Index

Note: Page numbers followed by f indicate figures, and t indicate tables.

A

Absorptance 68–69, 68f
Accelerated aging testing 169, 177–184, 185t, 192t
abrasion test 182–183
for aluminum reflectors 188–192
CASS test 179
combined thermal cycling 181–182, 181–182t
condensation test 177
corrosive gases tests 183–184
damp heat test 177
erosion test 182–183
humidity freeze test 182, 183f
humidity test 177–179, 178f, 181–182, 181–182t
Kesternich test 180, 180f
NSS test 179, 179f
testing programs 184
thermal cycling test 180–181, 181f
UV test 177–179, 178f
Accelerated degradation mechanism 188
Accelerated erosion testing 192–197
field data about sandstorms 193–195, 194t, 195f
for laboratory experiments 195–197, 196f
Active IR thermography 211
Aerosols 261–265
basics 48
clear-sky model 259
explicit modeling 276–277
meteorological station 19
NWP 261–265
All sky imagers (ASI) 271–274, 272–273f
Aluminum mirrors 80, 80–81f
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) 159
ASME PTC 46 161–162
ASME PTC 52 161
Atmospheric corrosion testing 170

B

Ball Joint Assemblies (BJAs) 218, 218f
Beam characterization system (BCS) 131, 133–134
Beam down systems 9f, 11
Bellow fatigue test bench 240f
Bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) 223–225

C

CASS test  See Copper accelerated salt spray (CASS) test
CESA-1 tower facility 3–4, 4f
Charged coupled device (CCD) 131, 133–134
Circumsolar radiation 47
avg. sunshape, filled 47f
DNI measurements 46
sunshapes 46, 47f
Clear-sky model 259, 267
Clear white/low-iron glass mirrors 77
Climatic parameter monitoring 171–173, 172f
Codes and standards, CSP systems 162
AENOR UNE 206010 160–161
ASME PTC 46 161–162
ASME PTC 52 161
IEC TC 117 162
NREL performance acceptance guidelines 159–160
Collector structures 15–16, 16f
photogrammetric measurement 16f
Combined thermal cycling test 181–182, 181–182t
Component performance, CSP systems 
heliostat testing 220–222, 220f, 222f
receiver heat loss 209–213, 210–213f
receiver selective coatings 213–218, 215f, 217f
receiver solar absorptance 205–209, 206t, 206f
REPA testing 218–220, 218–219f
Concentrated solar power (CSP) systems 
applications 20–26
collector structures 15–16, 16f
concepts for 2f
design and components 5, 5–7f, 7t
flexible receiver connectors 17–18, 18f
history of 1–3, 3f
HTFs 16–17
hybrid plants 21–23
markets 23–26, 24–25f
meteorological station 19–20, 20f
performance of 7f
receiver 12–15, 14f
reflectors/mirrors 7–12, 8–12f
requirements 67
soiling evaluation 87–88, 88t
solar mirror 67
solar-only plants 20–21
support structures 15–16, 16f
test infrastructures 3–5, 4f, 26–27, 27f
Concentrator geometry 121–126
definitions 73
flux density measurement 126
line-focusing systems 74
local slope deviation 73
operational loads 124–125
PTC tracking deviation 124
RT 125–126
shape measurement methods 123
slope measurement methods 122–123, 122f
Condensation test 177
Confocal microscopy 173
Coordinate measuring machine (CMM) 123
Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service (CAMS) 259
Copper accelerated salt spray (CASS) test 179
Correlating accelerated aging tests 
accelerated aging methodology 188–192, 189–191f, 192t
accelerated erosion testing 192–197, 194t, 195–196f
methodology 187–197, 187f
Corrosive gases tests 183–184
CRS flux density distribution 
bidirectional reflectance distribution function 223–225
external receiver surface 223–225, 224f
input power measurement 222–228
raw brightness distribution 223, 224f
receiver/aperture plane 225–226
sensors scanning 225
simulation codes 227–228
stationary stripe-shaped target 226
Cumulative distribution functions (CDFs) 55–56

D

Damp heat test 177
Data acquisition system 150
Deflectometry 122
for heliostat fields 128–131, 129f
slope deviations 130, 131f
slope measurement 91–92, 91–92f
Degradation processes, analysis methods 
microscopic 173–175, 173–175f
optical 175–176, 176f
Deterministic forecast 255, 257–258
Diffuse horizontal irradiance (DHI) 19, 42
Diffuse reflectance 70, 70–71f
Direct model output (DMO) 265–266
Direct normal irradiance (DNI) 23, 39, 147–148, 207, 226
clear-sky model 259
distribution of 23, 24f
drivers for cost reduction 24–26, 25f
forecast verification 270f
installed capacity by technology type 24, 25f
irradiance forecast 274
meteorological parameters 48–49
NWP-based 259, 269–271
satellite- and model-derived 39
spatial verification 259
SZA 266
Direct Steam Generation (DSG) technology 4–5
DLR SolaRec test bench 205, 206f, 207
Durability assessment 
glass-to-metal seal and bellow 240, 240f
parabolic trough receivers 237–239
receiver materials 241–244
Dynamic models 229
linear Fresnel systems 231
receiver heat losses 212

E

Energy balancing 
flow rate 34, 34f
fluid-bound properties 32
HTF temperature 32–34
measurands and instrumentation 31–37
Energy conversion process 116
Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) 175, 175f
Erosion-sensitive CSP components 193
Erosion tests 182–183
EuroTrough-type collector 207, 209, 234–235
EuroTrough-type PTC 78–79, 121
deflectometry 136f
Extremely short-term forecasting  See Nowcasting

F

First-surface/front-surface reflector 76
aluminum mirrors 80, 80f
silvered polymer film mirrors 80–81
solar reflectors 79
Flexible receiver connectors 
ball joints/flexible hoses 17, 18f
linear Fresnel plant 18f
test bench 18f
Flow meters 147
Flow rate measurement 34, 34f
Fluid-bound properties 32
Flux density measurements 121, 126
heliostat beam characterization and tracking error 131–132, 132f
on receiver aperture plane by moving bar 132–134
Forecast(s)  specific forecast types
definition, time related terms 255f
horizon/forecast length 253, 254f
refresh rate 254
verification 256–259
Forecasting irradiances 259–271
Fossil-fired plants 115–117
Fuel saver 21–23

G

Gaussian flux distribution 225–226
Geometrical parameters, optical performance 
mirror shape 120
operational loads 121
receiver position 120–121
tracking deviation 121
Geometrical quality measurement 89–93
laser radar 93, 94f
slope measurement 91–93, 91–93f
3D measurement with photogrammetry 90, 90f
Global horizontal irradiance (GHI) 19, 42–43, 263
irradiance forecast 274
NWP forecasts 265
radiometric station 42f
Global-to-diffuse irradiance model 266
Gridded forecasts 255

H

Heat collecting element (HCE) 99, 210
Heat transfer fluid (HTF) 1, 16–17, 31, 136–137, 139, 147
CSP temperature 32–33, 32f
energy balancing 32–34
fluid temperature 32–33, 32f
mass flow rates 34
measurands and instrumentation 32–34
steam quality 36–37
thermophysical properties 35–36
Heliostat(s) 
designs 8, 8f
flux density distribution 222, 222f
focus image 8, 9f
performance testing 220–222, 220f
support structure 15, 16f
tracking characteristics 221
Hemispherical reflectance 71, 72f, 76f, 82t, 82f
High temperature receiver (HiTRec) 12, 241
Hindcasting 256
HTF  See Heat transfer fluid (HTF)
Humidity freeze test 182, 183f
Humidity test 181–182, 181–182t
Hybrid plants 
fuel saver 21–23
ISCCS 21, 23t

I

Incident angle modifier (IAM) 117, 231
Infrared thermography 
receivers, thermal quality of 210
solar field survey 210–211
Integrated solar combined cycle (ISCCS) power plants 2, 21, 23t
Intercept factor (IC) 119
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) 159, 162
International Energy Agency (IEA) 1, 84

K

Kesternich test 180, 180f
Kolmogorov–Smirnov test 258

L

Lambertian surface 70
Laminated silvered glass mirrors 79
Laser radar 93
deflectometric measurement 123
heliostat shape characterization 128, 129f
Laser reflection scanning 93, 93f
Light microscopy 173–174
Limited area models (LAMs) 261
convection schemes 262
NWP model resolution 262
Linear Fresnel systems 6–7, 10, 11f, 14
flexible receiver connectors in 18f
receiver of 15f
Line-concentrating collectors 
acceptance testing 228–231
dynamic performance 228–231
measured and modeled heat gain 230–231, 230f
PDPM 229–231
solar field model 229f
steady-state performance analyses 228
Line-focusing collectors 
optical measurement techniques 231–232
rotating platform images 236–237, 236f
Long-term forecasts 253, 255–256

M

Masdar Institute of Science and Technology (MASDAR) 171, 172f
Mean absolute deviation (MAD) 257–258
Medium-term forecasts 253, 254f, 265
Meteorological forecasts 
aerosols, explicit modeling of 276–277
assimilating cloud information 276
definitions 253–256, 254–255f
forecasting irradiances 259–271
forecast verification 256–259
nowcasting irradiances 271–275
NWP modeling 260–266, 269–271
postprocessing 266–268
rapid update NWP 276
soiling 277
Meteorological parameters 
additional parameters 48–50
circumsolar radiation 46–48, 47f
clouds and aerosols 48
CSP and in-situ measurement 39–50
irradiance measurements 42–45, 42f, 44f
solar irradiance 40–42, 40f
Meteorological station 19–20, 20f
Meteosat Second Generation (MSG) 274–275
Microscopic analysis 173–175, 173f
Mini Incus spectrophotometer 208
Mirror reflectance 149
Multiday production test 142–143
Moroccan Foundation for Advanced Science, Innovation and Research (MASCIR) 171, 172f

N

National Laboratory of Energy and Geology (LNEG) 171, 172f
National Solar Energy Institute (Institut National de l'Energie Solaire) (CEA-INES) 171, 172f
Natural degradation mechanisms 170, 173f, 188
accelerated aging tests 188
microscopic comparison 189, 189f
Neutral salt spray (NSS) test 179, 179f
Nondestructive heat loss measurement 108, 109f
direct (Joule) heating 108
end face configurations 107–108, 107f
heater configuration 106, 107f
parabolic trough receiver 106
thermocouple 108
Nowcasting 
ASI 271–274, 272–273f
definition 253, 254f
irradiances 271–275
satellites 274–275
statistical models 271
NSS test  See Neutral salt spray (NSS) test
Numerical weather prediction (NWP) 51, 254
aerosols 261–265
cloud fraction 263
DNI forecast accuracies 269–271
LAM 261
operational considerations on 265–266
principles 260–261, 260f
radiative transfer and clouds 261–265
re-analysis data sets 53

O

Optical analysis 175–176, 176f
performance loss 175
at silvered-glass mirrors 176f
Optical assessment tools, solar systems 119–136, 119f
applications 126–136
concentrator geometry measurement 121–126
geometrical parameters 120–121
Optical efficiency 83–89, 83–84f
Optical losses 117
physical effects 117–119
plane mirrors 10
Optical system performance 111f
airborne measurement 231–236
concentrator configuration 110–111, 110f
image acquisition 232
line-focusing technologies 231–232
nondestructive measurement 109
QFly measurement system 232f
spectrophotometric measurement 109–110
TARMES 233
UAV, flight path of 233, 234f
unmanned aerial vehicles 232
Orographic clouds 263
Output temporal resolution 266

P

Parabolic trough collector (PTC) 1–2, 5, 5f, 9, 10f, 23–24, 67, 74, 78–79, 81f, 90f, 119, 119f, 134–136
deflectometry 134–136
evacuated tube receiver 15f
mechanical properties 124–125
mirror support structure 16f
performance losses 7f
shape errors, visualization of 11f
statistical approach 125
target-based method 122
test uncertainty 150
TOP 123
tracking deviation 121, 124
Parabolic trough receivers 
aerial image 233f
aging tests 239
azimuth tracking platforms 237
bellow designs 99, 100f
components of 99, 100f
destructive and nondestructive methods 105
durability testing 240
glass-to-metal seal and bellow 99, 106, 240
overheating and thermal cycling 237–239
PDPM 229–230
screening methods 209
solar radiation 207
transmittance, of glass envelope 101, 102f
vacuum sputtering 101
Parabolic trough solar systems 115
Parameterized dynamic performance model (PDPM) 229–231
Passive IR thermography techniques 210
Performance assessment, CSP systems 39
energy balancing 31–37
individual performance indicators 39
measurement parameters for 31–39
performance ratio 39
performance relevant measurement equipment 38
site-specific soiling 50
standard/established performance indicators 39
standardization activities 58–61
system operation state 37–38
Performance test code (PTC) 146–147, 150–151, 157–158, 161–162
Photogrammetry (PG) 93, 123–124, 126
slope deviation 90f
spatial resolution 90
3D model 90
Physical vapor deposition (PVD) 174–175, 174f, 191
Pitting corrosion mechanism 188–190, 190f
Point forecasts 255, 264
Post-processing techniques 
classification 54
definition 54
satellite and re-analysis derived data sets 53–54
Power and energy, performance assessment 
application of 141
codes and standards 159–162
component testing 139–140
solar system performance 136–139, 143–153
test description 141–143
total plant performance 153–159
Power tower solar systems 115
Pressure measurements 35, 147
Probabilistic forecasts 257–258
PTC  See Parabolic trough collector (PTC); Performance test code (PTC)
Pyrheliometer 148

Q

QFly measurement system 
optical system performance 232f
slope deviation value 234f

R

Radiative transfer, parameterizations 261–265
Radiometric station 43
Rapid-update model cycles (RUC) 276
Ray-tracing (RT) 125–126
analyses 74, 75f
flux density distribution 222, 222f, 227
simulation 221–222, 227f
Re-analysis datasets 256
NWP models 53
post-processing techniques 53–54, 54f
Receiver 
heat loss 209–213, 210–213f
linear Fresnel 14, 15f
parabolic troughs 13, 15f
selective coatings 213–218, 215f, 217f
solar absorptance 205–209, 206f, 206t
towers 12, 14f
Reference meteorological years (RMY)  See Typical meteorological years (TMY)
Reflectance 68–69, 68f
definitions 69–73
diffuse 70, 70–71f
hemispherical 71
measurement 84–87
solar 71–73, 72f
spectral 71
specular 69–70, 70f
specularity 71
in thick-glass reflectors 79
Reflectometers 86–87, 87f
Reflectors/mirrors 
beam down systems 9f, 11
dish/engine systems 10, 12f
linear Fresnel systems 10, 11f
parabolic trough systems 9, 10f
secondary concentrator technology 12, 13f
tower systems 8, 8–9f
Regional/mesoscale models 261
Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) 147
Root mean square deviation (RMSD) 257–258
DNI forecasts 268
NWP models 264
Rotary Flex Hose Assemblies (RFHAs) 218, 218f
Rotating shadow band irradiometer (RSI) 19, 44, 44f
advantages 45
calibration of 45
disadvantages 45
nonuniform spectral responsivity 45
pyranometer 44
Rotation and expansion performing assembly (REPA) 
BJAs and RFHAs 218f
DLR-CIEMAT sketch 219, 219f
reliability and durability 218
RT  See Ray-tracing (RT)

S

Satellite-based cloud motion tracking 275
Satellite-derived solar radiation data sets 51–53
Scanning electron microscope (SEM) 174, 174f
Schott-type bellows 99
Secondary concentrator technology 12
in REFOS receiver testing 13f
Second-surface reflector 76
definition 77
laminated silvered glass mirrors 79
silvered thick-glass mirrors 77–78, 77–78f
silvered thin-glass mirrors 78–79, 79f
Short-term forecasts 253–254, 254f
Short-term steady-state test 140–142
Silvered polymer film mirrors 80–81
Silver reflectance 75f, 76
Slope measurement 
with deflectometry 91–92, 91–92f
with laser reflection scanning 93, 93f
Snell's law 73
Solar collector 115–116
SolaRec test bench 207
Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS) 2–3, 99
Solar field 
components of 7, 7t
infrared thermography 210–211
Solar flux density distribution 223
Solar irradiance 40–42
components of 40f
DNI measurements 41–42
extraterrestrial solar radiation 40
radiative flux density 40
thermopiles 43
Solar mirrors 
concentrating optics and processes 68–75
definition 67–68
materials and configurations 75–81, 76–82f, 82t
measurement and assessment 82–93, 83f, 86f, 88t, 90f
Solar-only plants 20–21
Solar power plant performance 115–117, 136–139
boundary description 143–144, 143f
instruments 146–150
thermal calculations 144–146
thermal efficiency 152–153, 153f
uncertainty 150–152
Solar radiation 99, 101
data sets 51–53
NWP models 51
satellite retrieval methods 52
Solar (solar-weighted) reflectance 71–73, 72f
Solar reflectors 76, 89, 91–92
accelerated aging test 186
for CSP 67, 84–85
durability analysis 89, 170
first-surface mirrors 79
optical efficiency 83
reflective metals 75
shape quality evaluation 73–74
specular reflectance 70, 84
Solar resource assessment 39–58
CSP and in-situ measurement 39–50
DNI 39
measurement practices and quality control 50–51
meteorological variables 54–57
post-processing techniques 53–54
solar radiation data sets 51–53
Solar resource data sets 51–53
NWP models 53
satellite-derived data sets 51–52
Solar share (SS) 156
Solar simulators 110–111, 110f
Solar system thermal calculations 144–146
outlet temperature 145
thermal efficiency 145–146
thermal energy output 146
thermal power output 144–145
wind speed and direction measurement 148
Solar Thermal Electric (STE) Plants 59, 59–60t
cumulative capacity 25f
drivers for cost reduction 25f
Solar Thermal Electricity (STE) 25f
Solar thermal power tower plants 115–116, 126–134, 127–128f
AENOR UNE 206010 160
coatings for tubular receivers 244
dish concentrators 241, 242f
durability testing 241–244
electricity test 139
guidelines and standards 244–245, 245–246t
receiver materials 241–244
SiC volumetric receiver test 241–242, 242f
thermal cycling tests 241, 243f
volumetric silicon carbide receivers 241–243
Spatial interpolation 267–268
Spectral reflectance 71
Spectrophotometers 106
advantages 85
disadvantages 85
optical properties 85
Perkin Elmer Lambda 1050 86, 86f
specular and hemispherical reflectance 85–86
Specularity 71
Specular reflectance 69–70, 70f
State-of-the-art concentrating solar systems 35, 121
acceptance angle 149
numerical RT 125–126
power cycle 139
Steady-state calorimetric measurement 214, 215f
Steam generation system 136–137, 139, 147
Steam quality 36–37
Stratiform clouds 263–264
Sun zenith angle (SZA) 266
Support structures 15–16, 16f
Surface/component temperature 33–34
System operation state 37–38
availability and focusing 37
cleanliness 37–38
System performance measurements, CSP systems 115–119
CRS flux density distribution 222–228
input power measurement 222–228
line-concentrating collectors 228–231, 229–230f
line-focusing collectors, rotating platforms 236–237, 236f
losses during energy conversion 117–119, 118f
optical assessment tools 119–136, 119f
optical measurement techniques 231–236, 232–235f
of power and energy 136–162, 138f
solar power plant performance 115–117, 116f
SZA  See Sun zenith angle (SZA)

T

Target-based deflectometry 122
TARMES  See Trough Absorber Reflection Measurement System (TARMES)
Temperature 32–34
HTF temperature 32–33, 32f
sensors 33
surface/component temperature 33–34
Temporal interpolation 267–268
Temporal resolution 254, 268
Thermal cycling test 180–181, 181f
Thermal efficiency 145–146, 151–153, 153f
Thermal energy storage (TES) system 160
Thermal losses 117, 119
physical effects 117–119
of receiver 119
Thermocouples (TCs) 147
Thermophysical properties, of HTF 35–36
density 35
heat capacity 36
viscosity 36
TMY  See Typical meteorological years (TMY)
Total plant performance 158
boundary description 153–155, 154f
calculations 155–157
conduct and evaluation of tests 157–158
electrical test considerations 158–159
Tower receivers 12, 14f
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) 174–175, 174f
Transmittance 68–69, 68f
Trough absorber reflection measurement system (TARMES) 122, 122f, 233
Typical meteorological years (TMY) 55–56
CDFs 55–56
exceedance values 54–58
Finkelstein-Schafer (FS) parameters 55–56
stochastic assessment and probability 56–57

U

Ultraviolet (UV) test 177–179, 178f
Unpolarized reflectance 69

V

Very short-term forecasts 253, 254f
Video scanning Hartmann optical test system (VSHOT) 93, 123
Visual inspection techniques 209–210
Volumetric flow rate measurement 34

W

Water-cooled Gardon flux gauges 225–226
Whole receiver assembly 205, 214, 216–218
World Meteorological Organization 253
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