Chapter 20. The role of content management
This chapter discusses the different ways to manage your content through authoring tools, many types of content management systems (CMSs), workflow, and delivery tools.
Authoring tools
Before content can be managed, manipulated, or reused, it must be created. Authoring tools enable authors to create that content. To support a unified content strategy, authoring tools must allow content to be written so it can be structured and reused according to the content lifecycle you identified earlier.
An overview of authoring tools
Authoring tools are among the oldest and most mature tools available for the desktop. The dominant authoring tool on the market is Microsoft Word, which has become almost ubiquitous. However, there are still many other tools, all with different capabilities, strengths, and weaknesses. There are also an increasing number of XML authoring tools on the market. Additionally, many of the traditional tools are adding or have added XML capabilities. For the purposes of this discussion, authoring tools are broken into two types:
• Traditional word processing and page layout tools
• Structured editors
Traditional word processing and page layout tools
If you plan to stay with traditional tools, you should understand what they are, as well as what they’re capable of doing. There are really four types of traditional tools: word processing tools, page layout tools, hybrids that combine the functionality (to some degree) of both word processor and page layout tools, and web authoring tools.
• Word processing tools were originally designed as memo and letter authoring tools; they are focused on authoring. They have been designed to make it easy to enter text and apply formatting.
• Page layout tools typically have had weak text entry capabilities; instead, they rely on importing text from word processors. Their focus has been on formatting content for page layout. Page layout tools are the tools of creative services and they have tremendous typographical control for exacting output standards.
• Hybrids are a cross between word processors and page layout tools, typically designed to manage long documents. Their text editing capabilities are better than page layout tools, but not always as complete as word processors. Their formatting capabilities are better than word processors, but not as good as the page layout tools.
• Web authoring tools are designed to enable authors to create web content. They are usually based on custom-designed templates that match the organization’s requirements and provide rudimentary formatting capabilities. Because authors are not creating large documents, web authoring tools don’t always have features like search and replace or tables.
Structured editors
If XML is part of your authoring environment, you have the option of using structured editors as your authoring tool. Structured editors enforce the structure of content, typically based on a model such as a DTD (Document Type Definition). There are XML-aware tools (traditional tools with integrated XML), native XML editors (editors that allow authors to create and produce content directly in XML), and other editors that enforce structure in different ways.
There are four types of structured editors:
• Full function editors
A full function editor is based on XML as its data format and it provides the equivalent functionality of something like Microsoft Word, but for XML. It includes spell checkers, table tools, book building tools, and all the usual functions that authors expect to see, but it enforces the structure of content as that content is entered and uses XML. Usually, full function editors provide a WYSIWYG view of the text that is familiar to most authors: a view that shows the structure of the content (displays tags and hierarchy), and a full XML view that displays the XML.
• Simple XML editors
A simple XML editor is a capable editor, but includes only the functionality for the basic entry of text and XML markup. It does not include any of the book-building tools of traditional or full function tools. It might be more suited to programmers than authors.
• XML-aware tools
XML-aware tools attempt to combine the ease of use of a traditional word processor or desktop publishing tool with the power of XML. They embed XML functions directly in the familiar authoring tool so the interface looks much like the one that authors are used to, but provides XML as the output.
• Forms-based authoring systems
Forms-based authoring tools are usually provided as optional functionality on XML-based CMSs. They are used to create web-based HTML forms that provide text entry capabilities. They are most effective for simple structures. Form-based authoring can also provide benefits to geographically dispersed content creation teams or individuals with special remote access needs.
Capabilities and requirements for structured content
When deciding what you want an authoring tool to do, it’s vital that you consider the needs of authors, not just the interests of the tool evaluators. Too often, solutions are chosen based on an incomplete interpretation of what authors need, not their true needs. That means you have to talk to the authors and determine their real authoring needs (refer to Chapter 9, “Analyzing the content lifecycle”). You also have to look at your unified content lifecycle vision to determine what kind of authoring functionality you will need to support the vision (refer to Chapter 11, “Envisioning your unified content strategy and lifecycle”).
When you evaluate authors’ needs, you may find that you need different tools for different groups throughout the enterprise. You will probably have casual authors who submit content occasionally, authors who submit content on a continuous basis, and authors who compile and configure content into multiple information products. Even authors who submit content frequently have different needs; some contribute small pieces of information with simple structures and others create large, complex information products.
Familiarity
Given that people do not always accept change easily, there can be an advantage to sticking with the tools they know. The main advantage of traditional word processing tools is that they are familiar to most employees. Tools like Microsoft Word are very common on the corporate desktop and authors have become accustomed to their look and their functionality.
Structured authoring tools, on the other hand, have been around for many years, but have not gained the same popularity. The tools with embedded support have a familiar interface, but the technology and the technological concepts behind the interface are new. For other XML tools, both the interface and the concepts will be new to authors.
If you are dealing with casual, nontechnical authors, there is a distinct advantage to staying with a familiar tool. With the release of Microsoft Office 2007, the entire Office suite was XML-enabled by Microsoft. This means that your authors can continue to work in their familiar Office products and have the content converted to your XML structure. However, note that authors do need to use styles and adhere to specified structures.
Technical complexity
Traditional authoring tools are easy for even casual authors to use. That is not the case with most structured editors. In selecting a structured editor, a key factor to consider is how much of the underlying technology is exposed to authors. Do you have them edit the codes directly, or do you hide the code from them?
Of course, if you do choose XML, you have additional options. Since XML is markup that is application-independent, you can select different authoring tools for different groups of authors in your organization. Authors with very simple authoring tasks can use an editor with simple editing functionality. Authors who have more complex authoring tasks will need a more complex tool. Structured editors range from simple file editing tools (that is, tools that are used for editing a file but have no capacity for book building) to full function tools that include all the usual capabilities of standard authoring tools.
Structural and stylistic control
The biggest disadvantage to traditional word processing and page layout tools is that they offer too much flexibility. They do not prevent authors from creating new styles or applying formatting to suit their own views of how information should look on the page. The result is inconsistent formatting and style names. There is also no built-in functionality to ensure that authors include all the components required for the information product they are writing. In other words, there is nothing to enforce structure. Style names imply structure only. Users can easily ignore the styles and format directly.
Documents created with traditional word processing and page layout tools might all look alike on the surface, but they may not look alike “under the covers” with authors manually creating the look-and-feel rather than using consistent style tags. This process is inefficient for authors and has a major effect on conversion to other formats; content that is not consistently formatted (tagged) cannot be automatically converted to another format. It requires manual cleanup. An alternative is to enforce formatting and structure through policy and procedure (editorial or review), but such reviews are never 100 percent effective. The result is inconsistency. Inconsistency means unpredictability, which is a killer for reuse and multichannel output.
Structured editors do not have the same problems with format. As the name suggests, the focus of structured editors is on the structure of the document. Most structured editors provide the ability to attach a stylesheet to documents, which serves primarily to provide a certain comfort level for authors. The obvious advantage of structured editors is that they use XML, with great advantages for reuse (see Chapter 19, “The role of XML”). More importantly, structured editors are capable of reading and enforcing a DTD or schema. At their simplest, structured editors allow authors to validate the structure of a document by identifying any structural errors in the document, including when components are not allowed or when they are missing.
Some editors do not allow authors to insert invalid elements of structure. For example, they would not allow authors to insert a table in a title. The most capable tools provide authors with drop-down lists or menus of elements that are valid in the document. As authors move the cursor around the document from element to element, the drop-down menu changes to show the valid elements. This capability prevents authors from entering tags where they are not allowed. This type of structured editor does not allow authors to make structural mistakes.
Separation of format and content
Traditional tools make it easy for authors to make documents look good and, in doing so, they have turned authors into desktop publishers. But from the perspective of reuse, this is not a good thing for many reasons.
Word processors and desktop publishing tools helped to make documents very attractive and, potentially, more usable. Authors enter the characters that form the content, then select them and apply the formatting. For reuse, you need to remove this formatting to make the content device independent, then apply formatting that is appropriate to each intended use. Stripping and reapplying formatting always requires correction by hand or complicated scripting.
XML does not have this problem. The presentation information (styles) is maintained in separate files that can then be associated with the document when it is published or used.
Integration with a CMS
While authors can create content, save the content, and then check the file(s) into a CMS, it’s preferable to have the authoring tools integrated directly into the CMS. This means that when authors select File > Open, the authoring tool automatically goes to the CMS to select content and when authors do a File > Save, the content is automatically saved to the CMS and any version control information is gathered. In addition, if your organization has decided to use automatic reuse, it is important that the content be automatically populated to the document open in the authoring tool.
To pick authoring tools, whether for department use or for enterprise use, you must start by developing a list of criteria to match prospective solutions against. The authoring tool you choose for your department, division, or company should be picked based on its ability to meet specific criteria. These criteria should definitely include functionality, but must also take into account broader concerns like price, environment, and the capabilities of your authors.
Content management systems
Content management is an integral component of a successful unified content strategy and selecting the right CMS can be a lengthy investigational process.
One of the hardest decisions is selecting the type of CMS to use. To help you make this choice, this chapter outlines the many types of CMSs and their advantages and disadvantages.
Understanding content management
Content is created in an authoring tool and then saved into the CMS. Content may be saved as individual components, after which the metadata is added (see “Metadata” later in this chapter). Within the CMS, content is managed and then delivered to the appropriate channel.
Segmentation/bursting
To assist authors in writing contextually, content can be authored in documents or components, but content may be reused at a much more granular level (for example, step or paragraph). Before being stored in the CMS, content is broken apart into its individual components and then stored. The process of breaking content into its element parts is called segmentation or bursting.
You define the level of segmentation in a segmentation map or bursting map. For example, you may decide that content should be saved as individual components only at the third-level head, but not within the content of the section that is contained under the third-level head. Alternatively you may decide that content needs to be broken down at each element. Organizations often have different segmentation maps for different types of content.
Metadata
Metadata may be applied to the content in the authoring tool or it may be applied to the content as it is checked into the CMS. Wherever possible, you want metadata automatically applied to the components of content.
The management system
The management portion of the CMS manages the content through such features as access control, check in/check out, and version control.
Access control
Access control secures content and identifies who can read, create, modify, and delete content.
Access is based on roles. For example, you may determine that authors can create, modify, and delete their own content, editors can only modify content, designers can modify templates but not content, and others can only view (read) content.
Certain components may be accessible only to a certain group (for example, marketing can access all content, but engineering can only access their own materials). Check to ensure that you can set access control at any level of granularity. If the information product is secured at a specific level, then all the content in the information product should be secured at the same level of security as well.
If content is reused and secured at one level in one document, the access control should automatically be the same level wherever it is reused. You may decide to have individual component access control levels as well as container and information product model access control levels. For example, the company logo has no security restrictions associated with it. But for an audit report, the company logo is restricted to senior management viewing only (restricted viewing at the information product level). In an information product where the viewing of the logo is not restricted (for example, a brochure), anyone can view that component. The logo element takes on the restriction of the information product where it is reused.
Version control
Version control ensures that each time content is checked in, another version (copy) is created and is assigned a new version number. This ensures that content will never be accidentally overwritten and that every change can be tracked. It also enables you to use multiple versions of the same content in different situations (for example, more recent versions of products where the previous version is still being supported). Reviewers like to look at previous versions of content to see what has changed and to ensure that changes have been correctly incorporated.
It’s important to be able to version each component, not just at the information product level. It’s also important to be able to version an entire approved information product as it is delivered (for example, an instance of the website as it was posted on a particular date, the final version of a report, the latest version of the brochure). In this way you can easily identify the information product with all its individual components as it existed on a specific day for tracking, legal, or retrieval purposes, or go back to that version rapidly. Sometimes this version is called a released version, the delivered instance, or in the case of a website, an edition.
Updates
Reused content can be updated in a number of ways. Authors who reuse the content can select which type of update they want the reusable content to have. There are three types of updates available:
• Automatically update
Automatically updates the reused component when the original (source) component is changed. This means that authors who reuse the content are not notified; instead, the content is automatically updated. Automatic update can save a lot of time for authors since they do not have to check and verify that they want to reuse the content. However, an automatic update could cause problems. The update may not be relevant or correct in the reuse situation. Automatic update could then result in incorrect information.
• Optionally update
The CMS notifies authors of the changes so they can decide if they want to update the component or not. This helps authors ensure that the update is relevant to them, but requires them to review the update and decide to accept or reject it.
If the original component is updated, the reused component will not be updated and authors will not be notified if the original component changes. The reused component now exists as a separate component (similar to copy and paste). This option should be discouraged unless there is a good reason for the choice (for example, branching of information) since content will diverge and become inconsistent over time.
Authors reusing the content are responsible for determining what type of update they want on the reused components. The system default is usually “optionally update.”
Check in/check out
When authors want to work on content, they check it out (sign it out) and check it back in again when they are finished with it. This ensures that only one person is working on the same content at any one time and that multiple people cannot concurrently change (or save) the content and create a conflict (which version is correct?) or even destroy the version that was saved by the first person. It’s possible to check out previous and current versions of content; when changes occur to both versions, the content branches. This should be discouraged unless it’s absolutely necessary (for example, a product that starts off as one product then splits into two products) because it could cause confusion or inaccuracies if the wrong version of the content is used.
Search and retrieval
Good search and retrieval functionality is important in ensuring that authors can easily find and retrieve content for reuse and delivery. It should be possible to search and retrieve content based on individual components, containers, and whole information products. Full-text retrieval searches on the text of the content. Metadata can be used to narrow the focus of the search.
Archive
Previous versions of content that are finalized and approved but no longer current should be archived (stored). Content is archived based on a set of rules that specify the period of time in which the content is considered to be valid or accurate. The CMS can automatically delete expired content or can prompt a manager to review the content and determine if it should be archived.
Translation
Managing content in multiple languages becomes important if you translate your content. It’s not enough just to store the multiple language versions of your content; you must ensure that the CMS can create a relationship between your source language (original language) and the localized content. A relationship between the source language and the localized content ensures that when the source language changes, the localized content is identified (using metadata) as requiring new translation. Without a relationship between the source language and the translated content, managing the identification of change is very time-consuming and error-prone.
Many organizations use memory translation tools to assist in the translation process. It’s advantageous for the CMS to integrate directly with a translation memory tool to further facilitate the translation process (for example, the translators can retrieve content directly from the CMS rather than having to extract the content, send it to the localization firm, and then reintegrate the translated content).
The types of content management systems
One of the hardest decisions to make about content management is which type of CMS makes the most sense to purchase. There are many different types of CMSs that focus on many different content lifecycles. Web content management is the most familiar type of CMS but there are a number of other types of content management. Each type of CMS has its advantages and disadvantages. In this section we describe the types of content management.
Web content management systems
The term content management system has become synonymous with web content management systems. There have been document management systems for over a decade, but it was the advent of the Web and the issues of managing large websites that popularized content management and content management systems.
Web content management systems (WCMSs) assist an organization in automating various aspects of web content creation, content management, and delivery. Delivery to the web is its primary format, but many WCMSs also deliver to mobile.
Advantages
The interface and functionality of a WCMS are designed to support website creation and management content lifecycle, and to provide strong support for collaborative authoring, testing, and controlled delivery of content to a website.
Typically, WCMSs include their own authoring tool, either an HTML editor or web-based forms. Some provide an automatic conversion of content from traditional authoring tools into HTML that can be processed by the WCMS.
Authoring and management is managed in stages with authors working in their own content work area to create content, view and review the content, and test functionality. When content has been approved, it’s moved into a staging area where it’s assembled according to your design and integrated with content from other work areas. When content in the staging area is approved, an edition (version) of the content is created. This edition can then be posted to the site to replace existing content. The editions can be archived so that if there is a problem (for example, error introduced to the site) content can be rapidly rolled back (returned) to a previous edition.
Support of the web content lifecycle is very valuable to organizations as it ensures that content is thoroughly reviewed and tested before it is delivered to the site. It also ensures that only content that meets certain criteria is posted to the site, which prevents problems of incorrect content or content that does not function (for example, error 404). A WCMS can also hold content until a specific date when it becomes effective and can automatically remove content from the website when the content has expired (no longer current/relevant).
Personalization is also a strong component of many WCMSs supporting dynamic creation of content. Personalization enables the WCMS to provide personalized content to users.
Delivery to the Web and often to mobile devices is directly integrated in the WCMS, unlike a paper-oriented CMS where an additional publishing tool is often required.
Disadvantages
A WCMS is designed to create, manage, and deliver web-based content and potentially mobile content only. In an enterprise environment where paper and the complexities of paper (for example, sophisticated page layout and support of table of contents [TOC] and index) are required, a WCMS fails to meet these needs.
In addition to the lack of support of other types of content, the level of granularity of reuse may be insufficient for your requirements. Granularity of a web page is supported and often granularity of components within a web page is supported, particularly if the WCMS also provides personalization functionality. However, functionality like conditional reuse and granular content that can be exchanged among different types of content is rarely supported.
If the WCMS relies on an HTML editor or forms for input, the complexities of other types of content will not be supported.
The majority of WCMSs are not XML-based systems. They can sometimes import XML and possibly export XML, but they tend not to manage XML in its native format. Instead a WCMS manages XML as just another file type.
If you plan to create an enterprise unified content strategy with a wide variety of information products support and a variety of channels, a WCMS is probably not the best solution for you. Treat the Web as a channel and manage your content elsewhere.
Transactional content management systems
A number of CMSs have been specifically designed to manage eCommerce transactions (B2B or B2C). Transactional CMSs (TCMSs) are focused on managing the exchange of money over the Web and product eCatalogs. They typically integrate with legacy systems for inventory, pricing, and shipping. In addition, they provide shopping cart functionality that enables customers to select products for purchase and track the cost of their potential purchases.
Most TCMSs manage transactional information and provide full WCMS capability.
Advantages
TCMSs’ greatest strengths are their strong support of eCommerce interactions and their ability to interface with legacy systems for the transfer of product information.
Disadvantages
Like a WCMS, a TCMS is web-based only and does not support the requirements of enterprise content.
A TCMS can be one of your channels but should not be your primary content management system.
Document management systems
Document management systems (DMSs) have been around much longer than WCMSs. Document management systems have traditionally managed enterprise documents (for example, correspondence, reports, publications). A DMS can interface with multiple types of authoring tools to manage multiple types of content. However, unless the content is converted internally to a common format, it cannot be reused among different types of content.
A DMS can deliver content in the original source format (for example, Word in, Word out), frequently convert to other formats (for example, Word in, HTML out), and produce PDF versions of content.
A common function of many DMSs is the imaging of content. Many organizations require the ability to image paper-based content that comes in from an external source (for example, customer correspondence, patient records), and then manage that image as they would their other content.
DMSs have gained widespread acceptance in organizations where security of content and strong control of content are required (for example, organizations that produce products regulated by government or agencies). To support this usage, many DMSs have very robust audit trails (clear history of what has occurred for every piece of content, who made the change and why, and the series of authorizations the content has gone through). They may also include electronic signatures to securely verify authorization of content.
Some DMSs may have CRM (customer relationship management) and web content management components.
Advantages
DMSs have been around much longer than any other type of CMS so the interface is stable. In addition, the vendors that sell them tend to be financially stable.
DMSs are very strong on traditional content management (check in/check out, version control, access control, workflow, archiving, and audit trails).
Some provide the ability to deliver publications and web content.
Disadvantages
Because DMS tools have come from the document management world, they do not always provide effective component content management. While most can output HTML, not all support the web content lifecycle.
Because DMSs have come from the document management world, they typically do not provide good support for a unified content strategy.
Component content management systems
A component content management system (CCMS) manages content at a granular (component) level, rather than at the page or document level. Each component represents a single topic, concept, or asset (such as an image or table). Components are assembled into multiple content assemblies (content types) and can be viewed as components or as traditional pages or documents. Each component has its own lifecycle (owner, version, approval, use) and can be tracked individually, or as part of an assembly. A CCMS is typically used for multichannel, customer-facing content (marketing, usage, learning, support). A CCMS can be a separate system or a functionality of another content management type (such as an enterprise content management system).
A CCMS can come in five “flavors”: dedicated, web, publishing, learning content management, or enterprise.
Dedicated
Dedicated systems developed out of the technical documentation industry’s requirement for multichannel publishing—first to print and help; then to print, help, and web; and now also to mobile devices. Component management was built into these systems to address not only the specific requirements of multiple channels, but more importantly, differences in product, platform, audience, and content type. Many of these systems have existed for more than a decade, working first with SGML, and now with XML.
Note that these systems typically publish to HTML or produce websites, but they do not have the capability to manage such functionality as deployment, dynamic personalization, or more generalized website management.
Dedicated CCMSs have component content management down to a fine art, managing multiple levels of granularity, complex reuse, reuse governance, and integration with multiple systems for content/data integration and publication.
Web component content management
Component-oriented web content management systems (WCCMs) are full-fledged web content management tools that have a component orientation rather than a page orientation. They usually have the capability of publishing to multiple channels—including print—but rarely can manage complex print projects. Most WCCM system vendors regard their products as WCMSs.
Publishing
Publishing-oriented component content management systems (PCCMSs) are designed to meet the needs of the publishing industry. Content is managed as native XML and content as components.
PCCMSs are designed with the publishing workflow in mind. They support internal and external authors, the copyediting lifecycle, and publication to both composition tools for print layout and eBooks. They can interface with traditional word processing tools and structured editors.
They can typically publish to HTML, though they are not designed to manage websites. Most also publish to mobile.
Consider a PCCMS when your primary focus is print books and eBooks.
Learning content management systems
Learning component content management systems (LCCMSs) are designed assist in the creation, management, and delivery of learning materials. They support the complete process of content authoring, content management, reuse, workflow, and delivery. They are XML-based and support the creation of print-based materials like ILT (instructor-led training), PowerPoint slides, eLearning, and mobile. They have a simple-to-use interface that makes it easy for instructional designers to create structured content.
For more information, refer to the section below on learning content management systems.
Enterprise
There are often situations where component content management needs to span the enterprise. Technology that can meet enterprise requirements could be an ECM system that can handle component content management, or it could be a component content management system that can support enterprise content. The numbers of vendors that can do this is still small, but it is possible to find a few that do. To be successful at component content management, an enterprise system must:
• Manage XML, not as just another file type, but recognize and use the structure of XML to manage the content.
• Manage content components.
• Support content reuse at a fairly granular level (i.e., smaller than a component), track reuse, manage derivatives, and move components through workflow.
• Support multichannel publishing.
Consider an enterprise system with a component content management focus when your content needs to bridge departments (silos) in the enterprise.
Learning content management systems
Learning content management systems (LCMSs) are content management systems that support the web-based learning materials content lifecycle and the components of learning content (for example, text, graphics, simulations, multimedia).
An LCMS supports text-based content, but it also supports multimedia components (sound, video, animation). Many of these tools are actually web-based learning authoring tools combined with a content management system that handles traditional CMS functionality, reuse, and delivery. In addition to standard web-based authoring, the LCMS may include tools for the creation of simulations and animations.
Traditional learning content management systems are dedicated to eLearning and do not publish well to any other channel.
Some LCMSs contain learning management system (LMS) functionality such as registration, course tracking, and evaluation, but most integrate with a separate LMS.
Advantages
LCMSs were specifically designed to manage the learning content management lifecycle. No other CMS can currently handle this lifecycle effectively. LCMS vendors have been working hard to implement SCORM to ensure that their customers can create reusable eLearning materials.
An LCMS can deliver the functionality of an eLearning authoring tool with the added functionality of a content management system.
Disadvantages
Like WCM systems, LCM systems have been specifically designed to manage web-based eLearning content. A few provide paper output but it is very rudimentary.
The LCMS is a closed environment. The vendors assume that authors will author only in the tool and not need to accept content from other systems, nor share content with another type of content management system. Therefore, this means that it is very difficult to share reusable content with other content areas in the organization.
Enterprise content management systems
Many WCM and some DMS vendors have started to use the phrase enterprise content management (ECM) to describe their products. As organizations have looked around and said web content management is good, but we need to manage other types of content as well, vendors have begun to respond with ECM systems.
The meaning of enterprise content management varies from vendor to vendor, with vendors approaching ECM in different ways. Some now provide XML-based systems that can interface with XML-based publishing tools to provide paper output, while others have continued to focus on web-based delivery but now include eCommerce functionality or customer relationship management functionality. Some have simply incorporated PDF delivery. Some DMS vendors now support more robust web delivery and call themselves enterprise content management systems.
Advantages
ECM vendors support a broader-based content management lifecycle.
Disadvantages
There is currently no consistency in what is called an enterprise content management system. The increased functionality may or may not meet your enterprise content management needs.
Other
There are other types of content management systems, but they usually do not address the requirements of a unified content strategy.
Customer relationship management (CRM) systems collect and integrate customer information. They manage information such as customer contact information, products and configurations of products they have purchased, the kinds of questions they have asked, and buyer profiles. When integrated across an enterprise, CRM systems can allow the company to consistently present one face to the customer and work toward improving customer retention. These systems tend to manage data, but they often need to share data and content among other systems in the organization.
Database versus CMS
Content management systems use a database for storing content. Frequently, organizations consider whether a database alone is sufficient for their requirements.
You could use a database for storing your content and many organizations do, but a database provides only a portion of the functionality of a content management system. A database begins life as a blank slate where there is no structure, no functionality, no interface until you create it. Think of the CMS as a user interface to the database. A CMS provides a tremendous amount of functionality out of the box such as:
• Predefined content repository model
• Support for content relationships
• Built-in reports (such as where used, history, relationships)
• Simplified creation of metadata
• Pre-configured system triggers (for example, notification of change)
• Version control
• Access control (security)
• Integration with authoring tool(s)
• Workflow
To recreate and maintain this functionality could be more costly then purchasing an off-the-shelf product.
Can one CMS do it all?
Can one content management system meet all your enterprise content requirements? Unfortunately the answer to this question is “maybe.” As you can see by the description of the many types of content management systems available, they each have their advantages and disadvantages. And, each type of CMS supports different content lifecycles.
We recommend that you select a component content management system. If one of the different types of CCMSs can meet the majority of your needs, then select that type of system. Treat your web content as a channel only. Do not manage source content in your WCMS. You still need a WCMS to manage all the functionality but consider storing your source content in a CCMS and pushing it to a WCMS.
The key to a single solution is the ability to share content among the CMS, the authoring tools, and the delivery tools. If your organization has chosen to use XML, this can greatly facilitate the sharing of information. If you haven’t chosen to use XML, but your CMS can import content from a variety of authoring tools, combine the content appropriately (for example, convert into a common format), and then provide appropriate reusable content back to the authoring tools, you might be able to use a single solution.
If your organization decides to go with “best of breed” tools, like a web content management tool that is really good at creating web content but poor at creating paper content, you still have to share information among content management systems. After all, the key to a successful unified content strategy lies in the ability to share content. Effective sharing of content requires the systems to interpret content as it moves from system to system. Interpreting content is dependent on:
• Common information models (structures)
• Common ways of tagging content (style/structure tags)
• Common metadata
Workflow systems
Workflow systems are critical in a unified content strategy because they help to ensure that content flows smoothly through the content lifecycle. Workflow systems make sure that everybody contributes their required content, that content is reviewed and approved at the necessary stages, and that it is delivered to its various outputs. Rather than relying on manual processes, workflow systems automate them, handling the interrelationships among processes and tracking the status of the project at any given time. Workflow systems allow work to be assigned, routed, approved, acted upon, and managed using system-controlled rules that you set up when you design your workflow. (For more information about designing effective workflow, refer to Chapter 14, “Designing workflow”.)
Workflow systems may be included as part of the CMS you select or they may be stand-alone systems. If your CMS has workflow included, it’s particularly important to ensure that it meets your needs. Sometimes embedded workflow systems are specific to only one application of content or they may be more rudimentary than stand-alone systems.
Creation
The creation component enables workflow authors (for example, content strategists, business analysts) to create and test workflow processes. Creation typically consists of:
• Process flow creation
Workflow authors create graphical representations of the workflow, selecting from predefined interactions (for example, print) or creating new interactions if required.
• Process testing
Workflow authors can simulate a process using test data. Testing workflow under a variety of circumstances before implementing it can be extremely beneficial.
• Ability to learn
Some workflow tools learn from user interactions, creating new workflows based on their analysis of user processes. The automatically created workflows can then be reviewed for validity and usefulness by your organization. This capability is not the norm in most workflow systems and it’s not a must-have; it’s nice to have. By identifying repetitive processes, the workflow system can help to point out areas where workflow could be automated.
Processing
The processing component of a workflow system activates and manages workflow, handling such things as routing work based on rules you set up when you design workflow.
Routing
Routing moves work through the workflow system. For example, once content is identified as ready for review, it is automatically routed to the reviewers or reviewers are notified that the content is ready for review so they can link to it. Work can be routed in a number of ways:
• Sequential
Sequential routing moves work through the workflow in a linear fashion. As a step is completed, work is automatically routed to the next step in the process. For example, content that is identified as ready for review is automatically routed to reviewers. Sequential routing is the simplest form of workflow.
Rules-based routing enables the system to determine how to route content based on logic. For example, if this is content for Product X, it should be routed to the Product X reviewers, but if it is for Product Y, then it should be routed to Product Y reviewers. Rules-based workflow enables the system to make intelligent decisions about how to handle work based on certain conditions. Rules also assist in handling exceptions. For more information, see “Rules” later in this chapter.
• Parallel
Parallel routing routes work simultaneously, so one part of the work isn’t delayed while another part is completed. For example, content for a new brochure can be assigned at the same time as the graphics; the graphics don’t have to wait for the content to be finished. However, you may want to include a “wait” step at the end of the parallel processes before the work continues through the flow. For example, if graphics are completed before the content, you could include a wait step to hold the graphics until the content is complete so they can be integrated for review.
• Ad hoc
Ad hoc workflows do not follow a set of rules. Instead, they involve human decisions. Ad hoc workflow is the least used, but can be useful to assist in onetime or unplanned situations. For example, if you have to issue an addendum immediately to announce a change in staff, or to correct a problem users are having with a product, ad hoc workflow lets you route content only to where it’s needed immediately, bypassing others. Ad hoc workflow is also useful when it’s not possible or necessary to apply a rule to a decision.
Rules
Rules define what happens under what circumstances. They determine how content and tasks are routed through workflow. For example, when content has been identified as “ready for review” (that is, the author has selected “ready for review” metadata), that content is either routed automatically to the reviewers, or reviewers are notified that content is ready for them to review. The rule may look something like:
if metadata= “ready for review” then step 3
Exceptions to the rule
Rules should also include exceptions to the normal situation. An exception to the rule tells the system how to process a task when it does not meet all the requirements to continue through the workflow. For example, what happens if three reviewers have been assigned to review some content, two reviewers have completed the review, and the third is on vacation?
The exception tells the system to automatically route the content to an alternate reviewer. What happens if that reviewer is off sick and no one else is identified as a reviewer in the workflow processes? If the rule states explicitly that content must have three reviews completed before it can move to the next stage in the workflow process, the content will be delayed until a third reviewer is available. An exception could state that if a third reviewer is unavailable, the content must be routed as though it had three reviews, or it must be routed to a manager to decide if the two reviews suffice.
Administration
The administration portion of the workflow system is where all activity is tracked. Administration matches roles to tasks, assigning who—or which system—does what, it manages security (who can see or do what), deadlines, and reporting when tasks are done.
Players (roles assignment)
In a unified content strategy, different people (players) perform various tasks at different stages in a process, and the workflow system must keep track of who is responsible for what. For example, some players create content while others review it and approve it. In a workflow system, the system itself is also a player (for example, once the content is approved the system may initiate an action to deliver the content to the website automatically).
While players perform many of the steps in the process, it is important to be able to assign a role to an action or a step rather than a person. Many players can then be assigned to a role and a change in a player will not require a change to the workflow. For example, Fred Turnbull was responsible for the final approval for all Product X information. He has been promoted to general manager and is now responsible for final approval of the entire product suite. Rather than changing the workflow to indicate his changed title, he is just removed from the Product X approver role and assigned to the Product X Suite approver role. The tasks stay with the role, not the person.
To move workflow along, it’s also beneficial to assign more than one player to a role. That way, if the first person is unable to perform a task, workflow moves the task to the next person whose role is assigned to that task. For example, Nancy Smith is the senior graphic artist who creates graphics for all Product X’s web-based information products. If she is on vacation when a request comes through for some new graphics, the workflow system identifies that she is unavailable and routes the request for graphics to Michael Hotley, another graphic designer associated with that role.
Security and electronic signature
Just like content, workflow should have security assigned to it. It should be possible to apply a security level to any part of a workflow to control who can create, modify, delete, and view a workflow. Security can apply to:
• Players
• Groups
• Roles
• Workflow
• Steps
• Tasks
• Objects
Security controls who can start a workflow process, handle an exception, view reports, or change priorities.
Electronic signatures may be a part of security. An electronic signature, like a traditional signature, indicates that work has received some level of sign-off or approval. The ability to use/apply an electronic signature should be strictly controlled. Electronic signatures are particularly important in regulated industries.
Deadlines and escalation
Within a workflow system, each step or activity has a deadline assigned to it. If the deadline is missed, a series of actions should occur (for example, send reminder messages, escalation). Escalation actions can route the issue to a supervisor or manager to ensure that the action is completed and does not hold up the process. For example, imagine that content has been routed to three reviewers, and two of the reviewers have completed their reviews and returned their comments but the third has not. The system sends the reviewer reminder messages that get increasingly more demanding. After the third reminder the reviewer’s manager is notified that the review has not been completed and the number of days the review has been delayed. The manager speaks directly to the reviewer and the reviewer completes the review that day.
Deadlines can be defined to occur after a certain period of time elapses (duration), or can prompt the user to enter a deadline. A workflow system can define different deadlines at different levels, including:
• Step
The step is assigned a duration deadline (for example, three days) or a specific date of completion.
• Task
The entire task can be assigned a duration or date of completion. This means that the individual steps do not have a specific duration, but the entire task must be completed after a certain period of time has elapsed or by a specific date.
Sometimes you may find that one workflow process needs to take precedence over another process. It’s important to be able to change the deadlines to reprioritize the processes.
Reporting
You can create reports to monitor the status of a process as well as individual and group performance (for example, how long does it take to create a new web page?) Reports can also be automatically generated at a specific point in the workflow. For example, a report detailing who worked on a document, how long it took at each stage, and any missed deadlines could be automatically generated and routed to management as soon as a document is approved.
Workflow systems typically provide a variety of reports. Sample reports include:
• Deadline reports identify upcoming deadlines and deadlines that have been missed.
• Work-in-process reports track what steps have been completed, the location of outstanding items, and whether or not a process is on schedule. Work-in-process reports can also determine the volume of work and any backlog in processes.
• Exception reports identify where exceptions have occurred and the frequency of their occurrence. Repeated exceptions may indicate that the workflow needs to be revised to avoid further exceptions.
• Workload balance reports identify how much work a player in the process has waiting to be addressed. The report can assist managers in identifying if one player has too much work while another has insufficient work, so the workload can be rebalanced. If the workload balance is frequently too high or low, it can identify that new rules need to be put in place to avoid these problems in the future.
Delivery
The design and organization of information is a key factor in creating a unified content strategy. But without a capable delivery engine, a unified content strategy is just an exercise in data collection. To turn your data into usable content, you must assemble it, format it, and deliver it to your user community, whenever and however they need it.
Delivery systems have many different capabilities. The content management system may have built-in facilities for delivering content, or you may have to integrate a delivery system with your content management system. Some delivery systems will enable you to deliver to a variety of outputs (for example, web, HTML, PDF), while others may be restricted to a single output.
Some delivery mechanisms reside on the desktop; others are server-based and are available to everyone. Some delivery systems can interface with content management systems, web servers, portal servers, and other systems.
Capabilities
To determine the type of delivery system you need, you must first understand the range of capabilities available in current products. Products may have all or some of the following capabilities:
• Transformation
• Conversion
• Distribution
• Assembly
• Automation
You need to ask the right questions when you are selecting a delivery system that will meet the needs of your authors and the requirements of your unified content strategy.
Transformation
In the past, information was typically delivered to a single channel. It was designed for that channel and republished each time the information changed. That is no longer the case. With the popularity of web-based publishing, information is typically output to multiple channels, including HTML, print, and mobile. The content may be identical, with format optimized for the channel. Or, the content may be tailored for use in the output channel. Whatever the channel, a key function of any delivery system is the transformation of information from its stored format to the required channel. Delivering unified content requires the ability to publish not only to traditional outputs (for example, paper and web), but also to XML, PDF, and mobile.
Output support
An obvious first question is what output formats are supported by the delivery system:
• PostScript?
• PDF?
• HTML?
• XML?
• Microsoft Word?
The next question to ask is whether the tool supports output to multiple formats for a single publishing request? For example, can you create a PDF version and an HTML version with a single request?
XSL support
Most, if not all of the big delivery systems will support some form of XSL, the XML formatting and transformation language. It is actually their support of XSL that gives many engines their apparent power.
In the rush to get market share, companies frequently develop their products in advance of the standard; they develop a product base on what they think the standard will be. Sometimes their interpretation is not correct. Or, vendors will support part of the standard—the part that’s easiest to implement—and save the complicated stuff (frequently the most valuable functionality) for later versions.
You should think carefully about any delivery engine that supports only a part of the XSL standard or that supports the vendor’s own version of the standard. XSL is growing in popularity by leaps and bounds. Systems that do not fully support XSL now will be forced to play catch-up with functionality, assuming that XML and XSL maintain their current growth in popularity.
You should also think twice about a delivery engine that does not support XSL. There are processing engines that support other style languages, but they are limited in flexibility.
Automation
Gone are the days of big publishing departments, which took files from authors, cleaned them up, and published them to the required output. Today’s enterprise model features centralized, automated publishing. Authors submit a file directly or by setting a workflow flag, and the required output is generated automatically.
Summary
Before content can be managed, manipulated, or reused, it must be created. Authoring tools enable authors to create that content. To support a unified content strategy, authoring tools must allow content to be written so that it can be structured and reused according to the content lifecycle you identified earlier.
A content management system controls your content through workflow, access control, and version control. There are a number of different types of content management systems depending on the content to be managed (for example, web, document, component, learning).
Workflow systems make sure that everybody contributes their required content, that content is reviewed and approved at the necessary stages, and that is delivered to its various outputs. Workflow systems automate them, handling the interrelationships among processes and tracking the status of the project at any given time.
To turn your data into usable content, you must assemble it, format it, and deliver it to your user community, whenever and however they need it. Delivery systems have many different capabilities. The content management system may have built-in facilities for delivering content, or you may have to integrate a delivery system with your content management system. Some delivery systems will enable you to deliver to a variety of outputs (for example, web, HTML, PDF) while others may be restricted to a single output.
Authoring
While authors can create content and convert it to the format of choice, it is preferable to use a tool that will minimize the amount of conversion required and will aid authors in the authoring process.
There are two types of authoring tools for your system: traditional word processing or page layout tools and structured editors.
There are four types of traditional authoring tools: word processing tools, page layout tools, hybrids that combine the functionality (to some degree) of both word processor and page layout tools, and web authoring tools.
There are also different kinds of structured authoring tools. There are XML-aware tools (traditional tools with integrated XML), native XML editors (editors that work natively in XML), and other editors that enforce structure in different ways.
Content management
Content management is an integral component of a successful unified content strategy. There are many different types of content management systems:
• Web content management systems (WCMSs) assist an organization in automating various aspects of web content creation, content management, and delivery. Delivery to the web is its primary format, but many WCMSs also deliver to mobile devices.
• Transactional content management systems (TCMSs) assist an organization in managing eCommerce transactions.
• Document management systems (DMSs) assist an organization in managing enterprise documents and content.
• Component content management systems (CCMSs) manage content at the component level and support reuse. There are multiple varieties of CCMSs including dedicated, web component content management, publishing, learning content management, and enterprise.
• Learning content management systems (LCMSs) assist an organization in managing the web-based learning content lifecycle.
• Enterprise content management systems (ECMSs) vary in their functionality. Some support both the web and publications content lifecycles, while others support the web content lifecycle and either transactional content or customer relationship management content.
Workflow
Workflow systems consist of three major parts: creation (enables you to create and test a workflow), processing (activates and manages workflow), and administration (tracks workflow).
The creation component of a workflow system enables you to create graphical representations of the workflow, test the workflow using test data, and may provide the ability to learn from user interaction and automatically create automated workflow.
In the processing component of a workflow system, work is routed using sequential, rules-based, parallel, and ad hoc workflow routings. Rules define what actions should be taken at each step.
The administration component of a workflow system provides the capability to define roles, assign security to different components of a workflow, and set deadlines for each action in a workflow. Reports enable you to monitor the status of a process as well as individual and group performance.
Delivery engine
The delivery engine is an integral component of a successful unified content strategy. You need to understand the basic capabilities of the systems that exist.
Basic capabilities include:
• Transformation
• Conversion
• Distribution
• Assembly
• Automation