- Developer’s Library
- Title Page
- Copyright Page
- Dedication
- Contents at Glance
- Table of Contents
- Acknowledgments
- About the Author
- We Want to Hear from You!
- Reader Services
- Introduction
- 1. Getting Started with C++
- 2. Setting Out to C++
- Features of the main() Function
- C++ Comments
- The C++ Preprocessor and the iostream File
- Header Filenames
- Namespaces
- C++ Output with cout
- C++ Source Code Formatting
- Declaration Statements and Variables
- Assignment Statements
- A New Trick for cout
- Using cin
- Concatenating with cout
- cin and cout: A Touch of Class
- Using a Function That Has a Return Value
- Function Variations
- User-Defined Functions
- Using a User-Defined Function That Has a Return Value
- Placing the using Directive in Multifunction Programs
- 3. Dealing with Data
- Names for Variables
- Integer Types
- The short, int, long, and long long Integer Types
- Unsigned Types
- Choosing an Integer Type
- Integer Literals
- How C++ Decides What Type a Constant Is
- The char Type: Characters and Small Integers
- The bool Type
- Writing Floating-Point Numbers
- Floating-Point Types
- Floating-Point Constants
- Advantages and Disadvantages of Floating-Point Numbers
- Order of Operation: Operator Precedence and Associativity
- Division Diversions
- The Modulus Operator
- Type Conversions
- auto Declarations in C++11
- 4. Compound Types
- Program Notes
- Initialization Rules for Arrays
- C++11 Array Initialization
- Concatenating String Literals
- Using Strings in an Array
- Adventures in String Input
- Reading String Input a Line at a Time
- Mixing String and Numeric Input
- C++11 String Initialization
- Assignment, Concatenation, and Appending
- More string Class Operations
- More on string Class I/O
- Other Forms of String Literals
- Using a Structure in a Program
- C++11 Structure Initialization
- Can a Structure Use a string Class Member?
- Other Structure Properties
- Arrays of Structures
- Bit Fields in Structures
- Setting Enumerator Values
- Value Ranges for Enumerations
- Declaring and Initializing Pointers
- Pointer Danger
- Pointers and Numbers
- Allocating Memory with new
- Freeing Memory with delete
- Using new to Create Dynamic Arrays
- Program Notes
- Summarizing Pointer Points
- Pointers and Strings
- Using new to Create Dynamic Structures
- Automatic Storage, Static Storage, and Dynamic Storage
- The vector Template Class
- The array Template Class (C++11)
- Comparing Arrays, Vector Objects, and Array Objects
- 5. Loops and Relational Expressions
- Parts of a for Loop
- Back to the for Loop
- Changing the Step Size
- Inside Strings with the for Loop
- The Increment (++) and Decrement (--) Operators
- Side Effects and Sequence Points
- Prefixing Versus Postfixing
- The Increment/Decrement Operators and Pointers
- Combination Assignment Operators
- Compound Statements, or Blocks
- More Syntax Tricks—The Comma Operator
- Relational Expressions
- Assignment, Comparison, and a Mistake You’ll Probably Make
- Comparing C-Style Strings
- Comparing string Class Strings
- Program Notes
- for Versus while
- Just a Moment—Building a Time-Delay Loop
- Using Unadorned cin for Input
- cin.get(char) to the Rescue
- Which cin.get() Should You Use?
- The End-of-File Condition
- Yet Another Version of cin.get()
- Initializing a Two-Dimensional Array
- Using a Two-Dimensional Array
- 6. Branching Statements and Logical Operators
- The if else Statement
- Formatting if else Statements
- The if else if else Construction
- The Logical OR Operator: ||
- The Logical AND Operator: &&
- Setting Up Ranges with &&
- The Logical NOT Operator: !
- Logical Operator Facts
- Alternative Representations
- Using Enumerators as Labels
- switch and if else
- Program Notes
- Program Notes
- Text I/O and Text Files
- Writing to a Text File
- Reading from a Text File
- 7. Functions: C++’s Programming Modules
- Defining a Function
- Prototyping and Calling a Function
- Multiple Arguments
- Another Two-Argument Function
- How Pointers Enable Array-Processing Functions
- The Implications of Using Arrays as Arguments
- More Array Function Examples
- Functions Using Array Ranges
- Pointers and const
- Functions with C-Style String Arguments
- Functions That Return C-Style Strings
- Passing and Returning Structures
- Another Example of Using Functions with Structures
- Passing Structure Addresses
- Program Notes
- Recursion with a Single Recursive Call
- Recursion with Multiple Recursive Calls
- Function Pointer Basics
- A Function Pointer Example
- Variations on the Theme of Function Pointers
- Simplifying with typedef
- 8. Adventures in Functions
- Creating a Reference Variable
- References as Function Parameters
- Reference Properties and Oddities
- Using References with a Structure
- Using References with a Class Object
- Another Object Lesson: Objects, Inheritance, and References
- When to Use Reference Arguments
- Program Notes
- An Overloading Example
- When to Use Function Overloading
- Overloaded Templates
- Template Limitations
- Explicit Specializations
- Instantiations and Specializations
- Which Function Version Does the Compiler Pick?
- Template Function Evolution
- 9. Memory Models and Namespaces
- Scope and Linkage
- Automatic Storage Duration
- Static Duration Variables
- Static Duration, External Linkage
- Static Duration, Internal Linkage
- Static Storage Duration, No Linkage
- Specifiers and Qualifiers
- Functions and Linkage
- Language Linking
- Storage Schemes and Dynamic Allocation
- Traditional C++ Namespaces
- New Namespace Features
- A Namespace Example
- Namespaces and the Future
- 10. Objects and Classes
- What Is a Type?
- Classes in C++
- Implementing Class Member Functions
- Using Classes
- Changing the Implementation
- Reviewing Our Story to Date
- Declaring and Defining Constructors
- Using Constructors
- Default Constructors
- Destructors
- Improving the Stock Class
- Constructors and Destructors in Review
- Class Scope Constants
- Scoped Enumerations (C++11)
- 11. Working with Classes
- Adding an Addition Operator
- Overloading Restrictions
- More Overloaded Operators
- Creating Friends
- A Common Kind of Friend: Overloading the << Operator
- Using a State Member
- Overloading Arithmetic Operators for the Vector Class
- An Implementation Comment
- Taking the Vector Class on a Random Walk
- Program Notes
- Conversion Functions
- Conversions and Friends
- 12. Classes and Dynamic Memory Allocation
- A Review Example and Static Class Members
- Special Member Functions
- Back to Stringbad: Where the Copy Constructor Goes Wrong
- More Stringbad Problems: Assignment Operators
- The Revised Default Constructor
- Comparison Members
- Accessing Characters by Using Bracket Notation
- Static Class Member Functions
- Further Assignment Operator Overloading
- Don’ts and Dos
- Memberwise Copying for Classes with Class Members
- Returning a Reference to a const Object
- Returning a Reference to a Non-const Object
- Returning an Object
- Returning a const Object
- Looking Again at new and delete
- Pointers and Objects Summary
- Looking Again at Placement new
- Overloading the << Operator
- Conversion Functions
- Classes Whose Constructors Use new
- A Queue Class
- The Customer Class
- The ATM Simulation
- 13. Class Inheritance
- Deriving a Class
- Constructors: Access Considerations
- Using a Derived Class
- Special Relationships Between Derived and Base Classes
- Developing the Brass and BrassPlus Classes
- Pointer and Reference Type Compatibility
- Virtual Member Functions and Dynamic Binding
- Things to Know About Virtual Methods
- Applying the ABC Concept
- ABC Philosophy
- Case 1: Derived Class Doesn’t Use new
- Case 2: Derived Class Does Use new
- An Inheritance Example with Dynamic Memory Allocation and Friends
- Member Functions That the Compiler Generates for You
- Other Class Method Considerations
- Public Inheritance Considerations
- Class Function Summary
- 14. Reusing Code in C++
- The valarray Class: A Quick Look
- The Student Class Design
- The Student Class Example
- A New Version of the Student Class Example
- Containment or Private Inheritance?
- Protected Inheritance
- Redefining Access with using
- How Many Workers?
- Which Method?
- Multiple Inheritance Synopsis
- Defining a Class Template
- Using a Template Class
- A Closer Look at the Template Class
- An Array Template Example and Non-Type Arguments
- Template Versatility
- Template Specializations
- Member Templates
- Templates As Parameters
- Template Classes and Friends
- Template Aliases (C++11)
- 15. Friends, Exceptions, and More
- Friend Classes
- Friend Member Functions
- Other Friendly Relationships
- Shared Friends
- Nested Classes and Access
- Nesting in a Template
- Calling abort()
- Returning an Error Code
- The Exception Mechanism
- Using Objects as Exceptions
- Exception Specifications Meet C++11
- Unwinding the Stack
- More Exception Features
- The exception Class
- Exceptions, Classes, and Inheritance
- When Exceptions Go Astray
- Exception Cautions
- What Is RTTI For?
- How Does RTTI Work?
- Misusing RTTI
- 16. The string Class and the Standard Template Library
- Constructing a String
- The string Class Input
- Working with Strings
- What Else Does the string Class Offer?
- String Varieties
- Using Smart Pointers
- Smart Pointer Considerations
- Why unique_ptr Is Better than auto_ptr
- Selecting a Smart Pointer
- The vector Template Class
- Things to Do to Vectors
- More Things to Do to Vectors
- The Range-Based for Loop (C++11)
- Why Iterators?
- Kinds of Iterators
- Iterator Hierarchy
- Concepts, Refinements, and Models
- Kinds of Containers
- Associative Containers
- Unordered Associative Containers (C++11)
- Functor Concepts
- Predefined Functors
- Adaptable Functors and Function Adapters
- Algorithm Groups
- General Properties of Algorithms
- The STL and the string Class
- Functions Versus Container Methods
- Using the STL
- vector, valarray, and array
- The initializer_list Template (C++11)
- Using initializer_list
- Program Notes
- 17. Input, Output, and Files
- Streams and Buffers
- Streams, Buffers, and the iostream File
- Redirection
- The Overloaded << Operator
- The Other ostream Methods
- Flushing the Output Buffer
- Formatting with cout
- How cin >> Views Input
- Stream States
- Other istream Class Methods
- Other istream Methods
- Simple File I/O
- Stream Checking and is_open()
- Opening Multiple Files
- Command-Line Processing
- File Modes
- Random Access
- 18. Visiting with the New C++ Standard
- New Types
- Uniform Initialization
- Declarations
- nullptr
- Smart Pointers
- Exception Specification Changes
- Scoped Enumerations
- Class Changes
- Template and STL Changes
- The rvalue Reference
- The Need for Move Semantics
- A Move Example
- Move Constructor Observations
- Assignment
- Forcing a Move
- Special Member Functions
- Defaulted and Deleted Methods
- Delegating Constructors
- Inheriting Constructors
- Managing Virtual Methods: override and final
- The How of Function Pointers, Functors, and Lambdas
- The Why of Lambdas
- The function Wrapper and Template Inefficiencies
- Fixing the Problem
- Further Options
- Template and Function Parameter Packs
- Unpacking the Packs
- Using Recursion in Variadic Template Functions
- Concurrent Programming
- Library Additions
- Low-Level Programming
- Miscellaneous
- The Boost Project
- The TR1
- Using Boost
- Appendixes
- A. Number Bases
- B. C++ Reserved Words
- C. The ASCII Character Set
- D. Operator Precedence
- E. Other Operators
- F. The string Template Class
- Default Constructor
- Constructors That Use C-Style Strings
- Constructors That Use Part of a C-Style String
- Constructors That Use an Lvalue Reference
- Constructors That Use an Rvalue Reference (C++11)
- Constructor That Uses n Copies of a Character
- Constructor That Uses a Range
- Constructor That Uses an Initialization List (C++11)
- Memory Miscellany
- The find() Family
- The rfind() Family
- The find_first_of() Family
- The find_last_of() Family
- The find_first_not_of() Family
- The find_last_not_of() Family
- Methods for Appending and Adding
- More Assignment Methods
- Insertion Methods
- Erase Methods
- Replacement Methods
- Other Modifying Methods: copy() and swap()
- G. The Standard Template Library Methods and Functions
- H. Selected Readings and Internet Resources
- I. Converting to ISO Standard C++
- J. Answers to Chapter Reviews
- Index
- Footnotes
18. Visiting with the New C++ Standard
In this chapter you’ll review C++11 features previously covered and then learn about the following:
• Move semantics and rvalue references
• Lambda expressions
• The function wrapper template
• Variadic templates
This chapter concentrates on the new C++11 changes to the C++ language. The book already has covered several C++11 features, and we’ll begin by reviewing them. Then we’ll look at some additional features in some detail. Next, we’ll identify some of the C++11 additions that are beyond the scope of this book. (Given that the C++11 draft is over 80% longer than C++98, we won’t cover everything.) Finally, we’ll briefly examine the BOOST library.
C++11 Features Revisited
By now you may have lost track of the many C++11 changes we already have encountered. This section reviews them briefly.
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