo from WWII, the Type 93 or “Long Lance,” which was launched from surface ships, and its counterpart, the Type 95, which was launched from submarines. It was the most effective torpedo of WWII and far more reliable and destructive than any U.S. model of the time.
Heavyweight torpedoes can run for distances of anywhere from 20 km to 100 km, depending on the model and the speed at which they move. Throughout the world, there are many versions of HWTs, including the British Spearfish Mod 1 and the U.S. Mk 48 ADCAP (stands for ADvanced CAPability), which can move at up to 65 knots with a range of around 20 to 30 km. The Soviet Union developed several HWTs, including a super HWT with enough power to sink a carrier (with a maximum range of 100 km!) and a rocket-powered torpedo rumored to be able to reach speeds of 200 knots or even 500 knots, depending on the source. According to one source, it uses an effect called a super captivating bubble to propel it forward through the water. Other Russian models include the DST-90, DST-92, and DST-96 gas-turbine torpedoes.
From the earliest compressed-air engines to the commonly used electric engines, torpedo development has resulted in new and better, faster, lighter, and more efficient engine designs. Using more modern fuels, such as High-Test Peroxide (HTP) and the nitrogen ester fuels, OTTO and OTTO II, many torpedoes are achieving far better performance. Some use a system called Sceps (Stored Chemical Energy Power System), which uses a block of lithium that interacts with sulphur fluoride to create heat and steam. Other systems use seawater batteries, and new electric systems are being developed, including the use of new brushless motors and Thrystor-controlled motors that offer an instant option of rotational speeds.
The standard propulsion method for LWTs is the pump-jet, while for HWTs it is new counter-rotating propellers with advanced materials and new configurations of blades, replacing the older two-propeller, four-blade configurations. Other improvements include advanced shape designs and even the introduction of new “animal skin” polymers that imitate the natural skins of marine creatures and create a boundary layer that prevents or delays the onset of turbulence and micro-cavitation.
Torpedoes remain one of the most deadly threats to seaborne vessels, and few countries can boast the necessary technology to counter the advances in torpedo development. The main requirement of any countermeasure system is the discovery of any torpedo threat with enough time to implement countermeasures. Most systems use passive sensors that listen for telltale signals, such as the specific sound of the torpedo’s fast propellers or pump-jet operation and/or any emissions from active sensors on the torpedo itself.
There are three basic types of torpedoes, and each has its own countermeasures. (For more information on soft kill and hard kill, see the “Soft-Kill Options” and “Hard-Kill Options” sections.)
Straight Runners. Generally HWTs with no homing sensors that follow a set short- or medium-range pattern and give off a high noise signature, making them relatively easy to avoid or destroy by hard-kill defenses.
Wake Homers. These HWTs are counted by course/speed changes, the elimination of the wake, or by hard-kill defenses.
Acoustic Homing Torpedoes. Either LWT or HWT, these are the most common type of torpedo in service today. They are very difficult to detect when in passive sensor mode, and they are often sophisticated enough to ignore false target information. They are also capable of re-attacking in case of a successful avoidance. Most HWTs of this type are also wire-guided and can gain additional effectiveness from their operators. Acoustic homing torpedo defense is of the soft-kill or hard-kill variety.
Submarine countermeasures are limited. LWTs are often launched from aircraft within 100 to 150 meters, at which point they use 3D active sonar to acquire the target, closing on the sub at high speed once acquired. If they lose the target, they have algorithms that can allow reacquisition. The submarine will counter by going at low speed and using only passive sensors, but will have only about a minute from splashdown to react. HWTs are generally launched from considerable distances and can close in silent, passive mode. They will switch to active sensors only on remote-controlled command (wire-guided), preset commands or upon target acquisition. HWTs can run at high speed and have long endurance in addition to a sophisticated and flexible array of passive, active, and even wake-homing sensor options. They have multi-frequency beams to use for target identification as well as multi-beam seekers for special discrimination. With the addition of the wire-guided control by operators, they are very hard to counter. Generally, any sub that does detect an incoming HWT will have little time to respond.
Submarines are limited in their evasive maneuvering, and most anti-torpedo systems rely on decoys and jammers. Some examples include:
C-303/S (127mm diameter) and C-303 (76mm diameter) WASS models use decoys (target simulators) and jammers. The C-303/S adds a mobile target emulator that is based on the A200 mini-torpedo. They are launched by compressed air.
The British Royal Navy uses the SSDE (Submerged Signal and Decoy Ejector) in three versions—the Mk56 (Swiftsure), Mk8 (Trafalgar), and Mk20 (Vanguard). These systems use reloadable tubes that fire Type 2066 and Type 2071 AMULET decoys.
The U.S. system uses the Librascope 127mm diameter CSA Mk2 launchers to fire various type of torpedo and anti-sonar devices. ADC Mk2 is an older anti-torpedo decoy, while there is a more advanced version—the Mk3. Sea-Wolf class boats employ the WLY-1 system, which can launch 16 decoys. Then there is the MOSS (Mobile Submarine Simulator), a 254mm-diameter full-sized torpedo that can generate an underwater signature very much like that of a sub. Originally used in 1976, it has been improved over the years and is standard on SSBN and SSN.
Israel has developed a self-propelled decoy called the SCUTTER.
The German navy has developed the TAU (Torpedo Abwehr Uboote) system, which is based on a combination of countermeasures, such as low signatures, evasive maneuvers, jammers, and decoys. The system will employ multiple small vehicles that can be preprogrammed to act as either jammers or decoys and can change on the fly.
French anti-torpedo systems use target simulators called TOSC (towed source/target) and CALAS, which is a self-propelled torpedo-like target that can be used as a decoy.
The term soft kill refers to systems that defeat the torpedo’s sensors and tracking ability or that provide escape for targeted craft. These use decoys and jammers primarily, though new “advisory” systems are currently deployed that gather data in the vicinity of the ship or sub, analyze that data, assess the threat level, and provide recommendations for evasive maneuvers or deployment of countermeasures.
The main U.S. countermeasure is the AN/SLQ-25 NIXIE, which is a towed system that creates a false target effective against passive and wake-homing torpedoes. It includes a magnetic device that can cause the torpedo to detonate prematurely, and the Phase II version should include jammers and a towed torpedo alarm sensor. Similar systems are used by Russian ships.
The British system is the Grasbey Type 182, which is a towed system using a noise generator and jammer.
Two countermeasure solutions, MASKER and PRARIE, use various methods to create a gaseous curtain that absorbs and dampens the noise of the ship, both highly effective against passive sensors; however, they are very vulnerable to active sensor torpedoes, which can actually “see” the ships better when those systems are active.
The French SALT system is a sophisticated combination of search module, threat evaluator, and countermeasure modules that can detect and evaluate a threat, then take automatic and coordinated countermeasures, including electro-acoustic decoys, stationary jammers, stationary and mobile target simulators, and, possibly, bubble decoys to work against wake homers.
Most current anti-torpedo defenses are soft-kill options. It is pretty much assumed that it will be difficult, at best, or nearly impossible to attack the firing ships, which these days can fire from very long range, although airborne torpedo launchers can be countered with anti-aircraft defenses. But the greatest danger comes from subs, which can launch torpedoes at long distances and remain out of harm’s way.
Hard-kill options are definitely being explored, but there are many challenges to their successful implementation. For instance, when compared to the data received on an incoming Mach 3 missile, the effective rate of incoming data for a torpedo traveling at 40 knots is five times slower than that for the missile. This is based on some complex analysis and data manipulation, but one salient factor is that the propagation of radio-frequency data in air is 200,000 times faster than the propagation of acoustic data in water. And, as was mentioned before, water is a far less consistent environment in which to conduct any kind of detection methods, based on the variations of reflections from surface and floor, thermoclines, salinity gradients, and wake effects, to name a few. Also, hard-kill options would need to be designed so that they would not interfere with other systems or with each other, or endanger the ship that fired them or any friendly ships nearby.
Moreover, with many torpedo sensor systems being based on passive systems, the target ships, even if they can detect a threat, cannot easily determine the range information needed for effective hard-kill countermeasures. Research is happening in a number of directions, such as explosive charges towed behind the ship, launched and precisely placed charges distributed in the ship’s wake, anti-torpedo torpedoes (ATT), Gatling guns with bullets capable of traveling several hundred yards underwater, underwater launched, supersonic projectiles, and non-explosive concepts. The U.S. Navy says they are working on such technologies as nanoelectronics and Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) to create faster electronics and “advances in sensors for large area external acoustic and electromagnetic arrays.” Anti-torpedo and anti-submarine technology is employing all the cutting-edge technology that the Western countries can bring to bear. It’s changing year by year.
No one solution will entirely protect ships, given the sophistication of water- and airborne weapons. It is, therefore, essential to any effective defense strategy that it includes both passive and active, soft and hard kill, and even offensive and aggressive options. Putting these all together in a “layered” defense system seems the best alternative, with the highest likelihood of success, along with the employment of modern technologies.
One of the most modern designs for seagoing vehicles is called the Littoral Combat Ship or LCS. These modern warships are highly maneuverable craft with an impressive array of modern weaponry, countermeasures, and onboard safety systems. They are being designed to be able to alter and simulate their own “signatures,” to deploy a variety of hard- and soft-kill anti-torpedo and anti-missile defenses, and to maneuver quickly in threat environments. In addition to their sea-based capabilities, they will have hangars and flight decks to support helicopters and UAVs (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles).
Rockets have been around a long time—much longer than other conventional firearms. In 400 B.C., a Greek named Archytas created a wooden bird that flew around using a steam-propelled rocket effect. Again, 300 years later, a Greek named Hero invented a steam-powered device called an aeolipile. Although not rockets, these simple devices still used the principles of propulsion that ultimately are the same principles used in rocket-powered engines. All are based on what, in the 17th century, Newton described as the Third Law of Motion.
Historically, the first to develop rockets were the Chinese. As early as the 10th century, the Chinese may have developed rocket-launched “fire” arrows shot from a handheld device that would launch multiple arrows. By the 13th century, the Chinese were using rocket weapons attached to sticks for stability—somewhat like the bottle rockets of today.
During the centuries that followed, many experiments in rocketry were carried out in Europe. As early as the 15th century, a Frenchman, Jean Froissart, began launching rockets from tubes, a precursor of the modern bazooka, and in Italy, Joanes de Fontana had designed a rocket-powered torpedo that would run on the surface and set enemy ships on fire. Although rockets as weapons fell out of favor in the 16th century, they were used as fireworks, and the first multistage rocket was developed by a German named Johann Schmidlap.
Also in the 16th and later in the 18th century, some people had developed rocket-powered spears, which were first fired from cannons, then driven farther by igniting rockets mounted behind the spearhead.
There is even one semi-legendary story of an early Chinese official named Wan-Hu designing a rocket chair powered by 47 fire arrows. The story has it that when all the rockets were lit simultaneously, there was a great roar and billows of smoke. When the smoke cleared, there was no sign of Wan-Hu or the chair.
In the 18th century, there was considerable experimentation with rockets, and they enjoyed a brief revival as weapons of war. Although they were inaccurate, they were generally launched by the thousands, and their cumulative effect was devastating. During the war of 1812, the British used Congreve rockets (designed by Colonel William Congreve) to assault Fort McHenry, which was the source of the line “the rockets’ red glare” from the poem by Francis Scott Key that became “The Star-Spangled Banner.”
In the 19th century, rockets were used occasionally, sometimes for practical and sometimes for odd purposes. As early as 1821, sailors used rocket-propelled harpoons to hunt whales, protecting themselves from the blast by use of a circular shield. On the odd side, an Italian named Claude Ruggieri was said to be rocketing small animals into space and recovering the payloads by parachute as early as 1806!
William Hale developed a principle for using small vanes to cause a rocket to spin, which had an effect similar to that of rifling on a bullet, making it more stable in flight and more accurate. This principle is still used, in some form or another, today. Soon, with advances in breech-loading artillery with rifled barrels, rockets once again became obsolete as weapons of war.
Russian Konstantin Tsiolkovsky published a paper postulating liquid-fueled rockets for space exploration in 1903 and is considered the father of modern astronautics. Another pioneer was American Robert Goddard, who developed the first working liquid-fueled rocket in 1926—a rocket that fired for only two and a half seconds and reached a speed of 60 mph and a modest altitude of 41 feet, coming to a landing in a cabbage patch 184 feet away. But this rocket, like the Wright brothers’ first airplane flight, was the beginning of a new era. Goddard went on to further develop rocket systems, adding gyroscopes for stability, payload sections for instruments, parachutes for recovery, and more.
Another pioneer was Hermann Oberth, whose 1923 writings about rocket-powered space travel spawned rocket societies around the world and led directly to the development of the V-2 rocket (called the A-4 in Germany), one of the most feared weapons of WWII. Although the V-2 was developed and employed too late to change the outcome of the war, German scientists had already been developing rockets capable of spanning the Atlantic and attacking the U.S. Many of the German rocket scientists were brought to the U.S. after the war to continue research, including Wernher von Braun.
What followed was a time of experimentation, development, and competition, particularly between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, for the conquest of space. Along the way, rocket systems became more and more powerful, versatile, and deadly.
In the context of war, missiles are used in two basic ways—as strategic weapons or as tactical weapons. The difference is generally in what is being targeted. Strategic weapons are used against population or industrial centers and specific installations, with the purpose of disrupting production, instilling fear, destroying supply lines, and so on. Tactical weapons are used within battle situations in a variety of ways, including as air or sea defenses, as anti-tank weapons, and as anti-personnel weapons, to name a few.
All self-propelled devices use Newton’s Third Law as the operating principle, which states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Of course, this law also applies to weapons that launch projectiles, and most are based on the explosive force of gasses from combustion of one kind or another. Propellers are used in some weapons, such as torpedoes, and the combustion of gasses or the use of gas pressure is secondary to the force that spins the propellers. Although the actual motion is caused by the pressure of the spinning blades against the water, Newton’s Third Law still applies.
A jet engine essentially works by accelerating the air forced into it, combining it with a combustion medium or fuel and igniting the mixture to produce highly expanded gas pressure, which is expelled out the back of the engine. Rockets, on the other hand, used combustible fuels to create gasses at very high pressures, which are forced through a reduced opening of a precise shape to generate the most backward thrust while reducing turbulence. In reality, what is happening is that a great deal of mass is being propelled out in one direction, and the body that is generating that explosion then moves in the opposite direction. It’s the same principle as that of a balloon being blown up and then released. What drives the balloon to fly around is not just pressure, it is the actual mass of the air molecules escaping at high velocity. In any case, the backward thrust is converted into forward motion in accordance with Newton’s law.
There are three basic types of jet engine—the pulse jet, the ramjet, and the turbojet. A variant used on rockets is called the turbo-rocket:
Pulse jets operate by forcing air into a valved compartment (though some designs have been created without valves), which is generally started by launching from a catapult or rocket booster of some kind. When the air pressure is sufficient, the valves open and the air is forced inside, where it is ignited with a fuel mixture. The resulting explosion closes the valves in front, and the gas pressure is forced to the rear, propelling the missile forward, which then causes the valves to reopen and allow more air to enter. After a few cycles, the hot gasses in the chamber will ignite the fuel/air mixture without a separate igniter. The only time this principle has been put into operation in a weapon was the German V1 rocket of WWII, which could reach speeds of up to 559 miles per hour and had a range of 150 miles. Eighty-five hundred V1 rockets were launched over London beginning in June of 1944. Among several drawbacks of pulse jets are inefficient fuel usage and high noise. The V1s were known as buzz bombs because of the noise they made. Pulse jets are used today in model airplanes, although research is being conducted on high-altitude, high-speed aircraft using pulse-detonation engines, or PDE.
Ramjets are formed from a tube with an insert at the front that forces air entering the tube to slow down while building up pressure. They are the simplest form of jet engine and can be made smaller than any other type. Particularly handy for high-speed uses, they actually need a high startup speed or boosters. Within the diffuser section of the jet, the fuel is mixed with the air and ignited. A flameholder prevents the flame from being extinguished, and the gasses escape out the back nozzle. Ramjets require some boosters to get started, but once they have begun and forward motion creates the necessary air pressure, combustion and thrust are constant. Ramjets are used in long-distance, high-altitude missiles. At especially high speeds (aircraft speeds around Mach 5 or more), combustion in a standard ramjet will fail. To counter this problem, supersonic combusting ramjets, known as scramjets, have been developed with a wider inlet (typically, the entire underside of the craft), which reduces compression but keeps the air at supersonic speed. Scramjets require special fuels, but they can theoretically attain speeds above Mach 20.
Turbojets use compressors to suck in and pressurize air. The fuel and air mixture is ignited, and the hot gasses pass over the turbine wheels, converting some of the energy into mechanical force to drive the compressor. As the exhaust gasses escape, afterburners inject additional fuel and ignite the mixture to further increase thrust. A variant called the turbofan or fanjet uses the first-stage compressor to blow air past the “core” of the engine. So-called low-bypass turbofans divert less of the air and are used on modern fighter jets. High-bypass engines are typical of those used on commercial jets. They are most efficient at speed ranges from 250 to 650 mph. Another advantage of these engines is that the bypassed air, which is cooler, can be mixed with the engine air. Since engine noise is related to the temperature of the engine gasses, this results in much quieter engines.
Turbo-rockets are actually rocket engines that use a compressor system similar to that of jet engines to draw some of the air that can be used as an oxidizer into the engine. Because typical rockets must carry all their propellant fuels, using the turbo compressor can lighten the overall weight of the rocket, at least at low enough altitudes where the air is available.
Early rockets used solid fuels—gunpowder being the earliest form. In modern times, solid fuels have become more sophisticated, and rockets using solid fuels are designed for smooth burning at predetermined rates. These mixtures are called grain, which can be contained within a casing or case-bonded (bonded to the case itself) to reduce size and weight factors.
To control the thrust levels obtained by using solid fuels, different rocket designs and even different combinations of grain structures are used. Predictably, the larger the surface area of the burning propellant, the more thrust will be generated (and the faster the fuel will be burned), so rocket design can vary among several shapes:
End-burning rockets burn the fuel only from the bottom, like a cigarette, providing constant, even thrust until the fuel is burned out.
Multi-grain end-burning rockets may start out with a grain that gives an initially high level of thrust, followed by a grain that provides lower thrust once altitude or speed has been attained.
Tubular configurations produce a progressively greater thrust. By burning from the middle of the tube outward, effectively, the area of burning propellant increases as the rocket continues to fire.
A star-shape single grain system is an end burner that uses a fuel container flared at the bottom, providing maximum thrust, but as the fuel burns away, the container narrows, and thrust levels are reduced.
Different fuels can produce more or less thrust per unit, which is measured as specific impulse. Balancing the specific impulse of the fuel with the grain structure is important not only in determining the amount of thrust that will result, but also in controlling the overall pressure and heat that will be developed. If too much pressure is created inside the rocket, the result can be explosions, not liftoff. Some fuels used in modern rockets use ammonium nitrate mixed with various oxidizers, such as synthetic rubbers like polystyrenes, polysulfides, and polyurethanes. Homogeneous propellants, in which the oxidizer and the fuel are combined in one molecule, often use a double base (or combination of two propellants) of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin.
Missiles such as the Poseidon C3, Minuteman Honest John, Nike Hercules, Polaris, Sergeant, and Vanguard are examples of solid-fuel weapons.
Although there are many modern and advanced methods of propulsion, including improved solid-fuel engines, for sheer power, the liquid-fueled rocket is still the best choice. Many of our greatest achievements, including the 1969 moon landing, which required 8 million pounds of thrust to send the Saturn V rocket to its goal, was accomplished by using a liquid-fuel system.
In its simplest terms, a liquid-fueled engine is doing the same thing as a solid-fueled system. It is mixing a propellant with an oxidizer, with the difference being that the components are in liquid form instead of solid. However, this is the simple explanation.
In a liquid-fueled rocket, two separate tanks are generally filled just before firing the rocket. One contains the oxidant, and the other contains the propellant fuel. To control the flow rate, which is important to ensure an efficient firing of the engines and controllable thrust, one of two flow-control methods is used. In one, a pressurized inert gas, such as helium or nitrogen, is used to force the flow of liquid propellants under steady regulated pressure. The physics of this can be a little confusing, but basically, the pressure-regulated system can determine the rate of propellant flow and, therefore, the thrust delivery.
The second system uses a turbo pump to suck out the propellants and accelerate them into the combustion chamber, taking the place of the pressurized gas. To run the turbine of the pump, a second, but much smaller, rocket engine is added, which burns the same fuel as the main rocket engines, but its output is used solely to rotate the turbine of the pump. Two other turbines, connected along a single shaft to the original one, help pump the propellants into the combustion chamber. These turbines are sealed off from the main turbine and are connected by a series of gears to control the rate of flow for the propellants.
Liquid oxygen (LOX) is a common oxidizer used in rockets, although hydrogen peroxide and nitric acid are also used. Liquid fluorine can produce a higher thrust per unit than these other oxidizers, but it is highly corrosive and difficult to handle, so it is rarely used in modern rockets. Liquid fuels include liquid hydrogen, liquid ammonia, hydrazine, and kerosene.
When do you use solid fuels, and when do you use liquid fuels? Other than the fact that we all use liquid fuels in our gas-guzzler automobiles (unless you are going electric or fuel cell), in rocketry there are a few guidelines:
Solid-fueled rockets are simple in design compared to liquid-fueled rockets.
Solid-fueled rockets made with monopropellant fuels can be unstable and subject to shocks that can detonate the fuels. This is the reason for the development of double-base fuels that combine nitroglycerin with more stable nitrocellulose (a form of gunpowder).
Liquid fuel must be kept at near Absolute Zero (–183 degrees Celsius in the case of liquid oxygen), making storage very difficult. Solid fuels are far easier to store, and rockets can be ready to go quickly.
Solid-fueled rockets have the disadvantage that once they are ignited, they cannot be regulated or damped down. In contrast, liquid-fueled rocket fuel use and thrust can be varied after initial ignition.
Liquid-fueled rockets are far more complex to build.
Liquid-fueled rockets are also the most powerful, in terms of maximum thrust available.
Liquid-fueled rockets, due to their increased complexity, are somewhat less reliable—causing many rockets to be rated for reliability. The Titan series are liquid-fueled rockets that were highly rated for reliability.
The nozzle of a rocket is, logically, a point of high stress, since all the power of the burning propellant gasses is concentrated through the narrow opening. There are many ways in which the nozzles of rockets are protected, including using heat-resistant materials, using a ring of cool-burning propellant to buffer the nozzle parts with a layer of cooler gas, and, in liquid-fueled rockets, using a liquid coolant injection system above the nozzle and a regenerative system that can circulate propellant gasses through the walls of the thrust chamber, both cooling the nozzle area and heating the propellant, which makes it burn more efficiently. With a regenerative system, the temperatures vary from 2700 degrees Celsius in the center of the nozzle to only 200 degrees at the inner wall, falling even further to only 60 degrees at the outer wall.
The V2 rocket was a dramatic development late in the war and a precursor to modern rockets that traveled into space and those that can now carry nuclear warheads across continents. But other rockets were used in WWII by both sides. Rocket-launcher platforms were used to carry and fire multiple rockets. The British had several versions of a 2-inch anti-aircraft rocket array, which could fire up to 20 at a time and reach an altitude of 22,000 feet. The Germans had the Shwerer Wurfrahmen 40, a launcher mounted onto a converted halftrack that could fire six rockets, and the Nebelwerfer 41. The Soviets used Katyusha launchers, and the U.S. had their T34 Calliope launcher that could carry 60 4-inch rockets and mounted on top of a Sherman M4 tank.
WWII rockets had ranges from about 1,000 yards to more than 8,500 yards, with varying types of applications. Some were mounted on aircraft while others were used on ships and landing craft.
The first jet airplane to see actual service was the Me 262 German “secret weapon,” which flew in 1944 using the Jumo 004 engine. It also was able to fire the Ruhrstahl A.G. X-4, a fin-stabilized air-to-air missile with a wire guidance system good for up to 3.7 miles. It used a bipropellant fuel. Another “secret” weapon that did not enter service was a manned rocket vehicle called the Natter, which was launched toward a target and could fire its solid fuel rockets for up to three minutes. At the end of its run, it would fire a bank of rockets mounted in the nose, at which point the pilot was to bail out and, along with the Natter itself, would parachute back to earth. The Natter was said to have a maximum speed of 620 mph, could reach altitudes up to 39,400 feet, and had a range of up to 12.4 miles.
Missiles vary in complexity, but they all have at least a few systems in common—namely, a propulsion method and a payload or warhead, plus some kind of airframe to carry them. However, more sophisticated missiles also have guidance and control systems of various kinds. Some also have two or three stages, which are designed to work in different conditions—the first stage to achieve liftoff and propel the rocket through the dense air of lower altitudes, and later stages for thinner air, outer space, and/or final maneuvers, depending on the type of rocket or missile it is and its purpose.
In its simplest form, a missile’s guidance system is a feedback loop that determines the missile’s location, compares it to the programmed destination, and sends signals to the control systems to adjust as needed. This sequence is then repeated. However, that’s the ultra-simple explanation. In early guided missiles, there were three main types of guidance systems—inertial, command, and active or passive homing. More modern systems employ Tercom (terrain contour guidance), GPS (global positioning system) and DSMAC (digital scene matching area correlation) as well.
Inertial guidance systems require complex and accurate calculations based on a wide variety of factors. The missile’s flight can be adjusted during the period that the rockets are firing. When the engines shut down, the missile will be above the earth’s atmosphere but still subject to gravitational force. In its basic form, the missile’s payload is then subject only to gravitational force, and all maneuvers and calculations will have been made during the powered phase. However, both the multiple independently targeted reentry vehicle (MIRV) and the maneuverable reentry vehicle (MARV) are able to allow further adjustment after reentry.
The main sensors used in inertial guidance systems are accelerometers and gyroscopes.
The accelerometer is basically a unit containing an object (mass) held against a spring that can be used to measure changes in acceleration and, therefore, velocity and position by computation. In an inertial guidance system, three accelerometers are arranged at 90 degrees to each other. In order to work, they must be kept horizontal with regard to the source of gravity.
Gyroscopes are used to measure the missile’s yaw, pitch, and rotation. Since the gyro will remain stable, any degree of change relative to the frame upon which it is mounted can be used to calculate the missile’s movement, and the onboard computers can generate information to correct any deviations, which are sent to the control systems.
The sensor/computation/control sequence in an inertial guidance system flows something like this:
The missile is programmed with its flight plan at launch.
As it flies, information from the accelerometer measures lateral, vertical, and forward motion.
The gyroscopes measure roll, pitch, and yaw.
The computer uses the data from the sensors to calculate the missile’s position and target destination and calculate instructions for the control systems.
Flight control systems are activated according to the computer’s instructions, and corrections are made.
A follow-up unit relays information back to the main program, and the loop is repeated.
In calculating the missile’s flight path, many factors must be taken into account, including the rotation of the earth, which, among other things, affects the overall amount of initial thrust of the rocket. If the rocket is launched traveling west to east, the earth’s rotation will add to the rocket’s initial thrust. Launching the other way decreases the initial thrust by the same amount. In addition, as the rocket flies, the earth is moving, so the second effect that must be compensated for is the actual shift of the target due to that movement. These factors are taken into account by the missile’s programming.
The most advanced inertial guidance systems use solid-state ring gyros and can achieve far greater accuracy than their early counterparts.
In a command-guided missile, there is no guidance system onboard. Instead, guidance instructions are sent via wire or radar by remote stations that are tracking the missile and tracking the target at the same time. It works something like this:
The tracking system locks on the target.
The missile is launched.
The tracking system locates and begins monitoring the missile, often by watching the infrared radiation of its engines.
The tracking computer calculates any deviation of the missile’s trajectory and sends correction information to the missile’s control systems.
The control system makes corrections to the missile’s path, keeping it on target.
There are various types of command guidance, including MCLOS (manual command to line-of-sight), in which an operator actually controls a missile’s flight manually, and SACLOS (semi automatic command to line-of-sight), in which a combination of manual and automatic systems control the missile.
Beam-riding systems use a radio or laser signal beamed from the missile or from an external source and pointed at the target, with sensors in the missile keeping it lined up with the beam. Beam-riding missiles can use SACLOS systems or be fully automatic.
Semi-active radar or laser homing systems use a radio or laser signal from a separate source to guide the missile. The signal does not necessarily have to be aimed at the target. In this kind of system, the missile itself is a passive sensor because it is not actually sending out any signals.
Guided missile technology is constantly evolving. Here are some of the ways that modern missiles can be guided.
Tercom uses an onboard 3D database of the terrain it flies over and compares it with radar images it receives in flight. Technically, it uses a downward-pointing radio altimeter to measure 64-foot square areas of terrain and compare them against its 3D map. Tercom allows missiles to fly very close to the ground and make adjustments to match terrain shifts.
GPS allows a missile to use the military’s network of GPS satellites to locate its position with pinpoint accuracy.
The DSMAC system is used when the missile is close to its target. This “terminal guidance system” uses an onboard camera and an “image correlator” to locate a target and can be used against moving targets, whereas most other methods of guidance are only reliable with stationary targets.
Thermal imaging systems use infrared information as well as television images, in some cases, to detect, recognize, laser range, and automatically track targets in day, night, and low-visibility situations.
Illumination sensors detect outgoing signals, such as radar, from a source and can be used to track the missile to that source.
Basic rocket launching is accomplished by launching vertically from a platform, on ramps or rails at any angle, or through tube launchers, which can include handheld launchers of the bazooka model or blast-hardened missile silos, or any variant in between. Early rockets were most often fired from tubes or ramps. The German V2 was fired vertically from a platform in the way that modern-day space rockets are fired. Defense systems, such as the U.S. Minuteman and Nike missiles, are launched from tube silos. Missiles can also be launched from the ground, from the air, or from on or under the sea.
This section contains a sampling of different types of rockets and missiles.
Gammon (SA-5). Soviet air defense missile, semi-permanent platform. Weight: 22,045 pounds. Range: 155 miles (approximately). Guidance: Command plus active radar.
Nike Hercules. U.S. air defense missile. Weight: 9,920 pounds. Range: 87 miles. Guidance: Command.
Bloodhound Mk2. British long-range air defense missile with four rocket boosters and two sustaining ramjets. Range: 50 miles. Guidance: Semi-active radar.
Ganef (SA-4). Soviet mobile air defense missile. Weight: 3,968 pounds. Range: 47+ miles. Guidance: Command.
Rapier. British mobile air defense missile. Weight: 45 kg. Guidance: Command line-of-sight plus radar tracking.
Goa (SA-3, SA-N-4). Soviet mobile air defense missile. Range: 18.5 miles. Guidance: Beam riding and semi-active radar.
Gecko (SA-8). Soviet mobile air defense missile. Weight: 130 kg. Range: 10 miles. Guidance: Command.
Gainful (SA-6). Soviet mobile air defense missile. Weight: 1,212 pounds. Range: 37 miles. Guidance: Command plus semi-active radar.
Crotale. French mobile air defense missile. Weight: 176.4 pounds. Range: 6.25 miles. Guidance: Radio command.
Hawk. U.S. mobile air defense missile. Weight: 265 pounds. Range: 22 miles. Guidance: Radar.
Patriot. U.S. mobile air defense missile. Weight: 2,003 pounds. Range: 62 miles. Guidance: Command plus tracking via missile (TVM) homing.
Roland. French/German mobile air defense missile. Weight: 1,396 pounds. Range: 3.9 miles. Guidance: Radio command.
Talos (RIM-8). U.S. surface-to-air missile. Weight: 7,000 pounds. Range: 75.4 miles. Guidance: Beam riding plus semi-active radar.
Goa (SA-N-1). Soviet surface-to-air missile. Range: 18.6 miles. Guidance: Beam riding plus semi-active radar.
Seawolf. British surface-to-air missile. Weight: 309 pounds. Range: 328 yards to 4 miles. Guidance: Beam riding.
Terrier (RIM-2). U.S. surface-to-air missile. Weight: 3,000 pounds. Range: 21.7 miles. Guidance: Beam riding plus semi-active radar.
Standard (SM-2 ER). U.S. surface-to-air missile. Weight: 3,000 pounds. Range: 59.6 miles. Guidance: Command plus active radar.
Seacat. British surface-to-air missile. Weight: 150 pounds. Range: 2.2 miles. Guidance: Radio command.
Gabriel. Israeli surface-to-surface missile. Weight: 882/1,102 pounds. Range: 13.6/25.5 miles. Guidance: Inertial plus terminal.
Sea Killer Mk2. Italian surface-to-surface missile. Weight: 661 pounds. Range: 12.4 miles. Guidance: Beam riding plus radio command.
Penguin. Norwegian surface-to-surface missile. Weight: 727 pounds. Range: 12.4 miles. Guidance: Inertial plus infrared.
Exocet (MM40). French surface-to-surface missile. Weight: 1,819 pounds. Range: 43.5 miles. Guidance: Inertial plus active radar.
Otomat. Italian/French surface-to-surface missile. Weight: 1,697 pounds. Range: 124 miles. Guidance: Inertial plus active radar.
Harpoon (RGM-84A). U.S. surface-to-surface missile. Weight: 1,400 pounds. Range: 68.3 miles. Guidance: Inertial plus active radar.
Subroc (UUM-44A). U.S. surface-to-subsurface missile. Weight: 4,000 pounds. Range: 35 miles. Guidance: Inertial.
Asroc (RUR-SA). U.S. surface-to-subsurface missile. Weight: 1,010 pounds. Range: 6.2 miles. Guidance: None until acoustic torpedo launched in water.
Ikara. Australian/British surface-to-subsurface missile. Weight: 727 pounds. Range: 12.4 miles. Guidance: Inertial plus infrared.
Terne. Norwegian surface-to-subsurface missile. Weight: 298 pounds. Range: 1.8 miles. Guidance: None.
Strategic nuclear weapons are designed to be a threat and a deterrent, and they are capable of decimating large population centers. In contrast, a tactical nuclear weapon is designed for use in a battlefield situation and is a part of a limited nuclear strategy, as opposed to an all-out nuclear conflict.
IRBM. Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile has a range of 1,719–3,437 miles.
ICBM. Intercontinental Ballistic Missile is a long-range missile designed to achieve suborbital and partial orbital trajectories. Modern ICBMs often carry multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRVs), each of which can carry its own nuclear warhead. MIRVs are also used in anti-ballistic missile weapons (ABMs). ICBMs are launched from silos, submarines, or rail cars. ICBMs launched from submarines are also designated as SLMBs. They are classified as having a range above 3,500 miles.
Cruise Missiles. Jet-powered unmanned aircraft designed to fly on low trajectories to avoid radar detection. They can carry conventional or nuclear warheads.
Atlas (SM-65, CGM-16). First U.S. ICBM. Liquid-fueled three-stage system. Never used for combat, but part of the Mariner space probes and the Mercury manned spaceflights. Its unique design was known as a 1.5 stage system because it did not drop all its engines and fuel tanks like most multistage rockets.
Atlas V. First launched in 2002, the latest in a long series of Atlas missiles, dating back to 1957. Atlas missiles have been involved in various space launches as well as various military uses.
Titan I. First U.S. true multistage ICBM. Used liquid fuels, although later Titan missiles used solid fuels. First launched in 1959.
Sandal (SS-4). Soviet IRBM with a range of about 1,250 miles. First introduced in 1959. Capable of carrying a single 1-megaton bomb.
Scarp (SS-9). Soviet ICBM with a range of about 7,450 miles. First introduced in 1969 and capable of carrying one 18-megaton bomb.
SS-6 SAPWOOD (R-7). Soviet ICBM—the first ICBM, introduced in 1957. Modified versions put Sputnik 1 and Sputnik 2 in orbit. A redesigned version was introduced in 1959 and had a range of about 7,500 miles and could deliver nearly a 12,000-pound payload.
SS-18 Mod. 2. Soviet ICBM with a range of about 7,500 miles. Introduced in 1977 and capable of carrying eight warheads of about 1 to 2 megatons.
SS-19. Soviet ICBM with a range of about 6,210 miles. Introduced in 1975 and capable of carrying six warheads of about 200 kilotons.
SS-17. Soviet ICBM with a range of about 6,220 miles. Introduced in 1975 and capable of carrying four warheads of about 200 kilotons.
SS-16. Soviet ICBM with a range of about 5,900 miles. Introduced in 1977 and possibly capable of carrying three warheads of 300 kilotons.
SS-20. Soviet IRBM with a range of about 3,540 miles. Introduced in 1976 and capable of carrying three 150-kiloton warheads.
Minuteman. The first Minuteman missiles were introduced in 1960 and remained in use until 1997. The Minuteman I was the first ICBM to incorporate a solid rocket booster and a digital flight computer using a reprogrammable inertial guidance system. The storage disk in the Minuteman I had 4k of storage space on a rotating magnetic disk. Minuteman II introduced integrated circuits to the mix. Minuteman III was introduced in 1998 and is expected to remain active until 2005. (See the “LGM-30 Minuteman III” sidebar at the end of this section.)
MSBS M-20. French SLBM with a range of 1,850 miles. Introduced in 1976 and capable of carrying a single 1-megaton warhead.
Tomahawk. U.S. submarine-launched cruise missile with a range of more than 680 miles. First introduced in 1983 and capable of carrying one conventional 1,000-pound warhead or a 200-kiloton nuclear device. Guidance: Inertial plus TERCOM and DSMAC, plus Time of Arrival (TOA) systems.
ALCM (Air Launched Cruise Missile). U.S. air-launched cruise missile. Operationally the same as the Tomahawk.
Polaris A-3/B-3. U.S. submarine-launched cruise missile, first introduced (A-1) in 1960. The original version weighed 28,800 pounds and was 28.5 feet high and 54 feet in diameter, with a range of 1,150 miles. Later versions were even larger and heavier with ranges of more than 2,850 (A-3) and 2,300 (B-3) miles. The A-3 could be fitted with MIRVs. The A-3 was originally designed to counter Soviet anti-ballistic missile defenses, but ultimately evolved into the C-3 Poseidon missile.
Poseidon. U.S. successor to the Polaris missile, later replaced by the Trident I in 1979. In its time, it was more advanced than its predecessors and could deploy up to 14 MIRV warheads.
Trident. U.S. SLBM with a range of about 4,850 miles. Introduced in 1979 and capable of carrying seven 100-kiloton warheads. Guidance: Inertial. The Trident II was introduced in 1990 and could carry eight 475-kiloton warheads.
Pluton. French tactical nuclear ballistic missile with a range of about 75 miles. Can carry 15- or 25-kiloton warheads. It is designed to be launched from an AMX-30 tank chassis. Guidance: Inertial.
Lance. U.S. tactical nuclear missile designed to be launched from a self-propelled tracked chassis and to carry a warhead that can carry Terminally Guided Sub-Missiles (TGSMs)—each of which is released to home in on individual targets. Guidance: Inertial.
Pershing. U.S. tactical nuclear missile. At one time the largest of the U.S. inventory, it was first introduced in 1962 with a warhead delivery of 400 kilotons and a maximum range of 460 miles. The Pershing II is launched from a trailer and uses sophisticated “radar area correlation” and other guidance. Instead of the overpowered 400-kiloton warhead of the original Pershing I, it carries a MARV capable of delivering five 50-kiloton warheads. Its range was increased to about 1,100 miles. As part of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty of 1988, Pershing missiles were decommissioned and destroyed.
FROG (Free Rocket Over Ground) Series. Soviet fin-stabilized unguided short-range tactical missiles. Dimensions of FROG 7: 29.7 feet in length, 5,952 pounds, 37-mile range. It can carry high explosive or nuclear warhead—no onboard guidance systems. Introduced in 1965. Ultimately replaced by the SS-21 (SCARAB) in 1981.
SS-21 SCARAB (9K79 Tochka). Soviet replacement to the FROG 7 missiles with a maximum range of about 44 miles with a variety of optional warheads, including the 9N123F HE-frag warhead, a submunition warhead that carries bomblets or mines, or an AA60 tactical nuclear warhead. Inertial guidance systems, with more recent versions including GPS systems.
SCUD Series. Soviet short-range tactical ballistic surface-to-surface missile system. Several versions have been developed: SCUD-A (SS-1b), SCUD-B (SS-1c), SCUD-C (SS-d), and SCUD-D (SS-1e). SCUD missiles differed from the FROG series in that they had moveable fins. Gyroscopes helped guide the missile, but only during the engine firing sequence, about 80 seconds, after which it coasted to the target unguided. The farther the missles flew, the more inaccurate they became. SCUD-C had a longer range and lower accuracy than the SCUD-B and was introduced in 1965. The final version, introduced in the 1980s, was SCUD-D, which had improved guidance systems and a wider choice of warheads. Its range was about 435 miles. The replacement for the SCUD series, which was introduced in 1999, is the SS-26.
Scaleboard. First developed in 1960, Scaleboard missiles were designed to be used at the warfront, to be fired from pre-sited positions from a MAZ-543 chassis, the same as the SCUD-B. The MAZ-543 was then moved to another pre-sited position. The original SS-12 Scaleboard was improved with the SS-22 in 1979, which had greater accuracy at the same range (560 miles). These missiles were banned after the Intermediate-Range and Shorter-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty was signed at the end of 1987. The last of the SS-12 missiles were eliminated in July of 1989.
MIM-104 Patriot. The original Patriot missile started development in the ’60s and first became operational in 1984. It has gone through several upgrades, with advanced and improved guidance and jamming countermeasures added. The MIM-104 has evolved into the PAC-3 system, but it is confusing, as the ultimate PAC-3 missile will be an entirely new design based on the Lockheed Martin ERINT (Extended Range Interceptor), a smaller missile. (See Patriot Advanced Capability (PAC-3) in the “ABM Systems of the Future” section.) The MIM-104 Patriot missile weighs approximately 2,000 pounds, has an 80,000-foot ceiling, and has a range of about 43 miles.
Under the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty of 1972, both the U.S. and the Soviet Union agreed to deploy an ABM system only on one protected area. Back in the 1980s, Ronald Reagan promoted an anti-ballistic missile program called the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), more commonly known as “Star Wars.” Like the movie after which it was named, it was largely fictional and came nowhere near operational.
SDI proposed a multiple systems approach, including directed energy and particle beam weapons fired from space, long-wavelength infrared weapons, reflected kinetic energy weapons and endo-atmospheric ABM interceptors as the last line of defense. No wonder it was called “Star Wars.”
Meanwhile, the Soviets did deploy an ABM system to protect Moscow, using the Galosh missile, which has since been dismantled.
To date, no ABM system has worked. Patriot missiles used during the Gulf War to intercept SCUD missiles almost all missed their targets. However, when George W. Bush became President, in light of the 9/11 attacks (which ABM systems would not have been able to prevent) and perceived buildups of ballistic missiles in Korea and other countries, he pulled the U.S. out of the treaty and began a new ballistic defense program, intending to declare it operational in October 2004 (just before the 2004 election) with the deployment of 10 interceptor missiles at Fort Greely, Alaska. Most scientists agree that the current systems are not ready for deployment and will, in all likelihood, not work in any serious threat, although they may be designed primarily to intercept one or two nuclear missiles launched from North Korea. Given their positioning, they will not defend against any missile attacks from the Middle East.
In highly scripted tests where the target was known, its trajectory was known, and its launch time was known, only five of eight missiles were successful, and against very simple decoy missiles. More tests were originally planned but were scrapped. Total costs are between $8 to 10 billion per year, although total estimates are not available. Sources estimate anywhere between $100 billion and $1 trillion spent by the year 2030.
Among the proposed elements of the system are 1) early warning radar systems to detect any missile launches, 2) defense support satellites to track warheads in space and distinguish between live warheads and decoys, 3) X-band radar for further tracking, fire control support, and target discrimination, 4) interceptors (exoatmospheric kill vehicles [EKV]), 5) a command and control center, and 6) booster rockets capable of deploying the interceptors into space quickly enough to destroy the target missiles. Other systems currently in research are additional interceptors based at sea, in the air, and in space, a system to attack rockets shortly after they take off (called boost phase defense), and another system designed to attack just before a missile lands (called terminal defense)—which sounds a lot like a game of Missile Command at the arcades.
Although there is some system being deployed, and the previous administration wished to declare it operational, at the time of this writing most of the key components were years away from completing development, and even the systems that are currently in operation have been plagued with problems.
In addition, many experts agree that a ballistic missile attack is probably the least likely form of attack from a developing country, and we have no hope of deploying a system capable of defending against an all-out attack by a well-armed enemy, of which only Russia and China can be considered possible.
In historical precedent, the Safeguard missile defense system of the 1970s was deployed in North Dakota and very shortly dismantled when even its proponents realized it was useless.
Suppose you were on QA for an ABM system. What would you need to test? Here’s the checklist:
Full-system operational tests
Full-system operational tests scheduled
Tested in bad weather
Tested at night
Tested three-stage booster in intercept test
Tested without interceptor knowing in advance warhead’s infrared and radar signature
Tested against tumbling warhead
Tested against realistic decoys and countermeasures
Tested against complex decoys and countermeasures
Tested against more than one warhead on one missile
Tested against more than one incoming missile
Tested without a GPS system on the target
Tests overseen by contractors and managers
Tests overseen by Pentagon’s independent test office
SBIRS high early-warning satellites
SSTS space tracking and surveillance system
Cobra Dane radar upgraded
Cobra Dane radar included in integrated intercept test
Ground-based X-band radar
Sea-based X-band radar
Protect Hawaii
Fly-before-you-buy
Declare the system operational
A joint development by Israel and the United States is the Arrow Interceptor Anti-Missile Missile. The Arrow is meant to intercept ABMs high in the stratosphere, or in some cases, in outer space. The first test of the Arrow missile was in July 2004, where it successfully intercepted and destroyed a SCUD missile. Further tests over the next few years were also successful.
The Arrow is a two-stage missile that uses a solid propellant booster with sustainer rocket motors. Its initial launch is what is called a vertical hot launch, with a secondary burn that takes the missile on a trajectory toward its target at a speed up to Mach 9 (2.5 km/second). When the second-stage sustainer motor is ignited, the first stage is jettisoned.
With advanced controls, the Arrow can be launched before the incoming missile’s trajectory and target are known, and the missile guidance systems can continue to calculate the optimum interception position as more data is received. The “kill vehicle” part of the missile uses four aerodynamically controlled fins to allow low-altitude interception and carries the warhead, the fusing, and the terminal seeker.
The Rafael warhead uses high explosives and direct-blast fragmentation to destroy a target within a radius of 50 meters. Seeker capabilities include passive infrared and active radar. The missile can intercept at altitudes ranging from 10 kilometers up to 50 kilometers and has an intercept range of 90 kilometers.
What’s new in the world of anti-ballistic missiles? Here are a few of the more modern developments:
Patriot Advanced Capability (PAC-3)—the latest “hit to kill” missile system expected to be used in modern and future anti-missile systems. It weighs 700 pounds, reaches a speed of Mach 5+, and has a range of 12 miles and a ceiling of 50,000 feet. Described as a “long-range, all-altitude, all-weather air defense system to counter ballistic missiles, cruise missiles, and advanced aircraft.” Patriot missiles have been upgraded since they were first introduced. They all contain sophisticated guidance systems, including the TVM downlink that gives visual target acquisition (supplied from the missile’s onboard sensors) and terminal course correction calculations via the Engagement Control Station. A proximity fuze detonates the fragmentation warhead, although the PAC-3 is designed to disable threats using the kinetic energy released by hitting the target head on.
Along with the missile, a sophisticated tracking technology is employed. The AN/MPQ-53 phased array radar is a multifunctional component, carrying out search and detection, track and identification, guidance and tracking for the Patriot and electronic counter-countermeasures (ECCM). This radar array is mounted in a trailer and controlled via cable link by a digital control computer located in the Engagement Control Station. It can track up to 100 targets at a range of up to 100 km, providing guidance for up to nine missiles, and it can operate in manual, semi-automatic, or fully automatic mode. When the decision has been made to engage the target, the Engagement Control Station selects the Launch Station or Stations, and pre-launch data is transmitted to the selected missile. After launch, the Patriot missile is acquired by the radar. The command uplink and the TVM downlink allow the missile’s flight to be monitored and provide missile guidance commands from the weapon control computer. As the missile approaches the target, the TVM guidance system is activated, and the missile is steered toward the target. A proximity fuse detonates the high-explosive warhead.
The THAAD (Theatre High-Altitude Area Defense) missile is a transportable system designed to attack ballistic missile threats within a range of 200 km to be deployed and ready for action by sometime in 2009. It is designed to be a high-altitude interceptor working in conjunction with the Patriot PAC-3 (which intercepts at lower altitudes) to protect specific battlefield sites. The missile detaches a separate kinetic kill vehicle (KKV), which maneuvers via a liquid Divert and Attitude Control System (DACS), which uses a gimbal-mounted infrared seeker module (technically “an indium antimonide [InSb] staring focal-plane array operating in the mid infrared 3 to 5 micron wavelength band”) in the nose section to guide final approach to the target. The THAAD is carried on an M1075 truck-mounted launcher and is controlled and deployed by ground-based radar systems. In addition, each THAAD battery will have two tactical operations centers (TOCs) equipped with HP-735 data processors. They will also have the ability to “hand over” targets to other systems and interface with other data information networks. They will use something called Battle Management and Command, Control Computers and Intelligence (BMC3I) units installed in hardened shelters or on High Mobility Multi-Wheeled Vehicles (HMMWVs). In addition, in this acronym-happy project, their communications systems can use JTIDS, Mobile Subscriber Equipment, SINCGARS, and the Joint Tactical Terminal for voice and data communications and intelligence data transfer. Whatever that all means... (from www.army-technology.com/projects/thaad/.)
MEADS (Medium Extended Air Defense System)—a joint German/Italian/U.S. development designed to replace Hawk and Patriot missile systems by 2014. It is designed to defend against next-generation tactical ballistic missiles, low- and high-altitude cruise missiles, remotely piloted vehicles, maneuvering fixed-wing aircraft, and rotary-wing aircraft. The first demonstration of this system’s fire control radar, command center, launcher, and PAC-3 missile occurred in May 2004. The system will be designed around a multi-canister launcher that can be mounted on a wheeled vehicle. A 360-degree radar designed to work in highly stressed jamming environments will be part of the system. It is designed to be delivered to specific theaters of operation by C-130 and A400M aircraft and quickly deployed. The whole system is controlled through a communication network of distributed and netted architecture, allowing coordinated efforts across a wide area and with input from and interoperability with other air defense systems. They are using the Windows-like slogan, “plug and fight.” Like the THAAD system, MEADS uses the Patriot Advanced Capability (PAC-3) hit-to-kill missile, which has a guidance system that is highly jam proof and multiple single-shot thrusters that allow very agile high-G maneuvers. Its guidance systems are inertial, with terminal phase guided by using a gimbaled forward-seeking active RF Ka-band millimeter wave seeker. It destroys targets by hitting with high kinetic energy, meaning it knocks the crap out of it, and has a “lethality enhancing” warhead for use against air-breathing targets. It is designed to use a variety of radar systems to provide 360-degree coverage.
Though we think of hand weapons and guns primarily when we think of weapons, biological and chemical weapons have been around almost as long as there has been organized war—and maybe even longer. This section looks both at historical uses of biological and chemical weapons and modern developments.
People often think that biological and chemical weapons are modern inventions that depend on technology and science to perfect. However, it turns out that the idea of such weapons goes back thousands of years, and that various kinds of biological and chemical warfare have been in use since very ancient times. Although various codes of conduct and popular opinion have often been against such types of warfare, as they are today, that didn’t stop people from using them, especially in defensive situations or when in a weaker position relative to their foes. Of course, there have always been those who used whatever weapons they could find—those for whom winning was everything, and the means did not matter.
Some early uses of chemical and biological weapons, including stratagems:
Fire Arrows. These were used throughout history. First mentioned in Western culture in the myth of Hercules, who uses arrows dipped in pitch to defeat the Hydra.
Poison.
Poison was another chemical and biological method used in a variety of ways. The routine poisoning of weapons, according to legends, included heroes like Hercules, Odysseus, Achilles, and Paris.
Water sources, such as cisterns and wells, springs, rivers and streams, aqueducts, and so forth, were often poisoned to force an enemy to either die of thirst or die of poison.
Poison arrows were used by people of many cultures, using various snake venoms and poisons derived from plants and from other animals. Again, the first mention is from the Hercules myth, as he dipped his arrows in the Hydra’s poison. The consequences of this act were tragic for Hercules and those around him, indicating that the use of poisons was considered a bad idea by the ancient Greeks.
Poison was often used to assassinate enemy leaders. Some kings routinely took a variety of real and magical antidotes against poison every day, hoping to gain immunity. One king was too successful. When cornered by his enemies, he tried to take poison that he always carried for emergencies, but he was immune. His death was less easy than he had hoped.
Poison maidens were camp followers, prostitutes, and other femmes fatale who truly lived up to their names.
Disease.
Disease figured fairly prominently in ancient warfare, and commanders were known to force their enemies to camp in swampy and marshy areas where diseases and noxious fumes were present. Although true germ theory wasn’t known, observation was sufficient to know that fevers and gastrointestinal diseases would appear in troops camped in the wrong areas. In actuality, many soldiers died of malaria and dysentery, among other diseases.
Another use of disease was to send out diseased livestock or even diseased people into enemy areas with the intention of spreading plagues among them.
Disease could also be spread by clothing, and items were often sent into enemy areas, sometimes in the form of gifts or chests, which contained clothing exposed to disease carriers. Or, if sealed well, a diseased piece of cloth could retain its virulence for years. There are suspicions that the Greeks and Israelites both kept disease pathogens sealed up in temples for emergencies, and that some famous plagues may have been unleashed when temples were sacked and these sealed containers were opened.
Even more directly, disease was sometimes spread randomly by agents, such as in a documented case where saboteurs in ancient Rome were said to have pricked people randomly with infected needles.
Disease was often combined with poison. Some of the recipes used for poisoning weapons included bacteriological elements. For instance, several recipes would include snake venom, but would also include the rotted bodies of the dead serpents, complete with feces and bacteria of decomposition. This combination of poison and disease vectors was sure to result in death or, at least, very debilitating and unpleasant disease. The psychological effect of such deaths on others was as important as the specific impact of the poison on the individual victim.
Genetic Destruction. Genetic destruction, which could be considered a form of biological warfare, was routinely used in ancient times. It was accomplished by killing all the male population, often including children, and then raping the women to further ensure the destruction of the genetic line of those conquered.
Food and Intoxicants in Traps. This tactic preys on appetites (for example, the plot to give Castro exploding cigars).
Animals.
Mice and rats may have been used to bring plague to enemies.
Today, the Pentagon is working on “remote-controlled” rats, which can be used for search-and-rescue operations, but also could be used to spread biological agents.
In addition, monkey brains can be wired up to control machines—making a sort of biocomputer system.
There is evidence that hornet nests may have been used in Neolithic times to hurl at enemies hiding in caves, making them possibly the first grenades of a sort. At other times, stinging and poisonous insects may have been used in similar ways.
Beehives and wasp/hornet nests were also dropped from the parapets of besieged castles and forts or released into the tunnels of enemies trying to dig under the walls. (Other critters, such as bears, could also be released in such tunnels.)
Some beetles in India and the Middle East can secrete a poison more toxic than cobra venom.
Bees have been used throughout history. It was a favorite tactic of Romans to hurl beehives by catapult at enemies, and the practice continued in Europe through the Middle Ages. Even in the Vietnam War, the Vietcong would use Asian honeybees against American soldiers.
The Pentagon was experimenting with developing a pheromone that simulates the bee’s swarming behavior, which could be used to mark enemies to be attacked by bees.
Booby traps with tripwires were used in WWI to release bees.
The Japanese dropped ceramic pots full of noxious insects on the Chinese during WWII, a tactic also used as early as 199 A.D. The creatures used at that time may have been scorpions, some varieties of which were said to be deadly. Or they might have been assassin bugs, cone-nosed beetles that can fly and dig into exposed parts of a person’s body, injecting a lethal poison.
A favorite of Central Asian torture, assassin bugs, of which there are many species, can detect human presence for many hundreds of yards.
Because assassin bugs make a sound that can be amplified, there were experiments for using them as human detection devices during the Vietnam War.
The Pentagon is also experimenting with bees to develop them as detectors for minute amounts of biochemical or explosive substances.
Hannibal used elephants.
He also stampeded cattle with torches burning on their horns at Romans in a narrow valley.
He also catapulted vases full of poisonous snakes on enemy ships during a naval engagement in which he was outnumbered. This was far from the last time serpents were tossed in among the enemy.
Alexander the Great tied bushes to sheep to make his army look even more formidable from a distance, and he tied torches to their horns so that the army looked much larger at night from a distance. The same sorts of tactics have been used with other common animals, such as pigs and cattle.
In an earlier battle, the Persians fielded a wall of animals sacred to the Egyptians—cats, sheep, dogs, and ibexes—causing the Egyptians to hesitate in their attacks so they wouldn’t harm these sacred creatures. This led to the Persians winning the battle and conquering Egypt.
In addition, horses, donkeys, mules, camels, dogs, cats, birds, and elephants were used in various ways by armies—as pack animals, guard animals, mounts, messengers, and/or attackers.
Dogs in war could even be fitted with coats of mail and spiked collars.
Dogs were used in WWI and after. More than 10,000 dogs served the U.S. in WWII.
Some species of animals can’t tolerate each other. For instance, horses tend to shy away from camels if not acclimated to them. In at least one battle where an enemy cavalry had the clear advantage, camels were set in the front lines and so disrupted the enemy horses that they bolted and destroyed the formation, causing them to lose the battle they otherwise would have won.
Also, where horses were unnerved by the sight and smell of elephants, the elephants were, themselves, unnerved by the squealing of pigs, and some successful defenses against war elephants were mounted by the use of pigs.
In another instance, the pigs were covered with flammable pitch and other substances and set loose, flaming, on the elephants. Other instances of flaming animals include camels, cats, birds, dogs, and cattle-drawn carts.
Note
Modern research into the use of animals in warfare has centered on a veritable zoo, including dogs, skunks, rats, monkeys, seal lions, dolphins, and whales. For instance, sea lions were deployed in 2003 to pursue and capture enemy divers using leg clamps.
Throughout history, people have catalogued and used various toxic substances. Here’s a list of just a few of the substances used by our ancestors to start you off. Of course, you can add to this list with all kinds of dangerous and deadly substances.
Snake venom.
Insects.
Aconite, monkshood, wolfbane—starts as a stimulant, then paralyzes the nervous system, causing drooling and vomiting. Finally, the limbs go numb and death follows. Still used in India by elephant poachers—one of the most virulent plant poisons known. Used throughout history—even the Nazis extracted aconitine from it to make poisoned bullets.
Hellebore—black (Christmas rose, helleborus orientalis) or white (Liliacea, veratrum). Symptoms for small doses include sneezing and blisters; symptoms for heavier doses include severe vomiting, diarrhea, muscle cramps, delirium, convulsions, asphyxia, and heart attack.
Hyoscyamus niger, henbane—contains hyoscyamine and scopolamine, both narcotics. It has to be harvested without touching any part of the plant. It can cause violent seizures, psychosis, and death.
Toad and frog venoms.
Rabid dog saliva.
Curare.
Hemlock sap.
Mandrake.
Rhododendron honey.
Yew. Berries have alkaloids. There’s a story of conquered Spanish selling canteens made from yew to Romans, many of whom died from poison.
Belladonna, deadly nightshade. Known as strychnos in Roman era—hence strychnine. Also known as dorycnion, or spear drug. Causes dizziness, raving agitation, coma, and death. Virulent for as long as 30 years once applied. Possible “berserker” drug taken by Gaelic warriors.
Rhododendron sap—contains neurotoxins. Honey from bees fed on rhododendron flowers is poisonous and was used numerous times in history against the Romans and others.
Lethal concoctions—Scythians, Indians.
Intoxicants.
Possibly the earliest recorded use of a substance that works, like nerve agents, by inhibiting cholinesterase (ChE) is by native tribesmen of western Africa, who used the Calabar bean as an ordeal poison in witchcraft trials.
This section deals with chemical weapons, both ancient and modern.
Fire is arguably the most ancient of chemical weapons and is well documented back through recorded history, but it was probably used as soon as people learned to set and control fires. One of the famous burning weapons of antiquity was the Byzantine Greeks’ burning mixture called Greek fire, made from naphtha and quicklime. It was thrown in pots (like early firebombs) and, like modern flamethrowers, it was even carried on ships and streamed from a nozzle known as a siphon. However, Greek fire, invented in the 7th century AD, was not even close to the earliest fire weapons.
Fire arrows were used almost as soon as bows and arrows came into use and were the most common fire weapons of antiquity. However, fire was used in many ways, and ultimately chemicals were discovered to enhance its effects. One of the earliest modifications was probably the use of pitch from pine trees and the subsequent substances that could be derived from it, such as turpentine.
A mysteriously burning garment figured prominently in the play Medea, written by Euripides around 431 B.C., and the first recorded use of a chemically enhanced fire was two years later, in 429, when Spartans used a pile of wood enhanced with pitch and sulphur (known also as brimstone) to attempt to burn away the walls of a wooden fortification. Historians of the time described the blaze as “greater than any fire produced by human agency.” The Spartans either intentionally or inadvertently may have produced the first poison gas attack, since burning sulphur also produces toxic sulphur dioxide gas.
The use of chemical enhancements to fire was quickly adopted.
Pitch, which would stick to people, siege engines, or wooden structures, was like an early form of napalm, although it wasn’t a petroleum derivative. However, burning oils of various kinds were also used throughout the world.
The Romans developed an engine to fire large flaming, iron-tipped spears dipped in pitch and sulphur, called falarica.
Another method was to pack incendiary materials inside the shaft of a missile. One recipe from 390 A.D. included sulphur, resin, tar, and hemp soaked in oil.
Another weapon of a similar era used weak bows to fire hollow arrows filled with bitumen (a term used in the day for just about any petroleum product, such as asphalt, tar, naphtha, and natural gas). Such weapons had the added advantage that they would flare up if water was thrown on them, rather than be extinguished.
The Chinese had a similar weapon around 900 A.D. that used sulphur, charcoal, and “fire chemical” (probably saltpeter or nitrate salts), making it an early form of gunpowder. These chemicals were shot out of a bamboo tube like an early flamethrower, and later bits of sand, ceramic shards, and even metal shrapnel were added—even poisons, excrement, toxic plants, and arsenic.
Fire was used in many other ways, as well.
Burning ships were sent into ports and into enemy fleets.
Red-hot sand and metal was rained down on besiegers.
There was even a heat ray developed by Archimedes using the polished concave shields of a group of soldiers arrayed in a parabolic shape to reflect the sun and ignite enemy ships at sea from a great distance. As odd and unlikely as it seems, this exploit has been re-created in modern times using 60 “soldiers” with polished shields.
The modern flamethrower had its roots in antiquity as well. In fact, as early as 424 B.C., the Boeotians, allies of the Spartans, created a device that consisted of a metal-lined hollowed-out log with a cauldron of burning coals, sulphur, and pitch hanging from it. A tube ran into the hollowed log, and a large bellows was used to blow air through the device, causing a blast of air through the tube, projecting the chemically enhanced fire outward. Such early flame-throwing devices continued to appear through history. One addition to the incendiary mixture was vinegar, which was found to cause some kinds of rock to disintegrate when applied at high temperatures. This was especially effective against limestone and marble, both of which were common materials in building stone fortifications.
Smokes and gasses weren’t ignored, and many times they were used against enemies, although an unfavorable wind might cause the attack to backfire.
Gas and smoke were particularly effective in tunnels, and they were used against enemies attempting to dig under fortifications during sieges.
One ancient Chinese toxic gas-producing formula included aconite, wolfbane, croton beans (which can cause blisters and pustules), arsenic, hemp (the hallucinogenic kind), blister beetles, sulphur, charcoal, and resin.
In ancient India, many toxic recipes were recorded, using a wide variety of ingredients, including the bodies of poisonous snakes, stinging insects, droppings of various creatures, toxic plants, and even hot peppers. They also used tree resins, turpentine, wax, and charcoal as burning agents.
Speaking of hot peppers, burning pepper seed fires were used in the Caribbean and in Brazil against the Spanish Conquistadors.
Various delivery systems were used, including complex devices powered by bellows to force gasses and smoke into confined spaces, or carts filled with lime powder that were used to engulf enemies in choking dust.
One early discovery was that lime that has been roasted creates a calcium oxide, also known as calx. When water is added to this substance, it becomes slaked lime (calcium hydroxide). It also releases heat during this chemical action, and it was found that an incendiary mixture could be ignited simply by adding a drop of water to set off the reaction. Many clever uses of this principle were devised, including the formulation of a paste that could be painted on enemy siege engines at night so that, with the morning dew, they would burst into flame.
The most destructive and dangerous ancient substances used for making war with fire were the petroleum derivatives, particularly naphtha, which was used extensively in the Middle East because it was quite plentiful in some regions. In fact, it is so prevalent in some areas that “eternal” flames have burnt in natural gas wells for centuries. One famous site at Baba Gurgur (northern Iraq) had burned continuously from 600 B.C. until 1927, when it was tapped for the first modern oil well in Iraq.
Oil products weren’t used only for war. They also were used for lamps and torches, pigments, cleaning and rituals, waterproofing, and so on since as early as 3000 B.C. But petroleum was never ignored in war, and many weapons were created to make use of it.
Flaming arrows.
Small pots full of flaming naphtha that could be slung at enemies.
Huge siege engines, such as the mangonel, which was designed to fire naphtha over cities. There were even troops, known as naffatun, formed to operate hundreds of mangonels and catapults with barrels full of naphtha to rain on their enemies.
One of the qualities of weapons that used pitch and naphtha was that the fires could not be quenched with water and that the burning material would stick to structures, clothing and armor, and skin. These weapons were very difficult to defend against and caused horrible suffering and death. They were very much in the same vein as modern napalm, which is also made from naphtha and other ingredients.
The ultimate weapon of its day, Greek fire was a mixture of naphtha with other ingredients that was used in naval warfare beginning around 673 A.D. The Byzantines already had been squirting petroleum incendiaries for more than a hundred years, but what made Greek fire so feared was its adaptation to naval warfare and the size of the siphons that spat out the fiery liquid, which would even burn on water. Greek fire was feared in its day much the way nuclear devices are feared today, as its effect was horrible and absolute. In those days, there was no effective defense against it. Eventually, it was banned for use within Europe, and the exact formulas and mechanisms used were ultimately lost.
The ancients explored the fire retardant and protective qualities of natural elements, such as alum (double sulphate of aluminum and potassium) and asbestos (also known in those days as salamander skin), and one warlord even made up asbestos suits for soldiers so they could set themselves on fire to panic the enemy. Since many fires used in warfare could not be extinguished with water, it was discovered that vinegar, in addition to its uses against stone fortifications, could be used to quench fires. Even today, people use vinegar-soaked handkerchiefs to protect against pepper sprays and tear gas.
Common chemicals used in weapons that burn can be classified in several ways:
Igniters include white phosphorus (which ignites spontaneously when in contact with air), zirconium, and depleted uranium. (The latter two produce very hot sparks.)
Metal agents include magnesium and aluminum.
Pyrotechnic mixtures include thermite, which is made up of powdered ferric oxide and powdered or granular aluminum, and thermate, which is thermite with added elements.
Oil-based materials include napalm (a gel made from aluminum naphthenate and aluminum palmate) and Napalm-B (a liquid made from polystyrene thickener [50%], benzene [25%], and gasoline [25%]). Napalm-B burns hotter (1,562 degrees Fahrenheit) and two or three times longer than ordinary napalm.
Mineral agents, such as white phosphate, which burns on exposure to air and can be even more deadly than napalm, in some cases burning down to the bone.
Using more modern technology, we’ve come up with a lot of ways to burn things and people. Here are some of them.
Fire bombs
Early fire bombs
Molotov cocktails
Modern incendiary bombs
Burning projectiles
Incendiary artillery
Incendiary bullets
Incendiary rockets
Flamethrowers
Nerve agents
Blister agents
Choking agents
Blood gasses or systemic agents (hydrogen cyanide)
Sensory irritants (such as pepper spray)
Incapacitating agents (including psychotropic agents)
Toxin agents
In addition to those chemical weapons that burn through fire and heat, there other types of chemical weapons, classified as lethal, wounding (possibly lethal), incapacitating, or indirect. Lethal agents include nerve, blood, choking, and toxin agents. Blister agents can be of the wounding variety or they can be lethal, while harassing agents (such as tear gas, for instance) as well as psychological ones are in the incapacitating area. Finally, indirect agents are those that affect the environment around the target, such as defoliants used to destroy an enemy’s cover.
Chemical substances, then, can also be categorized as:
Nerve agents
Blister agents
Choking agents
Blood gasses or systemic agents (hydrogen cyanide)
Sensory irritants (such as pepper spray)
Incapacitating agents (including psychotropic agents)
Toxin agents
Table 34.2. Overview of Chemical Agent Effects
Nerve Agents | Mustard Agents | Organoarsine Blister Agents | Halogenated Oximes | Blood Agents | Choking Agents | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Convulsions | X | - | - | - | X | - |
Pinpoint Pupils | X | - | - | - | - | - |
Sweating | X | - | - | - | - | - |
Runny Nose | X | - | - | - | - | - |
Drooling | X | - | - | - | - | - |
Chest Pain | X | X | X | X | - | X |
Wheezing | X | X | X | X | - | X |
Frothy Sputum | X | X | X | X | - | X |
Cyanosis | X | - | - | - | X | X |
Bradycardia | X | - | - | - | X | - |
Tachycardia | X | - | - | - | X | - |
Rapid, Deep Breathing | - | - | - | - | X | - |
Loss of Bowel and Bladder Control | X | - | - | - | X | - |
Blister Formation | - | X | X | X | - | - |
Immediate Pain | - | - | - | X | - | - |
Sulphur mustards and nitrogen mustards (phosgene oxime [CX]) work in similar ways, except that nitrogen mustards work faster. They are both bifunctional alkylating agents, meaning that they actually do two things. First, through some biochemical reactions, they can bind to a wide variety of nucleic acids, proteins, and nucleotides, and they can create cross-links between the nucleotides of DNA and RNA, inhibiting the replication of these body-building blocks. Second, mustards can form links between molecules that, by a process called alkylation, can destroy large amounts of living tissue and cellular mutations.
These substances attack skin, eyes, lungs, and the gastrointestinal tract, and they can also cause damage to blood-generating organs. The symptoms don’t show up until two to twenty-four hours have passed, but by the time symptoms do become apparent, the damage is done.
Mild exposure causes aching eyes and a lot of tearing, skin inflammation, irritation of the mucous membranes, coughing, sneezing, and hoarseness. Heavy exposure can cause blindness, nausea, severe breathing problems, vomiting, skin blisters, and diarrhea.
Another blister agent is lewisite (L), a dark, oily liquid that smells like geraniums and acts very quickly, producing more blistering effects than other blistering agents. It is also a systemic poison and can kill within 10 minutes if exposure is high. In addition to other, typical mustard symptoms, it can also cause low blood pressure, lung swelling, and bowel difficulties. There is deeper injury to the connective tissue and muscle, greater vascular damage, and more severe inflammatory reaction than is exhibited in mustard burns. In large, deep, arsenical vesicant burns, there may be considerable necrosis of tissue, gangrene, and slough. Lewisite is often combined with other chemical weapon substances for more extreme effects. An antidote for lewisite is Dimercaprol (British Anti-Lewisite [BAL]).
Phenyldichloroarsine (PD) is odorless and colorless and is most often in a liquid state. It is similar to other mustards, though somewhat less effective. However, it has characteristics that make it more effective against people wearing gas masks.
Ethyldichloroarsine (ED) is like other mustard agents, except that its effects are more immediate and it is less persistent than other mustards.
Most nerve gases are based on cholinesterase enzyme inhibitors made from organophosphorus compounds. Cholinesterase is part of the mechanism that allows muscles to contract and relax. When a nerve cell sends a message to another cell, it does so with the enzyme acetylcholine. Cholinesterase is used to clear the acetylcholine after the message has been sent. When the cholinesterase is inhibited, cell messages relating to muscle contraction are sabotaged, resulting in uncontrollable contraction of the muscles in the body and eventual death by suffocation, as the diaphragm remains contracted, making breathing impossible.
Nerve agents can enter the body through inhalation, through the skin, or even through ingestion, and the onset of symptoms varies with the type of exposure.
Low-dose symptoms include runny nose, pupil contraction, visual deterioration, headache, slurred speech, nausea, hallucinations, pronounced chest pains, and increased saliva. With higher doses, all the previous symptoms are intensified, plus coughing and breathing problems, followed by convulsions, coma, and death. At very high doses, convulsions can begin almost immediately, and death soon follows from suffocation. Symptoms may vary somewhat, depending on what agent the person has been exposed to.
It is possible to treat non-terminal cases with an injection of atropine combined with a reactivator, which helps protect against the excess acetylcholine and restores it to its normal function. This treatment is delivered by means of an auto-injector system.
There are five major nerve agents, which are categorized in two groups: the G agents and the V agents. The G agents are tabun, soman, sarin, and Cyclohexyl methylphosphonofluridate (GF). The V agent is typified by the agent known as VX.
G Agents
G agents tend to be volatile and non-persistent, but they can be combined with polymers to increase their persistence.
Tabun (GA)
Chemical Name | O-ethyl dimethylamidophosphorylcyanide |
Molecular Formula | (CH3)2N-P(=O)(-CN)(-OC2H5) |
Molecular Weight | 162.1 |
Melting Point | –50°C |
Boiling Point | 247°C |
Tabun (GA) is the easiest nerve agent to manufacture. It is almost completely odorless and colorless in its pure state. Symptoms, which can appear anywhere from seconds after exposure to 18 hours later, include:
Runny nose
Watery eyes
Small, pinpoint pupils
Eye pain
Blurred vision
Drooling and excessive sweating
Cough
Chest tightness
Rapid breathing
Diarrhea
Increased urination
Confusion
Drowsiness
Weakness
Headache
Nausea, vomiting, and/or abdominal pain
Slow or fast heart rate
Abnormally low or high blood pressure
Even a tiny drop of nerve agent on the skin can cause sweating and muscle twitching where the agent touched the skin. Exposure to a large dose of tabun by any route may result in these additional health effects:
Loss of consciousness
Convulsions
Paralysis
Respiratory failure possibly leading to death
Sarin (GB)
Chemical Name | isopropyl methylphosphonofluoridate |
Molecular Formula | CH3-P(=O)(-F)(-OCH(CH33)2) |
Molecular Weight | 140.1 |
Melting Point | –56°C |
Boiling Point | 147°C |
Binary Weapon Compound | methylphosphoryldifluoride (DF) + isopropanol |
Sarin (GB) is treatable using the auto-injector. It is more soluble in water than other nerve agents. Symptoms can occur very rapidly and include difficulty breathing, miosis, blurred vision, headache, and nausea, leading to respiratory distress, convulsions, and eventually death.
Soman (GD)
Chemical Name | pinacolyl methylphosphonofluridate |
Molecular Formula | CH3-P(=O)(-F)(-CH(CH3)C(CH3))3 |
Molecular Weight | 182.2 |
Melting Point | –42°C |
Boiling Point | 167°C |
Binary Weapon Compound | methylphosphoryldifluoride (DF) + pinacolyalcohol |
Soman (GD) has a slight fruity smell and is mostly spread through inhalation and contact with skin. It is very difficult to treat. Although soman has a camphor or fruity odor, the odor may not be noticeable enough to give people sufficient warning against a toxic exposure. Low or moderate exposure by inhalation, ingestion, or skin absorption may cause some or all of the following symptoms within seconds to hours of exposure:
Runny nose
Watery eyes
Small, pinpoint pupils
Eye pain
Blurred vision
Drooling and excessive sweating
Cough
Chest tightness
Rapid breathing
Diarrhea
Increased urination
Confusion
Drowsiness
Weakness
Headache
Nausea, vomiting, and/or abdominal pain
Slow or fast heart rate
Abnormally low or high blood pressure
Even a tiny drop of nerve agent on the skin can cause sweating and muscle twitching where the agent touched the skin. Exposure to a large dose of soman by any route may result in these additional health effects:
Loss of consciousness
Convulsions
Paralysis
Respiratory failure possibly leading to death
Cyclohexyl Methylphosphonofluridate (GF)
Chemical Name | Cyclohexyl methylphosphonofluridate |
Molecular Formula | CH3-P(=O)(-F)(cyklo-C6H11) |
Molecular Weight | 180.2 |
Melting Point | <–30°C |
Boiling Point | 92°C (At 10 mm Hg) |
GF is transmitted through skin contact or inhalation.
V agents are far more persistent than G agents and are also much more lethal. They generally enter the body by skin contact or inhalation.
VX
Chemical Name | O-ethyl S-diisopropylaminomethyl methlphosphonothiolate |
Molecular Formula | CH3-P(=O)(-SCH2CH2N[CH(CH3)2]2)(-OC2H5) |
Molecular Weight | 267.4 |
Melting Point | –39°C |
Boiling Point | 300°C |
Binary Weapon Compound | O-ethyl O-2-diisopropylaminoethyl methylphosphonite (QL)+ sulphur |
VX is far more dangerous than any of the G agents, but it has the drawback of being highly flammable under certain conditions. Symptoms, which can occur within 30 minutes, include difficulty breathing, miosis, blurred vision, headache, and nausea, leading to respiratory distress, convulsions, and eventually death.
Choking agents are defined as “chemical agents which attack lung tissue, primarily causing pulmonary edema.” Among them are:
CG phosgene
DP diphosgene
Cl chlorine
PS chloropicrin
Phosgene was first used in 1915 in WWI. It is a colorless, highly volatile liquid that has the odor of new mown hay. It is unstable in storage and must be kept refrigerated, and it combines with water to form hydrochloric acid and carbon dioxide. Its vapor density is 3.4 times that of air, so it will tend to settle over an area.
Heavy exposure to phosgene can prove fatal within 24 to 48 hours. If a victim survives, however, recovery is likely to be good. Symptoms include coughing, choking, tightness in the chest, nausea and sometimes vomiting, headache, and lachrymation. There is often a period after the first onset that is symptom free, but this is followed after a few hours by symptoms of pulmonary edema, including deep coughing, dyspnea, rapid shallow breathing, and cyanosis, with a possibility of nausea and vomiting. This will be followed by frothy sputum and shock symptoms, such as pale, clammy skin, low blood pressure, and rapid heartbeat. If a victim survives more than 48 hours, there’s a good chance of a full recovery.
Except for several of its physical properties, everything else about diphosgene is the same as phosgene.
Vomiting agents are generally absorbed through inhalation, although exposure through ingestion, skin, or eye absorption can occur. Vomiting agents tend to be slower to take effect but longer acting than many riot-control substances. The first effect of a vomiting agent is in the form of irritation several minutes after exposure. By this time, however, it is too late to take precautions. What follows are a variety of symptoms, including headache, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and psychological shifts. The symptoms will persist for several hours, and death can occur in cases of extreme exposure.
Blood agents, such as cyanogens, are absorbed into the body through breathing, where they can cause lethal damage by their effect on the enzyme cytochrome-oxidase. Typical blood agents are hydrogen cyanide (AC) or hydrocyanic acid (HCN), cyanogen chloride (CK), and arsine (SA).
Hydrogen cyanide binds with enzymes that contain metals, such as the cytochrome oxidase enzyme, which is required for oxidation within the body’s cells. With the inhibition of this enzyme, the cells cannot obtain necessary oxygen, and the body’s systems shut down. The actual cause of death is suffocation.
Symptoms of exposure to hydrogen cyanide (AC) (depending on dose) include:
“Metallic” taste
Anxiety and/or confusion
Headache
Vertigo
Hyperpnea followed by dyspnea
Convulsions
Cyanosis (may be absent; may be followed by a pink color in the skin)
Respiratory arrest
Bradycardia
Cardiac arrest
While some texts describe a bright red coloration of the skin in cyanide poisoning, this appears to be only rarely observed in actual practice.
Onset is usually rapid. Effects on inhalation of lethal amounts may be observed within 15 seconds, with death occurring in less than 10 minutes.
Note
Strange Fact. Approximately 82 percent of men can detect the presence of hydrogen cyanide by smell; however, 95 percent of women can detect it.
With lesser exposure, the symptoms appear over time, beginning with restlessness and increased respiration, followed by giddiness, headache, heart palpitations, and trouble breathing. These are followed by vomiting, convulsions, respiratory failure, and coma. In nonlethal cases, some damage to the body is likely, especially in “oxygen-needy” areas. There are several substances that can help “clean” the cyanide ions out of the body, such as rhodanese enzyme combined with sulphur, cobalt compounds, or methaemoglobin (metHB). However, if a victim is fully conscious after five minutes and breathing normally, he probably does not need treatment, as his body has naturally gotten rid of the cyanide ions. Cyanogen halides, such as cyanogen chloride, ultimately form hydrogen cyanide through reactions in the body, so their symptoms and effects are almost the same except that they have added irritant effects, particularly to the eyes and mucous membranes, along with burning sensations in the throat and lungs. These added irritants can cause reactions similar to those of choking agents, with possible paralysis of the upper respiratory tract and the onset of dyspnea.
Arsine (arsenic trihydride) is another blood agent, said to have an odor similar to garlic. It is highly volatile, so much so that it can even explode on contact with air. In addition to symptoms similar to those of other blood agents, arsine can cause damage to the kidneys and liver. It is often combined with other agents, such as lewisite.
Incapacitating agent is a military term used to denote an agent that temporarily and nonlethally impairs the performance of an enemy by targeting the central nervous system. The idea isn’t new. (See the “Early Biological and Chemical Weapons” section earlier in this chapter.) As far back as 184 B.C., Hannibal’s army used belladonna plants to induce disorientation in enemies. In 1672, the Bishop of Muenster used belladonna-containing grenades in his campaigns.
The modern military has experimented with a wide variety of methods to disorient people, including noise, microwaves, and photostimulation. In addition, they have tried many substances, such as stimulants (cocaine, amphetamines, nicotine), depressants (barbiturates, opiates, neuroleptics), and psychedelic agents (lysergic acid diethylamide [LSD] and phencyclidine [PHP]). None of these has proved as suitable as a group of incapacitating agents called anticholinergics, such as 3-quinulidinyle benzilate (BZ). Another similar substance that was said to be found in Iraq following the Gulf War is known as Agent 15.
The substances that are categorized as psychotomimetic agents are those that, when administered, cause conditions similar to psychotic disorders or symptoms emanating from the central nervous system. These effects cause an inability to make decisions and cause an incapacitation of the individual.
Examples of Psychotomimetic Agents
3-quinuclidinylbenzilate (BZ). Part of the glycolic acid esters or glycolates, this group of psychotomimetics produces effects similar to those caused by atropine, causing distended pupils, short-distance vision deterioration, dry mouth, and heart palpitations. Another effect of glycolates, 3-quinuclidinylbenzilate in particular, is that it raises the body temperature and causes hallucinations and eventual coma. The effects can last for one to three weeks after the initial poisoning.
Phencyclidine. Causes somewhat disturbed body awareness, vivid dreaming, and disorientation, as well as some anesthetic effect with low doses. High doses may result in death due to respiratory depression. Phencyclidine is widely used by drug addicts because of its low price and the fact that it is easy to produce.
LSD and Similar Substances. Well-known as a recreational drug, LSD has little use as a weapon, partly because it is highly unstable; however, other LSD-like agents, chemically similar to a wide variety of amphetamines, could theoretically be used as chemical weapons, dispersed in an aerosol form.
Fentanyl. Part of a group of medicines called narcotic analgesics, which are used to relieve pain. The transmucosal form of fentanyl is used to treat breakthrough cancer pain when the usual medicines used to control the persistent pain fail. Transmucosal fentanyl is only used in patients who are already taking narcotic analgesics. Fentanyl acts in the central nervous system (CNS) to relieve pain. Some of its side effects are also caused by actions in the CNS. An overdose can cause severe breathing problems or complete stoppage of breathing, unconsciousness, and death. Serious signs of an overdose include very slow breathing (fewer than eight breaths a minute) and extreme drowsiness in which a subject cannot even answer if addressed or cannot be awakened if asleep. Other signs may include cold, clammy skin; low blood pressure; pinpoint pupils; and slow heartbeat.
More chemical agents can be found in the “Nonlethal Weapons” section later in this chapter.
Since WWII, more chemical weapons have been developed as anti-personnel agents. This section looks at some of them. They can be categorized as disabling agents (such as tear gas), choking agents and lung irritants, vomiting agents, blood gasses, vesicants and blister agents, incapacitating agents, and nerve gasses.
Tear Gases and Other Disabling Chemicals
CN (1-chloroacetophenone)
Larmine, BBC or CA (a-bromophenylacetonitrile)
CS (2-chlorobenzalmalononitrile)
CR (dibenzoxazepine)
OC (oleoresin capsicum)
BZ (3-quinuclidinyl benzilate)
Bromobenzylcyanide (CA)
CNB - (CN in Benzene and Carbon Tetrachloride)
CNC - (CN in Chloroform)
CNS - (CN and Chloropicrin in Chloroform)
Choking Agents (Lung Irritants)
Chloropicrin (PS)
Chlorine (CL)
Diphosgene (DP)
Cyanide
Nitrogen Oxide (NO)
Perflurorisobutylene (PHIB)
Phosgene (CG)
Red Phosphorous (RP)
Sulfur Trioxide-Chlorosulfonic Acid (FS)
Teflon and Perflurorisobutylene (PHIB)
Titanium Tetrachloride (FM)
Zinc Oxide (HC)
Vomiting Agents
Adamsite, or DM (10-chloro-5,10-dihydrophenarsazine)
Diphenylchloroarsine (DA)
Diphenylcyanoarsine (DC)
Blood Gases
Hydrogen Cyanide (AC)
Arsine (SA)
Cyanogen Chloride (CK)
Hydrogen Chloride
Vesicants (Blister Gases)
Mustard Gas (bis(2-chloroethyl) sulphide)
Lewisite (2-chlorovinyldichloroarsine)
Agent T (bis(2-chloroethylthioethyl) ether)
Nitrogen Mustard, HN-2 (tris(2-chloroethyl)amine)
Distilled Mustard (HD)
Lewisite (L)
Phosgene Oxime (CX)
Ethyldichloroarsine (ED)
Lewisite 1 (L-1)
Lewisite 1 (L-2)
Lewisite 1 (L-3)
Methyldichloroarsine (MD)
Mustard/Lewisite (HL)
Mustard/T
Nitrogen Mustard (HN-1)
Nitrogen Mustard (HN-3)
Phenodichloroarsine (PD)
Sesqui Mustard
Agent 15
BZ
Canniboids
Fentanyls
LSD
Phenothiazines
Nerve Gases
Tabun, or GA (ethyl NN-dimethylphosphoramidocyanidate)
Sarin, or GB (O-isopropyl methylphosphonofluoridate)
Soman, or GD (O-1,2,2-trimethylpropyl methylphosphonofluoridate)
Cyclosarin, or GF (O-cyclohexyl methylphosphonofluoridate)
VX (O-ethyl S-2-diisopropylaminoethyl methylphosphonothiolate)
Medemo (O-ethyl S-2-dimethylaminoethyl methylphosphonothiolate)
VR (O-isobutyl S-2-diethylaminoethyl methylphosphonothiolate)
GE
VE
VG
V-Gas
VM
Modern biological dangers come in several forms. Primary threats come from:
Bacteria, such as:
Anthrax
Brucellosis
Cholera
Pneumonic plague
Tularemia
Q fever
Viruses, such as:
Smallpox
Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE)
Viral hemorrhagic fevers (VHF)
Toxins, such as:
Botulinum (botulism)
Staph entero-b
Ricin
T-2 myotoxins
These threats are further identified according to three categories.
The U.S. public health system and primary healthcare providers must be prepared to address various biological agents, including pathogens that are rarely seen in the United States. High-priority agents include organisms that pose a risk to national security because they:
Can be easily disseminated or transmitted from person to person;
Result in high mortality rates and have the potential for major public health impact;
Might cause public panic and social disruption; and
Require special action for public health preparedness.
Second-highest priority agents include those that
are moderately easy to disseminate;
result in moderate morbidity rates and low mortality rates; and
require specific enhancements of CDC’s diagnostic capacity and enhanced disease surveillance.
The following are biological threats that have been categorized by government agencies.
Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis)
Botulism (Clostridium botulinum toxin)
Plague (Yersinia pestis)
Smallpox (Variola major)
Tularemia (Francisella tularensis)
Viral hemorrhagic fevers (Filoviruses [for example, Ebola, Marburg] and arenaviruses) [for example, Lassa, Machupo])
Brucellosis (Brucella species)
Epsilon toxin of Clostridium perfringens
Food safety threats (for example, Salmonella species, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Shigella)
Glanders (Burkholderia mallei)
Melioidosis (Burkholderia pseudomallei)
Psittacosis (Chlamydia psittaci)
Q fever (Coxiella burnetii)
Ricin toxin from Ricinus communis (castor beans)
Staphylococcal enterotoxin B
Typhus fever (Rickettsia prowazekii)
Viral encephalitis (alphaviruses [for example, Venezuelan equine encephalitis, eastern equine encephalitis, western equine encephalitis])
Water safety threats (for example, Vibrio cholerae, Cryptosporidium parvum)
Bacillus anthracis (anthrax)
Bartonella quintana (trench fever)
Brucella species (brucellosis)
Burkholderia mallei (glanders)
Burkholderia pseudomallei (meliodosis)
Franciscella tularensis (tularaemia)
Salmonella typhi (typhoid fever)
Shigella species (shigellosis)
Vibrio
cholerae (cholera)
Yersinia pestis (plague)
Coxiella burnetii (Q fever)
Orientia tsutsugamushi (scrub typhus)
Rickettsia prowazeki (typhus fever)
Rickettsia rickettsii (Rocky Mountain spotted fever)
Chlamydia psittaci (psittacosis)
Hantaan/Korean haemorrhagic fever, etc.
Sin Nombre
Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever
Rift Valley fever
Ebola fever
Marburg
Lymphocytic
Choriomeningitis
Junin (Argentinian haemorrhagic fever)
Machupo (Bolivian haemorrhagic fever)
Lassa fever
Tick-borne encephalitis/Russian spring-summer encephalitis
Dengue
Yellow fever
Omsk haemorrhagic fever
Japanese encephalitis
Western equine encephalomyelitis
Eastern equine encephalomyelitis
Chikungunya
O’nyong-nyong
Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis
Variola major (smallpox)
Monkey pox
White pox (a variant of variola virus)
Influenza
Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus
Naeglaeria fowleri (naegleriasis)
Toxoplasma gondii (toxoplasmosis)
Schistosoma species (bilharziasis)
In addition to known biological threats and agents, there have been many attempts to create more potent biological weapons or weapons that can target specific populations while leaving other groups untouched. With advances in genetic engineering, there is the potential for racially targeted viruses to be developed. In fact, some of the information needed can be found on the Internet, such as the DNA sequences for various viruses. New diseases are always appearing, often transmitted by mutated animal pathogens, such as AIDS and the various bird-flu variants coming out of China.
If animals can be considered biological weapons, then there are certainly possibilities, and governments have experimented with various populations of birds or rodents to be used as disease vectors. With innovations such as remote-controlled rats the possibilities grow. Even sea lions and dolphins have been trained for various martial roles. In history, many animals played roles in warfare, as pack animals, defenders, and attackers. Some were trained to fulfill their roles, while others, such as bees and hornets, were simply flung (so to speak) into the fray. Future uses of animals as agents of war may surpass all ancient and historical uses, particularly with advances in electronics and in genetic engineering.
Both chemical and biological weapons can be spread in various ways. In the historical section, you saw that very simple methods were used, including sending diseased people or livestock in among the enemy or even pricking random citizens with infected needles. Modern delivery methods would probably be different, but the intention is the same—to cause death and suffering to many people:
Through the air—from planes or ground-based bombs or canisters, or even from cars or trucks spraying a toxic substance into the air
Through water supplies
Through the food supply
Through drugs
Another type of bioterrorism threat could be carried out by infecting food supplies, such as the mad cow plagues (a version of foot-and-mouth disease). Viruses of this kind can mutate rapidly and cause disruption of food supplies. Other types of terrorist acts could be more direct, such as injection of poisons or other agents into packaged foods or pharmaceuticals.
Interested in the chemical makeup of nasty chemical weapons? Here’s some scientific gobbledygook for your enjoyment.
O-Alkyl (<= C10 incl. cycloalkyl) alkyl (Me, Et, n-Pr oder i-Pr)-phosphonofluoridates
O-Isopropyl methylphosphonofluoridate (Sarin)
O-Pinacolyl methylphosphonofluoridate (Soman)
O-Alkyl (<= C10 incl. cycloalkyl)-N,N-dialkyl (Me, Et, n-Pr oder i-Pr)-phosphoramidocyanidates
O-Ethyl N,N-dimethyl phosphoramido cyanidate (Tabun)
O-Alkyl (H oder <= C10 incl. cycloalkyl)-S-2-dialkyl (Me, Et, n-Pr oder i-Pr)-aminoethyl alkyl (Me, Et, n-Pr oder i-Pr)-phosphonothiolates and corresponding alkylated or pronated salts
O-Ethyl-S-2-diisopropyl-aminoethyl methyl phosphonothiolate (VX)
Sulfur mustards:
2-Chloroethylchloromethylsulfide
Bis(2-cloroethyl)-sulfide (mustard gas)
Bis(2-cloroethylthio)-methane
Sesquimustard: 1,2-Bis(2-chloroethylthio)ethane
1,3-Bis(2-chloroethylthio)-n-propane
1,4-Bis(2-chloroethylthio)-n-butane
1,5-Bis(2-chloroethylthio)-n-pentane
Bis(2-chloroethylthiomethyl)ether
Bis(2-chloroethylthioethyl)ether (O-Mustard)
Lewisites:
2-Chlorovinyldichloroarsine (Lewisite 1)
Bis(2-chlorovinyl)-chloroarsine (Lewisite 2)
Tris(2-chlorovinyl)-arsine (Lewisite 3)
Nitrogen mustards:
Bis(2-chlorothyl)-ethylamine (HN1)
Bis(2-chloroethyl)-methylamine (HN2)
Tris(2-chloroethyl)-amine (HN3)
Saxitoxin
Ricin
Alkyl (Me, Et, n-Pr oder i-Pr)-phosphonyl-difluorides
Methylphosphonyl difluoride (DF)
O-Alkyl(H oder <= C10 incl. cycloalkyl)-O-2-dialkyl(Me, Et, n-Pr oder i-Pr)-aminoethyl alkyl (Me, Et, n-Pr oder i-Pr) phosphonites and corresponding alkylated and pronated salts
O-Ethyl-0-2-diisopropylaminoethylmethyl-phosphonite (QL)
O-Isopropyl methyl phosphonochloridate (Chlorosarin)
O-Pinacolyl methylphosphonochloridate (Chlorosoman)
The world changed when we harnessed the power of the atom, and this section is devoted to an exploration of nuclear weapons. If you plan on using them in your games, why not get a handle on how they work?
A nuclear device works, like any explosive device, by the extremely rapid release of energy within a limited space. In the case of chemical (or conventional) explosives, the energy takes the form of rapidly expanding gasses caused by chemical combustion. In a nuclear device, the forces are more primal—the splitting of atomic particles and consequent release of subatomic particles and energy. However, weight for weight, the energy produced by nuclear explosives is millions of times greater than the energy produced by chemical explosions. In addition, nuclear explosions create heat, or thermal radiation, of tens of millions of degrees, whereas conventional explosives only generate temperatures of, at most, a few thousand degrees.
Here’s a short list of the ways that nuclear explosions differ from conventional ones:
Nuclear explosions can be many thousands (or millions) of times more powerful than the largest conventional detonations.
For the release of a given amount of energy, the mass of a nuclear explosive would be much less than that of a conventional high explosive. Consequently, in the former case, there is a much smaller amount of material available in the weapon itself that is converted into the hot, compressed gases of an explosion. This results in somewhat different mechanisms for the initiation of the blast wave.
The temperatures reached in a nuclear explosion are very much higher than in a conventional explosion, and a fairly large proportion of the energy in a nuclear explosion is emitted in the form of light and heat, generally referred to as thermal radiation. This is capable of causing skin burns and of starting fires at considerable distances. Close up, it simply incinerates everything.
A nuclear explosion is accompanied by highly penetrating and harmful invisible rays, predominantly gamma rays, which are referred to as initial nuclear radiation.
Finally, the substances remaining after a nuclear explosion are radioactive, emitting similar radiations over an extended period of time. This is known as the residual nuclear radiation or residual radioactivity, which takes the form of gamma rays and beta particles.
Why are they called nuclear weapons? Because the forces unleashed are the binding forces released by the rearrangement of the nuclei of atoms in either fission or fusion reactions—thus they are nuclear forces.
Fission devices work by splitting an atom of uranium or plutonium in two, which simultaneously releases two spare neutrons and about 32 picowatts of energy (32 millionths of a watt). These two free neutrons collide with other atoms, which split and release energy and neutrons. This quickly becomes a chain reaction, releasing vast quantities of energy in a very short time. One pound of U-235 can release 36 million watts of energy through this kind of chain reaction.
A modern fission atom bomb works by introducing a neutron source into a noncritical mass of U-235 or plutonium, simultaneously super-pressurizing the mass through the detonation of a high-explosive charge. (Fissionable plutonium-239 is created artificially from U-238 since very little plutonium exists naturally.) The sequence goes something like this:
The subcritical mass of U-235 or plutonium is surrounded in a tamper (neutron-reflecting) casing.
When the bomb is detonated, the neutron source is shot into position within the subcritical mass.
Simultaneously, the high explosive detonates, compressing the radioactive material, creating a supercritical mass.
It all goes bang.
The original “Little Boy” 20-kiloton atom bomb dropped on Hiroshima was a bit simpler in that it worked by using a high-explosive charge to drive a small segment of U-235 into a larger, subcritical mass section, thereby initiating critical mass and the resulting explosion.
The concentration of force in a fission bomb is immense and can be seen by comparing the force of a small amount of nuclear material to an equivalent force measured in TNT, which is how nuclear explosions are measured—1 kiloton of nuclear energy is equivalent to 1,000 tons of TNT. One pound of U-235 in a volume of one square inch can yield 9 kilotons of force if perfect fission were achieved. The equivalent TNT would occupy 210,000 square feet of volume. Twenty-two hundred pounds of U-235 with a volume of 2,000 square inches would yield 18 megatons. The equivalent volume of TNT would occupy 420,000,000 square feet.
Complete fission of 0.057 kg (57 grams or 2 ounces) fissionable material results in:
Fission of 1.45 × 1025 nuclei
1,012 calories
2.6 × 1025 million electron volts
4.48 × 1019 ergs (4.18 × 1012 joules)
1.16 × 106 kilowatt-hours
3.97 × 109 British thermal units
One condition necessary to a nuclear explosion is a chain reaction—a self-sustaining process that occurs when certain conditions are met. During the fission of an atom of U-233, U-235, or plutonium-239, two or three free neutrons are produced. Each of these neutrons is capable of interacting with another atom of the fissionable material and causing another fission reaction. However, under normal circumstances, most of these neutrons will escape the boundary of the fissionable material and will interact with other substances, such as air molecules or the molecules of their environment.
To achieve critical mass and a resultant chain reaction, it is necessary that enough of the free neutrons intersect and cause fission in the bomb’s fissionable mass. If you look at two spheres of different sizes, it becomes clear that a greater mass provides more opportunities for collisions of this sort.
In a larger sphere, fewer of the neutrons escape the boundary of the fissionable material, and therefore there are more reactions, each of which releases two or three more free neutrons. The sphere with higher mass is more likely to achieve critical mass, whereas a smaller one is more likely to be sub-critical.
Another way to increase the rate of fission is to compress the matter. In a higher density, more interactions are likely, which is why, in a modern fission bomb, a high explosive is used at the point of fission to compress the mass in on itself and increase the severity and violence of the explosion by increasing the percentage of successful fission reactions within the fissionable mass.
By surrounding the fissionable material with a suitable neutron “reflector,” also known as a tamper, the loss of neutrons by escape can be reduced, and the requirement for critical mass can thus be decreased. Moreover, elements of high density, which make good reflectors for neutrons of high energy, provide inertia, thereby delaying expansion of the exploding material. The action of the reflector is then like the familiar tamping in blasting operations. As a consequence of its neutron reflecting and inertial properties, the tamper permits the fissionable material in a nuclear weapon to be used more efficiently.
Because of the presence of stray neutrons in the atmosphere or the possibility of their being generated in various ways, a quantity of a suitable isotope of uranium (or plutonium) exceeding the critical mass would be likely to melt or possibly explode. It is necessary, therefore, that before detonation, a nuclear weapon should contain no piece of fissionable material that is as large as the critical mass for the given conditions. To produce an explosion, the material must then be made supercritical—in other words, larger than the critical mass—in a time so short as to preclude a sub-explosive change in the configuration, such as by melting. The introduction of neutrons from a suitable source can then initiate a chain reaction leading to an explosion.
Because the fission reaction splits the atom of uranium or plutonium during a chain reaction, new elements are formed. The exact substances and proportions depend on many factors, including the intensity of the neutron collisions and the material that undergoes fission. However, at least 80 different fission fragments, all radioactive isotopes, are created. These, in turn, give off negatively charged beta particles and gamma rays, which cause them to alter composition even further during the process of radioactive decay. They will undergo approximately four stages of radioactivity before becoming stable, or nonradioactive. In all, there are more than 300 isotopes that result from a fission chain reaction. The radioactive byproducts have half-lives ranging from fractions of a second to around one million years. The overall rate of decay of the fissionable byproducts of an explosion falls rapidly within hours of the explosion. However, some always remains, and some of it has very long half-life and very damaging radiation.
In addition to the byproducts of the fission reactions, there is also some of the original material—uranium or plutonium—that does not get consumed in the reaction. Uranium emits alpha particles—heavier positively charged particles that are identical to helium nuclei. These particles cannot penetrate very far—in fact, they cannot even penetrate clothing or unbroken skin. Plutonium, however, can be very hazardous because its particles, if ingested or inhaled, can produce very bad effects in the body even in miniscule amounts.
Fusion bombs, otherwise known as hydrogen or thermonuclear bombs, work not by splitting the atom but by recombining atomic particles—either two deuterium (also known as heavy hydrogen) atoms or one deuterium and one tritium atom. The nucleus of an ordinary hydrogen atom has one proton and no neutrons. Deuterium is hydrogen with one neutron in the nucleus, while tritium has two neutrons.
Where two deuterium atoms are involved, the fusion reaction results in a Helium-3 atom. With deuterium and tritium mixed, they combine into a Helium-4 atom. In any case, fusion explosions have some advantages over fission devices. Although the energy released from the fusion reaction is smaller than fission, the atoms are much smaller, resulting in three or four times the energy released from the same amount of mass, and six times as many neutrons. In addition, the materials are cheaper, more abundant, and not subject to the dangers of critical mass.
It is has been found that by using lithium deuteride (LiD), a compound of lithium and deuterium, the initial reaction produces a molecule of helium and a molecule of tritium, plus a free neutron and the release of energy. In addition, the tritium further interacts with the deuterium in a subsequent reaction, yielding even more energy as well as free neutrons that further react with the lithium. Because these free neutrons are at a very high energy level, they can bombard a “blanket” of U-238, which normally will not become critical, and cause it to undergo a fission chain reaction, adding even more energy to the bomb. In fact, in such “boosted” thermonuclear weapons, the energy obtained from fission constitutes a large percentage of the total energy yield.
A modern H-bomb uses a core of lithium deuteride surrounded by U-235 or plutonium. This layer is then surrounded by a layer of U-238, an inert form of uranium.
The sequence that initiates an H-bomb explosion goes something like this:
A fission reaction is set off (as set out previously).
The heat from the initial fission reaction causes the deuterium and tritium to undergo fusion. This is why it is called thermonuclear.
This causes the release of a great number of neutrons, which bombard the U-238 and cause it to undergo a fission reaction—a fission-fusion-fission process that releases massive amounts of energy. The fusion of all the nuclei present in one pound of deuterium would release roughly 26 kilotons of energy. Combining the effects of the fusion reaction with the fission reaction of the U-238 thus compounds the power of the blast in a thermonuclear device.
The height at which a nuclear device is exploded over the ground makes a considerable difference in its behavior and its effect on the target. Some sources identify five primary types of burst, although many variations and intermediate situations can arise in practice. The main types are:
Air burst
High-altitude burst
Underwater burst
Underground burst
Surface burst
The Federation of American Scientists sums it up well at http://www.fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/blast.htm:
The magnitude of the blast effect is related to the height of the burst above ground level. For any given distance from the center of the explosion, there is an optimum burst height that will produce the greatest change in air pressure, called overpressure, and the greater the distance the greater the optimum burst height. As a result, a burst on the surface produces the greatest overpressure at very close ranges, but less overpressure than an air burst at somewhat longer ranges.
When a nuclear weapon is detonated on or near Earth’s surface, the blast digs out a large crater. Some of the material that used to be in the crater is deposited on the rim of the crater; the rest is carried up into the air and returns to Earth as radioactive fallout. An explosion that is farther above the Earth’s surface than the radius of the fireball does not dig a crater and produces negligible immediate fallout. For the most part, a nuclear blast kills people by indirect means rather than by direct pressure.
As the height of burst for an explosion of given yield is decreased, or as the yield of the explosion for a given height of burst is increased, Mach reflection commences nearer to ground zero and the overpressure near ground zero becomes larger. However, as the height of burst is decreased, the total area of coverage for blast effects is also markedly reduced. The choice of height of burst is largely dependent on the nature of the target. Relatively resistant targets require the concentrated blast of a low-altitude or surface burst, while sensitive targets may be damaged by the less severe blast wave from an explosion at a higher altitude. In the latter case a larger area and, therefore, a larger number of targets can be damaged.
An air burst is one that occurs no higher than 100,000 feet. It must have sufficient atmosphere in which to propagate through the air medium. A true air burst will result in a roughly spherical fireball that does not touch the earth’s surface, but is propagated entirely in the air.
A 1-megaton bomb would create a fireball approximately 1.1 miles in diameter at its maximum.
Shock energy would be transmitted as an air blast, while thermal radiation from a 1-megaton bomb would travel long distances and could cause severe burns as far away as 12 miles on a clear day.
Ordinary opaque materials, such as walls and clothing, would, however, provide protection at distances. Nearer such a blast—for instance, a mile away—a four-foot-thick concrete wall might provide protection from gamma rays and neutrons, but it would take a blast-resistant structure to survive the blast effect at that range.
Thermal radiation goes through several phases. At first, due to extreme temperatures, a very short burst of X-rays is released, most of which are absorbed by the air around the blast and re-emitted as secondary thermal radiation—ultraviolet, visible, and infrared.
The surface temperature of the fireball actually pulses, peaking, then dipping in a fraction of a second, peaking again and falling continuously afterward. During the first peak, most of the radiation is in the ultraviolet range. During the next pulse, which can last for several seconds, 99 percent of the thermal radiation energy is released. The temperatures are lower than the initial pulse, and most of the rays that reach the earth are in the visible and infrared spectrums. This is the most damaging to life and property.
In addition to the thermal radiation, nuclear radiation in the form of neutrons and gamma rays is released in the explosion. When neutrons interact with fissionable materials in the bomb itself, more neutrons and gamma rays are released. Even when neutrons interact with molecules in the air, it results in more gamma rays being released. The rays released within approximately the first minute after the blast are considered the initial nuclear radiation. Gamma rays released after that point are high up in the nuclear cloud and should not reach the earth to be a factor.
Intense electric and magnetic fields are produced, which can extend for several miles. These effects, known as electromagnetic pulses (EMP), can damage unprotected electrical and electronic equipment, even at greater distances than the significant air blasts occur. This is especially true of low-yield weapons.
A high-altitude burst, one that takes place above 100,000 feet, has different characteristics from an air burst.
With air density reduced at higher altitudes, less of the energy of a nuclear explosion is converted to blast and shock waves, and more is therefore available for thermal radiation.
At lower air densities, the energy of the explosion travels farther than at lower altitudes. This effect is predominant at altitudes above 140,000 feet.
Due to the way in which the radiation energy is propagated, a high-altitude burst of equal power may produce more initial radiation at ground level than a moderately high air burst.
In addition, a high-altitude burst can cause electromagnetic pulse (EMP) effects over a wider area than a lower detonation, in part because of the ionization of the upper atmosphere.
Underwater and underground bursts have similar characteristics.
Most of the shock energy will appear in the ground or water. However, some may appear as an air blast, but less so the deeper the explosion in the earth or water.
Much of the initial radiation and thermal radiation are absorbed into the ground or water and serve to heat them.
Long-term effects, however, from the absorption of radiation in the water or ground can be more severe than they are with air bursts or high-altitude bursts.
The behavior of underwater bursts can be very complex and can vary further by the depth of the explosion. Deep-water explosions have complex patterns of behavior that are largely different from those of shallow bursts. Frankly, it is too complex to consider here, and I recommend that you look it up if you are interested.
For relatively shallow underground explosions, a sphere of extremely hot high-pressure gases, including vaporized weapon residues and rock, is formed. This is the equivalent of the fireball in an air or surface burst. The rapid expansion of the gas bubble initiates a ground shock wave that travels in all directions away from the burst point. When the upwardly directed shock (compression) wave reaches the earth’s surface, it is reflected back as a rarefaction (or tension) wave. If the tension exceeds the tensile strength of the surface material, the upper layers of the ground will spall—that is, split off into more or less horizontal layers. Then, as a result of the momentum imparted by the incident shock wave, these layers move upward at a speed that may be about 150 (or more) feet per second. When it is reflected back from the surface, the rarefaction wave travels into the ground toward the expanding gas sphere (or cavity) produced by the explosion. If the detonation is not at too great a depth, this wave may reach the top of the cavity while it is still growing. The resistance of the ground to the upward growth of the cavity is thus decreased, and the cavity expands rapidly in the upward direction. The expanding gases and vapors can thus supply additional energy to the spalled layers, so that their upward motion is sustained for a time or even increased. This effect is referred to as gas acceleration.
The ground surface moving upward first assumes the shape of a dome. As the dome continues to increase in height, cracks form, through which the cavity gases vent to the atmosphere. The mound then disintegrates completely, and the rock fragments are thrown upward and outward. Subsequently, much of the ejected material collapses and falls back, partly into the newly formed crater and partly onto the surrounding “lip.” The material that falls back immediately into the crater is called the fallback, whereas that descending on the lip is called the ejecta. The size of the remaining (or apparent) crater depends on the energy yield of the detonation and on the nature of the excavated medium. In general, for equivalent conditions, the volume of the crater is roughly proportional to the yield of the explosion.
What follows is called the base surge—a phenomenon also connected with shallow underwater explosions. It is caused by fallback as it descends to the ground again and carries air and fine dust particles downward with it. The dust-laden air upon reaching the ground moves outward as a result of its momentum and density, causing the base-surge phenomenon. The base surge of dirt particles moves outward from the center of the explosion and is subsequently carried downwind. Eventually, the particles settle out and produce radioactive contamination over a large area, the extent of which depends upon the depth of the burst, the nature of the soil, and the atmospheric conditions, as well as upon the energy yield of the explosion. A dry, sandy terrain would be particularly conducive to base-surge formation in an underground burst.
Throwout crater formation is apparently always accompanied by a base surge. If gas acceleration occurs, however, a cloud consisting of particles of various sizes and the hot gases escaping from the explosion cavity generally also forms and rises to a height of thousands of feet. This is usually referred to as the main cloud, to distinguish it from the base-surge cloud. The latter surrounds the base of the main cloud and spreads out initially to a greater distance.
Both the base surge and the main cloud are contaminated with radioactivity, and the particles present contribute to the fallout. The larger pieces are the first to reach the earth, so they are deposited near the location of the burst. But the smaller particles remain suspended in the air for some time and may be carried great distances by the wind before they eventually settle out.
Deep underground explosions have four general phases. First, the explosion energy is released in less than one-millionth of a second—that is, less than one microsecond. As a result, the pressure in the hot gas bubble formed will rise to several million atmospheres, and the temperature will reach about a million degrees within a few microseconds. In the second (hydrodynamic) stage, which generally is a few tenths of a second in duration, the high pressure of the hot gases initiates a strong shock wave, which breaks away and expands in all directions with a velocity equal to or greater than the speed of sound in the rock medium. During the hydrodynamic phase, the hot gases continue to expand, although more slowly than initially, and they form a cavity of substantial size. At the end of this phase, the cavity will have attained its maximum diameter, and its walls will be lined with molten rock. The shock wave will have reached a distance of some hundreds of feet ahead of the cavity, and it will have crushed or fractured much of the rock in the region it has traversed. The shock wave will continue to expand and decrease in strength, eventually becoming the head (or leading) wave of a train of seismic waves. During the third stage, the cavity will cool, and the molten rock material will collect and solidify at the bottom of the cavity.
Finally, the gas pressure in the cavity decreases to the point when it can no longer support the overburden. Then, in a matter of seconds to hours, the roof falls in, and this is followed by progressive collapse of the overlying rocks. A tall cylinder, commonly referred to as a chimney, filled with broken rock or rubble is thus formed. The end result of this chimney formation depends on whether the top of it reaches the surface, and a resultant crater forms (or not).
A surface burst is one that occurs at or slightly above the ground (or water). Detonations close to or at the ground behave similarly, although as altitude increases, there are some intermediate effects between the true air burst and the surface burst. With a surface burst, the fireball in its rapid initial growth touches the surface of the earth. Because of the intense heat, some of the rock, soil, and other material in the area is vaporized and taken into the fireball. Additional material is melted, either completely or on its surface, and the strong afterwinds cause large amounts of dirt, dust, and other particles to be sucked up as the fireball rises.
An important difference between a surface burst and an air burst is, consequently, that in the surface burst the radioactive cloud is much more heavily loaded with debris. This consists of particles ranging in size from the very small ones produced by condensation as the fireball cools to the much larger debris particles that have been raised by the afterwinds. The exact composition of the cloud will, of course, depend on the nature of the surface materials and the extent of their contact with the fireball. When the fireball touches the earth’s surface, a crater is formed as a result of the vaporization of dirt and other material and the removal of soil and so on by the blast wave and winds accompanying the explosion. The size of the crater will vary with the height above the surface at which the weapon is exploded and with the character of the soil, as well as with the energy of the explosion. It is believed that for a 1-megaton weapon, there would be no appreciable crater formation unless detonation occurred at an altitude of 450 feet or less.
In a surface burst, large quantities of earth or water enter the fireball at an early stage and are fused or vaporized. When sufficient cooling has occurred, the fission products and other radioactive residues become incorporated with the earth particles as a result of the condensation of vaporized fission products into fused particles of earth, and so on. A small proportion of the solid particles formed upon further cooling are contaminated fairly uniformly throughout with the radioactive fission products and other weapon residues, but as a general rule the contamination is found mainly in a thin shell near the surface of the particles. In water droplets, the small fission product particles occur at discrete points within the drops. As the violent disturbance due to the explosion subsides, the contaminated particles and droplets gradually descend to earth. This phenomenon is referred to as fallout, and the same name is applied to the particles themselves when they reach the ground. It is the fallout, with its associated radioactivity that decays over a long period of time, that is the main source of the residual nuclear radiation.
Fallout from a small surface blast tends to remain localized, but fallout from larger bombs can create a mushroom cloud that reaches through the troposphere and into the stratosphere, in which case the radioactive particles are carried by the air currents and can have widespread and even global effects.
It is apparent that the kinetic energy of the fission fragments, constituting some 85 percent of the total energy released, will distribute itself between thermal radiation, on the one hand, and shock and blast, on the other hand, in proportions determined largely by the nature of the ambient medium. The higher the density of the latter, the greater the extent of the coupling between it and the energy from the exploding nuclear weapon. Consequently, when a burst takes place in a medium of high density, such as water or earth, a larger percentage of the kinetic energy of the fission fragments is converted into shock and blast energy than is the case in a less dense medium, such as air. At very high altitudes, on the other hand, where the air pressure is extremely low, there is no true fireball, and the kinetic energy of the fission fragments is dissipated over a very large volume. In any event, the form and amount in which the thermal radiation is received at a distance from the explosion will depend on the nature of the intervening medium.
At a fraction of a second after a nuclear explosion, a high-pressure shock or blast wave develops and moves outward from the fireball. This shock front moves rapidly away from the fireball in the form of a moving wall of highly compressed air. For instance, after about 10 seconds, when the fireball of a 1-megaton nuclear weapon would attain its maximum size (5,700 feet across), the shock front would be about 3 miles farther ahead. At 50 seconds after the explosion, when the fireball is no longer visible, it would have traveled about 12 miles, moving at about 1,150 feet per second, which is slightly faster than the speed of sound at sea level.
When the blast wave strikes the surface of the earth, it is reflected back, like a sound wave producing an echo. This reflected blast wave, like the original (or direct) wave, is also capable of causing material damage. The direct wave and the reflected wave ultimately merge at a particular region on the surface, depending mainly on the height of the blast and the energy expended in the explosion. This merging phenomenon is called the Mach effect. The overpressure—that is, the pressure in excess of the normal atmospheric value—at the front of the Mach wave is generally about twice as great as that at the direct blast wave front.
For an air burst of a 1-megaton nuclear weapon at an altitude of 6,500 feet, the Mach effect will begin approximately 4.5 seconds after the explosion, in a rough circle at a radius of 1.3 miles from ground zero. The overpressure on the ground at the blast wave front at this time is about 20 pounds per square inch, so that the total air pressure is more than double the normal atmospheric pressure.
At first the height of the Mach front is small, but as the blast wave front continues to move outward, the height increases steadily. At the same time, however, the overpressure, like that in the original (or direct) wave, decreases correspondingly because of the continuous loss of energy and the ever-increasing area of the advancing front. For instance, in a 1-megaton blast, 40 seconds after the detonation the Mach front would be 10 miles from ground zero and the overpressure would have decreased to roughly 1 pound per square inch.
Strong transient winds are associated with the passage of the shock (and Mach) front. These blast winds are very much stronger than the ground wind (or afterwind) due to the updraft caused by the rising fireball, which occurs at a later time. The blast winds may have peak velocities of several hundred miles an hour fairly close to ground zero; even at more than six miles from the explosion of a 1-megaton nuclear weapon, the peak velocity will be greater than 70 miles per hour. These strong winds can contribute to the blast damage resulting from a nuclear explosion.
Nuclear explosions cause damage in several ways—from thermal radiation, from blast front pressure waves and high winds, and from nuclear radiation in the form of neutron bombardment and gamma rays, which can be lethal in sufficient doses. In addition, EMP effects can disrupt and even destroy electrically operated equipment.
At distances close to ground zero, the destruction is nearly total. Due to thermal radiation, metals will vaporize at ground zero and will melt a short distance away. People can sustain third-degree burns over a mile away. Blast effects are also total at ground zero, gradually reducing in severity. But even miles away, brick and wooden structures can sustain damage. Add to that the effect of overpressure winds, which, at ground zero for a 20-kiloton bomb, may attain velocities of nearly 700 miles per hour and pressures of 30 psi, gradually reducing over distance. With larger bombs, the effects are even more widely distributed.
Nuclear radiation is a significant danger, and living tissues absorb about 14 percent more radiation than air. And the initial gamma radiation of a nuclear blast can travel several thousand yards, penetrating even soil, water, lead, and concrete.
Table 34.3. Radiation Yields
Weapon | Radiation (1 mi) | 2 mi | 3 mi |
|---|---|---|---|
10KT | 90RAD | 114mRAD | .342mRAD |
20KT | 180RAD | 228mRAD | .684mRAD |
50KT | 500RAD | 627mRAD | 1.824mRAD |
100KT | 1140RAD | 1.4RAD | 4.2mRAD |
200KT | 2730RAD | 3.4RAD | 10.25mRAD |
500KT | 9120RAD | 11.4RAD | 34.2mRAD |
1MT | 19,150RAD | 24RAD | 71.8mRAD |
10MT | 456,000RAD | 570RAD | 1.7RAD |
Table 34.4. Human Effects of Radiation
Effects | Mortality | Convalescence | |
|---|---|---|---|
0–25 | Negligible | ||
100 | Nausea, sickness, changes in blood | Up to 7 days | |
200 | Blood cell damage, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, hair loss, skin spots, fevers, hemorrhages, fatigue, possible heart failure | About 25% within 30–60 days | Up to 40 days |
400 | Increased levels of symptoms (above) | Up to 50% within 30–60 days | Weeks to months |
600 | Very severe symptoms (above) and faster onset | Up to 75% within 20–35 days | Months to years |
800 | All above symptoms plus rapid failures of circulatory system and parts of the nervous system | Up to 90% within days | Years |
1000+ | Symptoms very rapid and extreme | 100% within hours | None |
By looking at the two charts of radiation yield and the effects of radiation on the human body, it is easy to see how the larger the nuclear device, the more severe the effects at distances of one or two miles. In the case of a 10MT bomb, mortality would be 100 percent within a mile, and effects would be very severe, with approximately 50-percent mortality at two miles. This does not include the long-term effects of residual radiation.
Delivery of nuclear weapons falls into two categories: strategic weapons, which are designed to destroy large targets, such as cities, and tactical weapons, generally of smaller yield, which are used to destroy specific targets—military, communications, and infrastructure.
During the heyday of the Cold War, in the 1950s and 1960s, nuclear weapons tended to be large, single-warhead bombs in the megaton range. Beginning in the 1970s, nuclear strategy changed, with the introduction of multiple re-entry vehicles, which can deliver more than one lower-yield bomb to several targets. MIRVs, or Multiple Independently-targeted Re-entry Vehicles, can carry several warheads and deliver them to separate targets. They can also carry decoys and are designed not only to attack multiple targets, but to overwhelm enemy defenses. MARVs, or Maneuverable Alternative-target Re-entry Vehicles, like MIRVs, can deploy several separate warheads. The difference is that with a MARV, the warheads each have independent rockets and onboard computers to guide them toward separate targets, allowing them to take evasive maneuvers to avoid ABM defenses, even targeting preselected alternative targets.
Currently, nuclear warheads are deployed from airplanes, artillery, or ground, sea, or air-launched ballistic or cruise missiles. Other nuclear devices include mines, torpedoes, and depth charges. In addition, man-carried devices, such as Special Atomic Demolition Munitions (SADM), were developed during the 1950s and 1960s. Various portable nuclear devices were a part of the U.S. arsenal until 1989. The main device of this kind was the MK-54, which was fired by a mechanical timer and had a yield ranging from one ton to one kiloton. Another small nuclear weapon was called Davy Crocket, a small missile-launched nuclear warhead with a yield ranging from 10 to 250 tons. It was designed to be launched from either an M28 or an M29 recoilless rifle.
There is no question that nuclear weapons exist in seven countries—the so-called Nuclear Club. These are the United States, Russia, France, Britain, India, Pakistan, and China. However, several other countries are considered to have or to be developing nuclear weapons capabilities, including Iran, Israel, and North Korea. Although there is no confirmation of it, many other nations have had or have announced intentions of developing nuclear weapons.
Many countries have extensive deposits of uranium, including Australia and Canada. The Netherlands, which does not have a nuclear weapons program, does, however, have something like two tons of reactor-grade plutonium stockpiled. Major political issues of modern times involve the spread and use of nuclear weapons, and the struggle to limit nuclear proliferation and to keep fissionable materials out of the hands of rogue states or terrorists.
Armor has been used since early human history, and many examples of preindustrial armor were included in the “Armor” section in Chapter 33, “Historical and Cultural Weapons.” However, as weapons have become more powerful, and mobile weapon platforms, such as tanks, ships, and planes, have become ever more sophisticated, armor has also evolved. Today, modern armor technology strives to keep up with the technology of weapons, although not always successfully.
Armor gives protection at a price. It adds weight and often encumbers mobility. Therefore, the strategic and most sensible application of armor balances protection against mobility and the effects of added weight. For instance, modern tanks place their heaviest armor at the front, with thinner armor on the sides and even thinner armor on the rear, top, and underneath, which reduces weight but creates vulnerabilities.
The main types of armor include:
Steel. The basic type of armor in use for hundreds of years. Steel is used on modern tanks and ships and even on planes of various kinds. Some modern tanks, including the T-72 and M60, use cast steel turrets and hulls made in giant molds. Other tanks use welded plates of steel. However, steel is only effective relative to its thickness, and the thickness needed to protect against modern weapons, such as HEAT shells and KE (kinetic energy) warheads, would be prohibitively massive and impractical. Using sloping or rounded shapes can add to the effectiveness of steel plating, however. For instance, using 4-inch armor plate at an angle of 60 degrees can give it an armor effect similar to that of an 8-inch plate.
Explosive Reactive Armor (ERA). Consists of boxes of explosive charge attached to the outside of a tank or Armored Fighting Vehicle (AFV); first deployed in the late 1970s by Israel and used in their M-60 and Centurion tanks in 1982. The reactive armor explosives detonate when they sense the impact of a HEAT-type missile, causing a counter explosion and disrupting the plasma jet of the HEAT warhead. Although this type of armor can produce five times the protection against HEAT warheads, it is not without drawbacks. First, once the reactive charges have blown, that area of the vehicle is no longer protected by the ERA. Also, it is not effective against KE rounds, and, finally, modern warheads have been developed to counter reactive armor, such as the TOW missiles that defeat ERA by using dual warheads in tandem, one of which detonates a split second after the first, which effectively clears the ERA and leaves the vehicle vulnerable.
Spaced Armor. Creates spaces within the armor plating that allow HEAT warheads to penetrate the first layer, but dissipate their plasma jet within the hollow spaces behind the first layer. This type of armor does not work against KE rounds.
Composite Armor. Uses sandwiched layers of steel and other materials, such as ceramics, plastic honeycombs, and depleted uranium, to defeat modern warheads. The British-designed Chobham armor, used on M1 Abrams tanks as well as the German Leopard 2 and British Challenger, uses spaced armor with ceramic blocks set in resin between layers of conventional armor.
Anti-Spall Liners. Not true armor, these are liners made of Kevlar or ballistic nylon that can help prevent spalling inside a vehicle that has been hit by a HEAT warhead.
Body armor reached its most elaborate levels during the Middle Ages with the European knights. However, even a full casing of steel over 100 percent of your body won’t protect you from modern weapons and still leave you able to move. So, modern body armor is generally made lightweight and is designed to protect only the parts of the body subject to lethal attack—the head and torso.
Modern body armor—that is, armor that could protect against modern weapons—was explored throughout the 20th century. It came into relatively widespread military use with the flak jackets of WWII, which were bulky garments that used ballistic nylon to protect primarily against munitions fragments and not against high-velocity bullets. In the 1960s, new technologies were developed that used woven fibers to absorb and dissipate the impact of a bullet, causing it to spread out or “mushroom,” and stop before penetration. The most well-known of such fibers is called by the trade name Kevlar and is five times stronger, by weight, than steel.
Other enhancements of modern body armor include cooling vests that work under the armor to keep soldiers from overheating. There are several versions of such cooling apparel on the market, some adapted from industrial cooling methods and others specifically for military use.
Hard armor is used to protect against high-velocity weapons, such as high-powered rifles. It is generally made from thick ceramic or metal plates and is not substantially different in purpose than the armor suits of medieval knights. However, the modern materials are far more sophisticated, and they are hard enough to deflect bullets. The ceramics used in hard armor are called alumina, which is the same material that sapphires are made of. Other materials used include plastic plates of polyethylene.
Essentially, soft bulletproof armor is a very sophisticated net of material that traps the incoming bullet. Such body armor consists of several layers—an outer layer of ordinary cloth with an inner layer of a woven webbing, such as Kevlar, sandwiched between layers of a plastic film. Other materials designed to compete with Kevlar are Vectran, which is said to be approximately twice as strong as Kevlar. Cutting-edge materials include BioSteel, which is made from spider silk created from genetically engineered goats. Yes, that’s right—goats producing spider silk. Still another super-modern technology is called the carbon nanotube, which can make threads of exceptionally tiny diameter. Some people believe that carbon nanotubes can be used to create exceptionally strong and lightweight armor materials. A proprietary technology called Spectra Shield uses parallel threads of synthetic polyethylene fibers laminated on a tape of thermoplastic resin.
One danger of soft armor is the possibility of blunt trauma caused by the impact of the bullet, even if it doesn’t penetrate the armor. The response to this problem is to design garments with tight weaves and multiple layers, plus a resin coating sandwiched between the layers of plastic film. The intention is to dissipate the force of the impact over the whole garment so that no strong force is applied to a single part of the body.
Body armor is classified in seven categories, ranging from Category I (the lowest level of protection) to Category VII (the highest). Some body armor includes pockets that can carry special metal or ceramic plates for extra protection.
The military is exploring new types of body suits, known as BDUs (Battle Dress Uniforms) that can not only protect soldiers against projectile, chemical, and biological weapons, but can provide them with increased strength and endurance. These futuristic suits may make use of new technologies, such as BioSteel and multi-function exoskeletons, configurable camouflage systems, underwater “SmartSkin” that adjusts to underwater temperatures and a variety of sensors, temperature control systems, and health feedback monitors. One of the first suits to be demonstrated, which has only a few of these features, is called the Objective Force Warrior System, introduced by the U.S. Army in 2002 and scheduled for deployment somewhere between 2010 and 2012, although recent articles suggest that the program is having difficulties, so predictions of the technology going operational are prone to error. Going even farther into the future, military researchers are exploring the use of nanotechnology in the development of weaponry and advanced armor.
Weapons that can produce control and compliance without lethal force are the objects of a certain branch of study. This section looks at some of the so-called nonlethal weapon solutions in use today.
Weapons that are explicitly designed and primarily employed so as to incapacitate personnel or materiel, while minimizing fatalities, permanent injury to personnel, and undesired damage to property and the environment. Unlike conventional lethal weapons that destroy their targets principally through blast, penetration, and fragmentation, nonlethal weapons employ means other than gross physical destruction to prevent the target from functioning. Nonlethal weapons are intended to have one, or both, of the following characteristics: a. they have relatively reversible effects on personnel or materiel, b. they affect objects differently within their area of influence.
—Dept. of Defense, “Nonlethal Weapons: Terms and References”
One of the odd elements of modern life is that as we develop ever more devastatingly effective weapons, we are also attempting to create weapons that do not kill, but only incapacitate or prevent our enemies (whoever they are) from doing what they want to do. Nonlethal weapons use all kinds of technologies and methods, ranging from bright lights that temporarily dazzle an opponent to sticky foam that can engulf someone in an inescapable foam cocoon.
Nothing is 100-percent nonlethal. There is always some danger when applying force against another person. And being nonlethal doesn’t necessarily mean it isn’t damaging. For instance, there are laser weapons that can cause blindness. Admittedly, the victim is not dead, but the effect can be permanent and crippling.
The goals of those who develop nonlethal systems for deployment against human targets are to find ways to attack every weakness—smell, taste, hearing, feeling, sight, emotion, and motor functions. They are used for crowd control, to incapacitate individuals, to deny area access, and to clear facilities and areas. They are also used for area denial to vehicles on land, sea, and air as well as to disable or neutralize various vehicles, vessels, aircraft, and other equipment. They are also being designed to disable or neutralize facilities and systems and to deny the use of WMDs.
Energy, in the form of light or electronic impulse, can be used as an effective weapon under the right circumstances and with effective application. Here are some examples:
Eye-safe lasers are used to pinpoint targets, to dazzle enemies, and to discourage aggression by letting a target know that he is “in the sights.” They can also be used to enhance night-vision devices, in sophisticated guidance systems and range finders, to warn suspected enemy planes, and possibly in other uses. Laser countermeasures often use a “notch filter” to filter out the particular frequency of the laser; however, these countermeasures can be foiled by using multi-frequency lasers or tunable lasers.
High-energy lasers are also available, which can blind victims as well as burn holes in objects. A Chinese ZM-87 Portable Laser Disturber can blind someone at 3,000 meters!
Battlefield Optical Munitions (BOM) are specialized weapons that can fire from existing weapon launchers, but operate completely differently. For instance, one system can emit blinding light to disrupt enemy optical sensors. This system uses existing grenade launchers, but instead of launching a projectile, they detonate a high-explosive charge within an atmosphere of a noble gas and reflect the excited gases into a dye rod, which in turn emits a dazzling laser light. This light can be released at different frequencies by using different types of dye rods. It can also be emitted in a cone of light that covers a greater area. Similarly, there is an omnidirectional light source known as an isotropic radiator that can be used to dazzle incoming anti-aircraft missile sensors. It is essentially a small bag filled with a high explosive in a noble gas. When exploded, the light emitted is brilliant enough to defeat optical sensor systems nearby.
There are tasers that can temporarily incapacitate a person, either close up or from a short distance away (currently about 15 feet).
There are mystery weapons, such as a reported system that would prevent guns within an area from firing (reportedly used by the Israelis during the famous raid on Entebbe, but subsequently repressed so that the developer of this mysterious system took the secret to his grave).
Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP) weapons are designed to generate a high electromagnetic pulse that will disrupt or destroy sophisticated equipment, such as computers and other sensitive devices. It can be sent in through antennae or through various lines, such as telephone and power lines. If effective, it can knock out the electronic capabilities of an enemy. The EM pulse is a common side effect of nuclear blasts, but making practical and reliable EMP weapons is still in the development phase. Some success has been obtained using something called a flux-compression generator, which, in experimental conditions, has generated power in the tens of terawatts—the equivalent of the power output of 1,000 nuclear reactors in a single pulse.
Ordinary light can be used to stun or temporarily blind a person. The natural reaction to very bright light, especially in dark conditions when the pupil is wide open, is to shut the eyes, and the effect can temporarily impair vision. Simple handheld lights can be made to output as much as 6 million candle-power, bright enough to read a newspaper a mile away. Other uses of light include strobing, which can disorient people, light grenades and flares used in a variety of ways, and even alternating light frequencies, which can cause disorientation and confusion by causing the brain to adjust quickly to the changes of frequency, say between red light (at the low end of the spectrum) and blue light (at the high end). It’s no coincidence that police vehicles use strobing red and blue lights.
If you can restrain someone, you don’t have to hurt or kill him. Here are some nonlethal restraint systems:
Nets have many uses, including hidden nets of strong material that can impede men on foot and tangle them up. They can also be deployed from guns (the Netgun, which can fire a net up to 45 feet to capture a single person), larger net projectors for capturing multiple people, and even nets used to disable mines (using explosive det-cord) or to capture and destroy incoming missiles (also using det-cord).
Nets are further enhanced by applying sticky substances, making escape more difficult, and by the addition of wires that can deliver debilitating shocks to anyone caught in the net. “Smart” technology would only deliver a shock if it sensed that the victim was struggling to escape.
Another net technology (known as Speedbump) is a vinyl net capable of stopping a speeding car, useful at checkpoints and roadblocks.
Netting can also be used to stop escaping small craft on water. The nets can be dropped ahead of escaping craft by helicopters, preventing them from taking evasive maneuvers.
Barbed wire has been a standard element of the battlefield since WWI. Today, using portable dispensers developed during the Vietnam War, a 450-foot fence of wire can be deployed in about 8 seconds, fired from a canister only 3.6 inches in diameter and 12.25 inches long. Razor-sharp barbs can shred tires, entangle drive shafts, and prevent pedestrian entry to an area.
Nonlethal methods for use against aircraft have been difficult to deploy, because most attacks that affect the airworthiness of a plane or the pilot’s ability to control it are likely to be lethal. Still various air nets have been tested, as well as air-to-air harpoons with parachutes or other devices that could adversely affect the enemy plane.
One way to disable a vehicle is to cover it entirely, obscuring vision and/or mobility. This has been developed in a system called Silver Shroud, which can fire a very thin polymer film coated with aluminum P4. This film is 0.0005 inches thick and can cover an area of 1,960 square feet. When used against tanks, the film also entangles the turret if the crew attempts to move it.
Nonlethal mines are in development; rather than exploding and causing death or injury from blast and shrapnel, they would deploy nets. This technology would cut down on the problem of unintended casualties when noncombatants unexpectedly encounter mines.
In an imitation of Spider-Man, the military has developed a binary system that deploys the chemicals hexamethylenediamine dissolved in CO2 with adipic acid in pressurized water. When these chemicals are combined under pressure, they form a thin, long-chain polymeric fiber that can be projected through nozzles for a variety of effects at distances up to 100 feet.
Spikes are often used to stop vehicles by deflating tires, and many innovations have been applied to this simple technology, such as remotely controlled spikes that can be deployed or withdrawn as needed, spikes that stay in the tires of the car that runs over them, and even exploding spikes that can prevent fugitives from continuing to drive on the wheel rims.
For restraining prisoners, air bags can be used to pin them into a seat.
Modern chemical weapons can be horribly lethal, but not every use of chemistry leads to sickness or death. Here modern chemistry is used more to stop lawbreakers than to cause them harm.
Anti-materiel targets
Tires. Use of superacids millions to billions of times more potent than fluoric acid—injected in tires by use of caltrops or other means. For simple deflation, a caltrop with a hollow tube to defeat self-sealing tires is sufficient. Another method is catalytic depolymerization, which causes the tire to degrade very quickly and requires very little of the applied substance.
Engines. Agents used to clog air filters applied from a spray device to deploy thin, long-chain polymer films. Bypass methods are ineffective in that the polymers will destroy the engine if allowed to bypass the filter. Another method: Small abrasive material, such as extremely strong ceramic or Carborundum particles, causing highly increased friction and wear and destroying engines over a few days’ time. Application via metal fireballs—igniting metals such as cerium oxide produces very fine ceramic dust, small enough to penetrate air filters and enter the engine. Affecting engine combustion is also possible, either by damping it so the engine dies or by supercharging it. Acetylene gas can cause the engine to race so hard that it blows the pistons out and destroys it. Another way is to introduce pyrophoric particles, such as cesium, which burn intensely and generate enough heat to destroy the engine. Also, viscosification agents can thicken fuels and cause them to clog the fuel passages and cripple the engine.
Traction. Modern technology has created some “superlubricant” substances, such as Teflon and potassium soaps, which can be used to severely inhibit movement through an area. Such methods were used even in the French Resistance to make steep railroad tracks unusable by the German supply and troop trains. Modern use might include crushable packets (known as slick ’ems) distributed over an area, which would release a superlubricant when run over by enemy vehicles, making movement very difficult. The opposite, of course, are stick ’ems, which can make an area sticky and hard to pass. New technology is being worked on to allow some materials to change composition based on certain conditions, such as temperature, pressure, or electromagnetic signals. These “smart” materials could resolve cleanup problems with some of the chemical weapons in development and could lead to other clever uses.
Optics. Some materials can almost instantly cause the crazing of optical surfaces, rendering them unusable or at least severely impaired. Many methods have been considered for “blinding” tanks, which have limited capabilities for viewing the outside. Paint bullets, chemical etching agents, and adhesive foams are all possible methods.
Fuels and Lubricants. Various agents can affect the operation of fuels or lubricants, rendering machines inoperative.
Tubing and Seals. Corrosive agents can attack tubing and seals in motors, causing them to fail.
Anti-personnel
Water. High-pressure water cannons can be used to control crowds. The addition of dyes—either visible or ultraviolet detectable—can also “tag” people for later identification.
Riot-Control Gasses. Tear gas and other agents (such as chloroacetophenone [CN], chlorodi-hydrophenarsazine [DM], O-chlorobenzylidene malononitrile [CS], pepper spray, or oleo-resin of capsicum [OC] dibenz[b,f]1 : 4-oxazepine [CR]) can be sprayed, detonated, or mixed with water.
Sticky Foam. This can engulf a person or a weapon, rendering them inoperable, or create an instant denial-of-access barrier. It has a 50:1 expansion rate and is many times stickier than most common materials. Other foams, which are water based, can expand 1,000 times and create a soapsuds-like material that can quickly quell riots and impair coordinated resistance. They can also be used to disperse other riot-control materials, such as OC.
Malodorous Chemical Weapons. Also known as stink bombs, these can make an area uninhabitable. Some of them have names that suggest the odors they release, such as putrecine and cadavercine.
Insect Pheromones. These can be used to infest an area with nasty bugs, such as spiders, cockroaches, ants, and other unwelcome guests.
Pyrophoric Chemicals. These can be spread around in the form of tars that will ignite when sealants are broken from pressure, such as stepping on them or driving over them. If used in a tar form, the agent will stick to people or objects and continue to burn.
Drugs. Drugs such as barbiturates and other sleep- or drowsiness-inducing chemicals, as well as psychedelic agents, can be used to impair opposition. It is even proposed that the Soviets had developed an “ozone cannon,” which could be directed to induce drowsiness on enemy forces.
Micro-Robot Delivery. One futuristic chemical proposal suggests the delivery of chemical agents via micro-robots (millimeter-sized robots).
Kinetic energy is the energy of a moving object intersecting with another object (moving or not). A baseball bat hitting the ball is using kinetic energy to send that ball out of the park. Low kinetic energy refers to objects that are using minimal physical force to have an effect, often to cause pain but not serious injury or death. Here is a list of some low kinetic energy nonlethal weapons:
Bullets (baton rounds)
Original teakwood (knee-knockers).
Rubber bullets.
The ARWEN 37 fires five 2.7-ounce 4-inch plastic rounds up to 100 meters.
Israeli MA/RA 83 and MA/RA 88 are systems designed to attach to standard rifles, such as the M16, and fire rubber bullets; each bullet container holds 15 rubber cylinders weighing 15 to 17 grams.
Israel also has a system with plastic-wrapped rubber cylinders that separate after firing. Each rubber matrix is filled with steel particles. For crowd control, they have a heavier system that can fire up to 70 small balls and an even heavier vehicle-mounted system that can fire up to 1,400 balls in a determinable sequence.
Beanbag rounds are small canvas bags containing lead shot that distribute the impact and are nonlethal.
SPLLAT (Special Purpose Low Lethality Anti-Terrorist) shells can destroy door locks without penetrating the room using frangible metal/ceramic slugs that disintegrate, or a round without the ceramic binder. Another type of round delivers a terrific blast and brilliant sparklets but does no lethal damage.
The Baton Ball is a 40mm ball weighing 7 ounces and is shot from a blank cartridge. It can incapacitate a subject for more than an hour.
STINGBALL is one of several types of munitions that mix in irritants such as OC or CS with rubber and steel balls. There are many variations of this type of munition, including dyes, beanbag rounds with stinging agents added, and even 12-gauge rubber sabot projectiles.
A Ring Airfoil Grenade (RAG) uses a special launcher attached to an M16 rifle and fires ring projectiles that spin at 5,000 revolutions per minute, expanding as they spin and therefore distributing the impact.
Foam baton rounds fire three 1.5-inch-long and 1.5-inch-diameter projectiles made from dense foam rubber. They are recommended to be fired at no more than 5 meters, and, in any case, lack accuracy past about 15 meters.
Acoustical weapons come in a variety of forms and are classified in three levels—infrasound (low spectrum), audible, and ultrasound (high frequency). Infrasound can penetrate buildings, cause structural weakness, and also inflict nausea and disorientation on people when delivered at high intensities. Audible sound can also be effective because it is very loud or because it evokes an emotional response—think of Jaws or Psycho.
During WWII, work was done with low-frequency blasts intended to blow the wings off planes, especially Allied bombers. This is not considered feasible today.
SuperPooper was the nickname given to a low-frequency weapon that causes involuntary release of bowels. It was rejected by the U.S. military as “undignified.” (But a perfect South Park weapon?)
Current research by SARA (Scientific Applications and Research Associates), based on German research, uses repetitive detonations to create intense toroidal vortices using mixed methane and oxygen. The device can emit pressure waves at greater than 130 dB, which is enough to incapacitate anyone. Because it is low-frequency sound, it cannot be blocked by protecting the ears or using other traditional defenses against sound. Another group uses propane and a series of tubes with holes cut in them, causing a phased-array system, which in turn cuts the size requirements of the device by an order of magnitude.
Although focusing or directing low-frequency beams is difficult, SARA has developed multi-element RF antenna systems to focus and tune the acoustical waves in a variety of ways, including narrow or wide beams.
Other SARA projects include:
Multi-Sensory Grenade—configurable sound, light, and odor.
Vortex Launcher—supersonic vortex of air hits targets at half the speed of sound and knocks them off balance (like having a bucket of ice water thrown into your chest).
Directional Sonic Firehose—focused acoustic energy directed at a specific target. Man-portable versions are in testing.
HPM Vehicle Stopper—high-power microwaves focused on a fleeing vehicle to disrupt electronics.
HEW (High-Energy Whirls) weapons have been tested that send out invisible ring vortices of sound energy two feet in diameter and can travel more than 100 yards. These rings can hit targets very hard. In tests, the whirls were able to break off limbs from a pine tree several inches in diameter.
Soviet research revealed that low-frequency sound could disrupt the ability to think, cause drowsiness and weakness, and, with prolonged exposure, could even put people to sleep on their feet. It could also change reaction times and impair peripheral vision and tracking ability. Various applications are suggested, including mounting sound generators for low frequency on tanks to keep away infantry or even civilians with Molotov cocktails.
One technology, called beam convergence, uses two different frequencies that have unpleasant effects where they converge.
Soviet tests approximated the rhythmic vibrations associated with earthquakes as a means for clearing an area, believing there is a natural reaction to such vibrations.
Mythologically, the walls of Jericho were brought down by sound, and there have been eyewitness reports of Tibetan techniques for levitating objects using sound, involving perhaps 200 priests with trumpets and drums lifting 1.5-meter cubic stones 400 meters in the air.
Acoustical weapons can be used against structures, to weaken concrete and metal. One system, placed near a railroad track, was able to weaken it invisibly. Though no damage was apparent to the eye, the next time a train ran over it, it would disintegrate.
Pulsed Periodic Stimuli uses low-intensity acoustic energy to create disorientation in the human brain, based on electroneurophysiological research.
It may be possible to link chemicals with acoustical weapons to increase effects of acoustical weapons, and vice versa.
Here are some additional nonlethal concepts, though we’re not sure whether any of them are actually in use or just theoretical. For a game designer, however, it’s just more fuel for the imagination.
Microbes that eat roads and buildings (or just about anything else).
Biocatalysts to break down plastics.
Devices that can gradually corrode metals.
Pain Beam (electromagnetic field that can heat the skin without burning, cause short-term memory loss, or even effect total disruption of bodily functions).
Robotic devices equipped with nonlethal weapon systems and sensors that can be remote controlled or even autonomous.
Paintball-firing robots, up to 1,500 rounds per minute.
Use of nonlethal ultraviolet laser beams in two beams that cause an ionization of air and subsequent mild electric current that simulates the currents used to control skeletal muscles. In effect, it can cause people to twitch and lose control of their muscles. If improperly applied, it could cause sustained contractions (tentanization) and presumably death from suffocation or (possibly) even heart failure.
Nonlethal delivery via mortar systems (in development).
Nano devices—possibilities unlimited.
The subject of information warfare is highly relevant to the modern and postmodern world. In the past, information warfare probably consisted of leaking false rumors or fabricating false information, which was common during WWII. Even older applications might be seen in the intense political machinations of almost every society in human history, from basic spying to infiltration to political manipulation by those in power. These types of activities fall into a broad definition of information warfare, but in modern terms, this also refers to various kinds of attacks on the information processing, storage, and pathways of various key networks and information systems.
Attacks can take place by various means, including the introduction of viruses and worms to disrupt operations, destroy data, or even introduce false information.
Cybercrime is a form of information warfare that involves stealing money, identities, access codes, and a variety of other individual and/or corporate assets.
Cyberterrorism is a significant threat to modern life and could take the form of takeovers of key defense systems, disruption of economic information systems and travel systems (rails, air, and so on), or even tampering with weapon guidance systems, which might be created with hidden routines that could be activated to turn weapons against their own masters.
Another type of information warfare, known in modern language as perception management but long known by the name propaganda, deals with how to win the war of opinions, sometimes using false or misleading information to cause people to act in opposition to their own values.
Misinformation is also used to manipulate enemies into feeling vulnerable or overconfident or to place themselves in any of a number of self-defeating positions.
Anything that deprives enemies of reliable information and leaves them uncertain and uninformed. In the Battle of Britain, when the British had very few fighter planes and trained pilots, they were able to win an information war against the Germans because they had an early form of radar that the Germans didn’t know about. By always having planes intercept German raids, they gave the enemy the impression that their air force was well stocked and powerful, when it was really on its last legs. This is one of many examples where a superior technology that isn’t known to the enemy can create an advantage in the information war.
It is also desirable to attack an enemy in other areas, such as the public opinion of its own people and of the world around them. In fact, all aspects of the information war are intended to put the enemy in a very vulnerable situation while strengthening one’s own situation and, ultimately, to impose your will on theirs.
Even marketing and advertising could arguably be considered in the realm of information warfare’s tenet of perception management, as they attempt to create demand for products and services where there is little or none naturally.
Today there are hacker sites that can sell you viruses, or even virus laboratories that allow you to create your own viruses. The potential in games could involve cyber-war either from the offensive or the defensive angle. It can be very technical, or it can be used as a plot element of a more conventional mystery or spy scenario. It could also be used to explore the world in the aftermath of a successful cyber attack that took out major systems of the modern world.
Imagine you are brainstorming a weapon or some type of armor. You want to create something more or less from scratch. One way to approach the task is to model your idea on something you’ve seen before or something you can find by research. This is especially important if you are doing a real-world or historical simulation. But suppose you want to come up with something original. Instead of modeling on something you’re familiar with, imagine creating a weapon from scratch by considering all the properties and features that go into it. With an understanding of basic properties, you can make adjustments and even create improbable (but cool) new weapons.
So first, imagine you are brainstorming all the qualities a weapon might have, and you come up with a list similar to the one at the beginning of Chapter 33, “Historical and Cultural Weapons.” Ours is divided into two main types of lists—basic qualities and lists for some weapon types. Basic qualities are those like length, weight, size, and so forth that can be applied to most weapons. Not every weapon will have every quality, but most of these qualities can be applied to most weapons. Under weapon types, we list some specific data relating to traditional types of weapons, such as bladed, blunt, projectile, and so forth. Remember that the weapon-type sections assume the qualities listed in the “Qualities of Weapons” section (in Chapter 33) and only list specific options and variations associated with a specific type of weapon. Also remember that there are lots of specific examples of weapons in both Chapter 33 and in this chapter. Use them freely for inspiration.
There are essentially two ways to use these lists. You can begin with the basic qualities of the weapon, which lists qualities that could be applied to most weapons, then follow with the specific type—blade, polearm, axe, gun, missile, and so on—or you can begin with the type of weapon and then modify its qualities. Either way will work, though the results might be more diverse if you simply determine the qualities first and then the weapon type. You might surprise yourself. For instance, you might come up with something very tiny and dense, but not know whether it will be a blade, a gun, or something else. Suppose it’s a club. How would you use a tiny club? Maybe it is enhanced somehow with a technology that makes it more effective. Maybe it’s used to hammer people’s toes. As you think about the weapon, imagine it taking shape and imagine how it would be used...and who would use it. Finally, once you have designed the basic weapon, move on to the next section and consider magical properties you might also assign to this weapon.
In Chapter 2, “Brainstorming and Research,” we offered some specific examples of brainstorming weapons. This section is only to remind you that, having now come to the end of hundreds of pages of weapons and armor listed in two chapters, you have a lot of material with which to work. So get creative. That’s what it’s all about.