^[1] Alan M. Osur, Blacks in the Army Air Forces during WWII: The Problem of Race Relations (Washington, D.C., 1977), 11.

^[2] Bernard C. Nalty and Morris J. MacGregor, eds., Blacks in the Military: Essential Documents (Wilmington, DE, 1981), 108.

^[3] Ulysses Lee, The Employment of Negro Troops (Washington, D.C., 1994), 111–112.

^[4] Nalty and MacGregor, Blacks in the Military, 114–115.

^[5] Osur, Blacks in the Army Air Forces during WWII, 5.

^[6] Lee, The Employment of Negro Troops, 45.

^[7] Osur, Blacks in the Army Air Forces during WWII, 5.

^[8] Charles H. Wesley, The Quest for Equality: From the Civil War to Civil Rights (Cornwell Heights, PA, 1969), 176.

^[9] CCH oral history interview with Carl Dodd, 14 July 1999.

^[10] NSA predecessor organizations carried various names between 1930 and 1952, i.e., Signal Intelligence Section, Signals Security Service, Signal Security Branch, Signal Security Division, Signal Security Agency, Army Security Agency, and Armed Forces Security Agency.

^[11] Frank B. Rowlett, The Story of Magic: Memoirs of an American Cryptologic Pioneer (Laguna Hills, CA, 1998), 47.

^[12] James L. Gilbert and John P. Finnegan, eds., U.S. Army Signals Intelligence in World War II, (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, 1993), 26–27.

^[13] History of the Signal Security Agency, Vol. 1, Part 1, Organization, 12–16, 38–52.

^[14] Personnel records of Bernard W. Pryor and interview with Delores Schommer, 6 May 1999, who entered on duty with SIS on 16 July 1940. According to Mrs. Schommer, Bernie was the single messenger for the organization.

^[15] Constance McLaughlin Green, The Secret City: A History of Race Relations in the Nation's Capital (Princeton, NJ, 1967), 231. According to records maintained by the Office of Workforce Information, Official of Personnel Management, the total number of civilians employed by the federal government in 1938 was 882,226.

^[16] Personnel Clearances and Historical Study, NSA Archives-ACC#17862.

^[17] Memo from E.S. Turner, Adjutant General, to Chief Signal Officer, 18 April 1942, NSA Archives – ACC#18981.

^[18] History of the Signal Security Agency, Vol. 1, Part 1, 88.

^[19] NARA RG457, Box 1027, Signal Security Agency – Personal Interviews, July 15-September 1943.

^[20] CCH oral history interview, General Earle F. Cooke, 15 July 1982.

^[21] Personnel Records, William D. Coffee.

^[22] Tom Standage, The Victorian Internet (New York, 1998), 112–116.

^[23] History of the Signal Security Agency, Volume Two: The General Cryptanalytic Problem, 229–230.

^[24] Ibid.

^[25] Memo for the Control Officer, SSA, from SPSIS-9 (Intelligence Branch), 15 September 1944, RG457, Box 1005, ACC#10616.

^[26] Mission and functions, B-3-b and organizational charts, 15 November 1944 and 1 February 1945, NARA, RG457, Box 843, ACC#646.

^[27] Ibid.

^[28] Mission and functions, B-3-b; CCH oral history interview with Benson K. Buffham, 15 June 1999.

^[29] Mission and functions, B-3-b; personnel records of Herman Phynes.

^[30] Personnel records of Bernard Pryor.

^[31] The plans and priorities officer developed collection plans and adjusted the tasking for intercept sites to meet changing requirements.

^[32] CCH oral history interview with Benson K. Buffham, 15 June 1999.

^[33] B-3-b organizational chart, NARA RG457, Box 843, ACC#646.

^[34] Intercept and Control Branch Annual Report, 1945–1946; NSA/CSS Archives, ACC#17394; personnel records, William D. Coffee.

^[35] Annual Report of the Cryptanalytic Branch, July 1945-June 1946; NSA/CSS Archives ACC#47439 and personnel records of Herman Phynes.

^[36] History of the Signal Security Agency, Volume 11: The Machine Branch, published by ASA, Washington, D.C., 1948.

^[37] CCH oral history interview with Norm Willis, 11 January 1999.

^[38] Dr. Solomon Kullback was one of the three pioneering "junior cryptanalysts" hired by William Friedman in April 1930. Harry Lawrence Clark joined SIS later that year as a cryptographic clerk to analyze secret inks. Sam Snyder entered on duty with SIS in 1936 and worked as a cryptanalyst on both Italian and Japanese systems prior to WWII. Colonel Spencer Ball Akin was O.I.C., Signal Intelligence Service, 25 July 1939-2 May 1941.

^[39] CCH oral history interview with Delores Schommer, 5 May 1999.

^[40] Phone interview with David Shepard, 22 May 2000.

^[41] CCH oral history interview with Geneva Trusty Arthur, 28 September 1999.

^[42] History of GENS-6 Civil Division of Office of General Studies; NSA/CSS Archives, ACC#9895, and CCH oral history interviews with Jacob Gurin on 26 April 1995 and 15 October 1999.

^[43] CCH oral history interviews with Jacob Gurin, 26 April 1995 and 15 October 1999, and David Bryant, 23 February 1999.

^[44] Thomas R. Johnson, American Cryptology during the Cold War, 1945–1989, Book I: The Struggle for Centralization, 1945-1960 (CCH-E32-95-03), 168.

^[45] 27 March 1950 memorandum from C.P. Collins, Chairman USCIB Intelligence Committee to Coordinator of Joint Operations; NSA/CSS Archives, ACC#8243.

^[46] Report by the Director, Armed Forces Security Agency, to the Armed Forces Security Council on Requirements for Conduct of an Optimum Communication Intelligence Program, 14 July 1950; NSA/CSS Archives, ACC#5221.

^[47] From 1949 until sometime in 1951, AFSA-213 was a branch. A December 1951 organizational chart shows AFSA-213 as a division. A reorganization in August 1952 resulted in a new designator, AFSA-29. When NSA was created, AFSA-29 became NSA-63. In the interest of simplicity and consistency, the Russian radioprinter traffic processing division will usually be referred to by the earlier designator, AFSA-213.

^[48] Undated and unsigned report; however, a penciled notation indicates it was authored before 31 May 1950; NSA/CSS Archives ACC#8243. Data extracts from the paper later appeared in the 14 July 1950 report from the director, AFSA, to the Armed Forces Security Council.

^[49] NSA oral history interview with William Jones conducted by R.D. Farley on 14 August 1986.

^[50] CCH oral history interview with Richard Hill, 18 October 1999. The low grade structure was confirmed in other interviews and by the personnel records of Jefferson Tancil, a supervisor in the traffic division. From January 1950 to November 1951, he was a GS-6 section chief responsible for eighteen to thirty communications clerks, GG-2 to GG5.

^[51] CCH oral history interviews: William Byrd on 8 March 1999; Richard Hill on 18 October 1999; and Carl Dodd (by phone), 17 May 1999.

^[52] CCH oral history interview with Bernice Mills on 10 November 1999.

^[53] Jack Gurin interview, 15 October 1999.

^[54] Comptroller Monthly Operational Summary, July 1953; NSA/CSS Archives, ACC#42468.

^[55] CCH oral history interview with Iris Carr, 16 June 1999.

^[56] Report by the Director, AFSA, to the Armed Forces Security Agency Council, 14 July 1950, 3; NSA/CSS Archives, ACC#5221.

^[57] Ibid., 36.

^[58] AFSA-02 Semi-Monthly Report for 16–31 March 1951; NSA/CSS Archives ACC#42468.

^[59] AFSA-153 Monthly Operational Summary, October 1951; NSA/CSS; NSA/CSS Archives, ACC#42468.

^[60] Memorandum, "Excessive Number of Transfer Requests," from Deputy Head, NSA-222 (IBM Branch) to NSA-220A (Assistant Chief for Administrative Management, Machine Division), 2 December 1952; NSA/CSS Archives ACC#2606.

^[61] Oral history interview with Maebelle Holmes, 26 April 1999.

^[62] Oral history interview with Novella Carr, 19 January 1999.

^[63] CCH oral history interview with Dorothy Amis, 19 February 1999.

^[64] Morris J. MacGregor, Jr., Integration of the Armed Forces, 1940–1965, (Washington, D.C.: Center for Military History, 1989), 363, footnote 81.

^[65] Information in this chapter obtained from the following oral history interviews: Carroll Robinson, 8 June 1999; Charles Matthews, 22 June 1999; Mitchell Brown, 24 June 1999.

^[66] By 1949 AFSA had outgrown the temporary buildings and converted dormitories at Arlington Hall Station. Also, in the wake of the national angst over the Soviet Union's first nuclear test, AFSA was directed by the JCS to identify a standby or disaster site outside the metropolitan Washington area. The two requirements were merged, and Fort Knox, Kentucky, was selected as the site for a new headquarters and operations building. This decision was reversed, however, when the prospect of massive civilian resignations became apparent, and the search continued. Several sites in northern Virginia and Maryland were considered, but on 5 February 1952 Fort Meade was officially chosen as the new location for AFSA.

^[67] Other examples of appointments to the Office of Security: Two former FBI employees and one former ONI employee were chosen to become the Special Research Unit (investigations of alleged employee wrongdoings). Monthly Operational Summaries, Security Division, February and March 1953; NSA/CSS ACC#42468.

^[68] Chicago was the home of the Keeler Institute, the training school for polygraph examiners.

^[69] This is inaccurate. At least one African-American, Bernie Pryor, was an employee counselor in the personnel division at this time.

^[70] Polygraph: Journal of the American Polygraph Association, December 1979, Vol. 8, No. 4.

^[71] CCH interview with Jack Gurin, 15 October 1999.

^[72] CCH interview with James Pryde, 15 December 1998.

^[73] CCH oral history interviews with Clarence Toomer, 12 January 2000, and Arthur Davis, 8 February 2000.

^[74] CCH oral history interviews with Minnie McNeal Kenny, 30 March 1999. ALLO targets were those other than the Soviet Union.

^[75] CCH oral history interview with Eugene Becker, 19 January 1999.

^[76] CCH oral history interview with Carl Dodd, 2 April 1999.

^[77] CCH oral history interview with William Pinchback, 25 January 1999.

^[78] CCH oral history interview with James Bostic, 4 November 1999.

^[79] CCH oral history interview with Vera Russell, 8 February 1999.