Numbering Systems
Numbering systems are used with outlines, tables of contents, and headings to display a document’s organization and allow readers easy access to parts of the document. The two basic numbering systems are the traditional outline system and the decimal system. See OUTLINES and TABLES OF CONTENTS.
Traditional System
Traditional outlines use the following numbering and lettering conventions:
Decimal System
In the decimal system, successive dots or periods indicate levels of subordination:
Note: The title “Decimal System” is a handy label, but it is not quite accurate. This numbering system does not use mathematical decimals.
To prevent confusion with traditional decimals, some publications use a raised dot: 1.1.1 or 2.2
1. Use the decimal system for most outlines, especially if your outline will be the basis for headings in a longer document.
The decimal system is preferable in lengthy documents with a multitude of numbered subsections. For example, a reader seeing heading number 6.3.5 knows that the heading is in chapter 6, subsection 3, and additional subsection 5. Traditional outlines would only have a 5, which is not a clear indicator of chapter or subsection.
2. Use no more than four or five numbered subheadings in documents.
Even four or five levels is often confusing. Additional subheadings can be unnumbered and with format options:
Soil Types. In the Lornack Allotment, most soils are . . .
Numbering Systems and Punctuation
In the traditional system, a period or a single right parentheses always follows the outline number or letter:
In the decimal system, two or more spaces follow the number. No punctuation is used after the number:
Numbers
Numbers can be written out or can appear as figures, depending on the size of the number, what it stands for, and how exact it is. The stylistic conventions for number usage vary, so you will find conflicting suggestions from one dictionary or style guide to the next. The recommendations that follow are based on the current standard practice for technical and scientific writing.
1. Use numerical figures for any number expressing time of day, measurement, or money:
3 a.m.
$15
45 ft
1 in.
8 cm
34.17 m
Measurement includes length, weight, volume, velocity, and other units of measurement.
Figures are easier to read and are remembered more accurately and longer than their spelled-out versions. Rules 2 through 12, which follow, present instances where rule 1 may not apply, however.
2. Write out numbers if they are below 10. If they are 10 or above, use figures:
five systems
15 systems
three mission capabilities
14 mission capabilities
two technicians
22 technicians
NOTE 1: Regardless of the number’s size, use figures if they are followed by a unit of measurement (see rule 1):
5 pounds
2 yards
1 kilometer
NOTE 2: In nontechnical writing, writers often write out numbers less than 100—for example, thirty-five, seventy-one, eighty-nine. Note the hyphens in these written-out forms. See HYPHENS. Writing out numbers less than 100 avoids overemphasizing double-digit numbers in nontechnical documents, which typically contain few numbers.
3. Write out numbers that begin a sentence:
Thirty-three patients were involved in the double-blind tests.
Twelve inches from the centerline are two slots for plate fins.
Four years ago, we initiated an IR&D study of argon-atmosphere braze furnaces.
The last two examples do not use figures even though they are followed by units of measurement. Rule 3 overrules rule 1.
4. Rewrite sentences beginning with a very large number:
not this
363 times a second the oscillator receives a signal from the bit generator.
nor this
Three hundred sixty-three times a second the oscillator receives a signal from the bit generator.
this
Every second, the oscillator receives 363 signals from the bit generator.
5. Use figures to express approximations that are based on experience, evidence, or both:
about 3,000 samples
approximately 60 applicants
roughly 2 cubic feet per second
over 3 million orders this quarter
NOTE: While some editors would retain the written out forms in the above examples, others (notably the U.S. Government Printing Office Style Manual) prefer numerals with such words as nearly, about, around, and approximately. Use your judgment. Figures convey a greater sense of precision than words. Thus, figures may seem to contradict the idea of approximating.
6. Write out approximations that are obvious exaggerations for effect:
That computer is not worth two cents.
The boss received a thousand telephone calls today.
His mother told him a million times to clean up that mess.
7. Use a combination of letters and figures for very large round numbers (1 million or greater):
We have invested over $45 million on laser research in the last 5 years.
Our annual IR&D budget exceeds $16 million.
8. Be consistent.
Treat numbers of the same type equally within a sentence, paragraph, or section. However, never begin a sentence with a figure:
this
Unit A will require 5 outlets; Unit B, 17 outlets; Unit C, 9 outlets; and Unit D, 14 outlets.
not this
Unit A will require five outlets; Unit B, 17 outlets; Unit C, nine outlets; and Unit D, 14 outlets.
______________
this
Seven of the stations carry 39 spare controllers. The other 14 stations carry only 8 spares.
not this
7 of the stations carry 39 spare controllers. The other 14 stations carry only eight spares.
nor this
Seven of the stations carry thirty-nine spare controllers. The other fourteen stations carry only eight spares.
nor this
Seven of the stations carry 39 spare controllers. The other fourteen stations carry only 8 spares.
The sentence cannot begin with a figure, so seven must be written out. The 14 stations uses figures because 14 is greater than 9; so the two references to stations cannot be consistent. The number 39 is too large to write out, so both of the numbers referring to spare controllers are written as figures, although 8 is less than 10.
9. Use figures for quantities containing both whole numbers and fractions:
The proposal calls for 8H- by 11-inch paper.
See FRACTIONS.
10. Always use figures for percentages and decimal fractions:
The rectangular fins are 0.07 in. high.
The maximum core diameter is 2.54 mm.
The tests require an 8 percent solution.
NOTE: In the last example, 8% would also be acceptable, although many style guides prefer that writers use the percent sign only in tables and visual aids. In accounting and other financial documents, the percent sign is common in text. See DECIMALS and SIGNS AND SYMBOLS.
11. Always use figures for dates:
June 14, 2010
14 June 2010
the 14th of June 2010
June 2010
NOTE: If you use the preferred U.S. style (month-day-year, as shown in the first example above), always separate the day and year with a comma. The second example shows the alternate style: day-month-year, with no punctuation.
The third example is wordy but still acceptable in some contexts, such as in legal documents.
If you write only month and year (as in the last example above), use no punctuation. Separating the month and the year is unnecessary. See COMMAS, PUNCTUATION, and LETTERS.
12. Form the plural of a number expressed as a figure by adding a lowercase –s:
before the 1970s
temperatures well into
the 100s the 5s represent actual strikes
NOTE: Plurals of numbers written out are formed like the plurals of other words:
in the twenties
groups of threes or fours
See PLURALS.
13. Use a comma to separate groups of three digits:
55,344,500
10,001
9,999
678
NOTE 1: In some technical fields, the preferred style is to omit the comma separating digits in numbers only four digits long:
5600
9999
NOTE 2: A practice outside the United States is to use a space instead of a comma to separate groups of three digits:
7 143
98 072.1
1 742 600 503
See METRICS.
Online Documentation
Online documentation includes any information designed to appear on an electronic screen, from a stadium-wide flat screen to a pocket-size mobile phone screen. Designing how each screen will appear and deciding how multiple screens will link with each other are key design issues.
Designing for a screen is a visual problem. Elsewhere in this Style Guide, we emphasize that document design (visualization) is a key step in the writing process. Design is even more important when information is to appear on a computer monitor. Screen designers have to choose icons, fonts, margins, frames, colors, and other visual tools. Many of these tools are similar to those used in the design of a page of printed text. See PAGE LAYOUT.
Electronic screens are not the same as sheets of paper or a printed document. Although screen resolution is improving all the time, block of text on a screen is often more difficult to read than the same text printed on a page. Also, online documents exist in cyberspace. Unlike the pages of a book, Web pages are not sequentially numbered and can be accessed in any order.
Furthermore, an online document is rarely truly finished and might need constant updating. In the case of open-ended websites such as Wikipedia, virtually anyone can comment on or even change the content at will. More and more, online documents are actually conversations. With the explosion of social media, this trend will increase. See ELECTRONIC MAIL.
Every day, more business and technical professionals are designing online information in the form of websites, blogs, and videos. The following rules are only general suggestions for designing these media. If you need more detailed guidance, you will find a wealth of useful “dos and don’ts” in a quick search of the Web.
1. Decide on the best online medium for your message.
Business, consumer, and technical users of the Internet are usually looking for quick solutions, and the faster your message fills their need, the better. Regardless of how beautiful or flashy, your online document fails if users can’t get what they want from it. Choose your medium and design based on user needs.
For example, users learning a complex process will benefit from a carefully designed website rich with illustrations. On the other hand, a user who wants to do a simple task will prefer a short video demonstration. An academic research audience will expect abundant links to sources, while a shopper looking for a certain pair of shoes just wants to see a picture with a “buy” button next to it.
2. Survey or profile potential online users as to how they will likely use the online documentation.
A survey means that you go directly to users and ask them questions such as those listed below. A profile, in contrast, means that you use existing information to compile probable answers to the same list of questions.
Whether you use an actual survey or existing information, you should have answers to the following questions before you begin to design online documentation.
—Who are the users? Their job titles? Their experience? Their knowledge?
—What hardware will be available for each user? What applications? What connectivity?
—When and how often are users likely to want to access the information?
—What information are they most interested in finding?
—What biases or assumptions will they bring to the task of finding information?
—What provisions are there for updating the information?
—Will users want to print the information? Do you want them to be able to do that?
Answers to these questions will enable you to design a usable document. Without these answers, you will probably end up frustrating users. For example, one of the most common complaints of website users is their inability to compare the prices of a product or service among suppliers. You must carefully weigh the possibility of driving frustrated customers away against the disadvantage of revealing your prices to competitors.
3. Create a map of your entire document and its major sections.
Too often designers spend more effort on individual Web pages than on the design of the whole website. Another trap is to get hung up on colors, font sizes, and other details before getting clear on bigger issues: the structure of the website, the main sections, titles, and relationship to other websites. Developing an overall map of your site or document should be one of your earliest tasks (following your survey of users, as described in rule 2).
Usually, the map consists of a “wireframe,” a prototype that contains all the key features of the website, including headings, menus, graphics, and application interfaces.
Prototyping saves time and money because it allows for early reviews of the website concept. Circulating the wireframe for review brings to the surface issues you could not by yourself anticipate. Get reviews from as many interested parties as possible, including prospective users of the website. See WRITING AND REVISING for guidelines on how to prototype a document and conduct reviews.
Reviewers of the wireframes in figure 1, for example, will raise issues about the advantages of one alternative design over another. They will test the concepts with potential users. They might come up with a third alternative and then test it in the same way.
Figure 1. Two Wireframe Examples. The designers of a mobile-phone career-planning app conceived these wireframes as alternatives for a site map.
As you design the wireframe, keep in mind that users want to find things with as few clicks as possible. This is a guiding principle for online documentation: the more clicks, the more likely users will abandon your site.
Visually display your chosen option in a site map that will make navigation simple and quick. Include an overall navigation menu bar on each screen of an online document. Figure 1 shows wireframe examples of site maps and navigation bars.
As the main purpose of designing a wireframe is to get input from reviewers, include explanatory information in the wireframe where necessary. In figure 2, the designers insert callouts to explain the features of the wireframe.
Figure 2. Wireframe With Explanatory Callouts. The text on the side explains for reviewers the purpose or function of the app features.
4. Design your screens so that content items are clear, consistent, and predictable.
Clarity arises from making sure that you don’t overload a screen or Web page with too much information and too much text. Beyond a certain point, users will be overwhelmed if you try to pack too much information into a single screen.
Font size should be no smaller than 9 or 10 points, and be sure to choose a proportionally spaced typeface (and one that is not too ornate so as to be difficult to read). For maximum ease of use, column width should generally not exceed 600–800 pixels. This will avoid forcing users to read wide swaths of text or to scroll sideways. Typically, single spacing is too tight for onscreen text, so choose a wider leading (spacing between lines). Be sure to leave an extra line between paragraphs and provide generous margins so that text doesn’t crowd the edges of your screen. See PAGE LAYOUT.
Once you have arrived at a screen design, show it to users. Ask them if they find it readable and accessible and then make adjustments. This survey, actually a mini usability test, should be part of any documentation process (either online or printed).
Consistency means that each screen has the same items in the same place and in the same order. Perhaps you have developed a standard set of icons. These should appear throughout in the same format and in the same spatial position on the screen.
For example, assume that you want to provide automatic safety warnings within an online maintenance manual. These warnings should always appear on the screen with the same format (icons, font size, typeface, color, margins, etc.).
If you are clear and consistent, you will be predictable. The more predictable your document, the more usable (readable) it becomes.
Predictability also means that your users will not get lost in cyberspace.
Users should be able to tell from each screen exactly where in the program they are. A predictable screen design will have enough road signs (menu bars, icons, headings, cross references) so that users are comfortable navigating through the program and can quickly start over again if they choose.
5. Break your content into manageable and readable chunks.
Make your text as schematic and as visually accessible as possible. This rule applies whether you are adapting printed text or writing an online document from scratch.
Traditional text is too dense and difficult to read online. It has long paragraphs and too few headings, lists, and tables. See figure 3 for an example of how traditional text can be revised to become more manageable and readable. See PARAGRAPHS and TABLES.
Textual chunks should be designed to fit within the screen format you have developed (see rule 3). The format of the online document should govern how you decide to chunk or format text. The most efficient way to create new text is to write to fit the format, not to write text and then have to rewrite it to fit the format. See EMPHASIS for a list of techniques for emphasizing information for maximum usability. Most of the techniques mentioned apply equally well to online documents as to printed documents.
6. Use graphics, but don’t overdo them.
Graphics aid users (readers) to interpret and remember key information. So plan to use graphics creatively to capture key information, to aid navigation, and to highlight major features.
Figure 3. Contrast Between Two Screens. The original (top) screen comes directly from the paper copy with no editing. The revision (bottom) is more readable, whether on paper or on a screen.
Remember, however, that graphics will not save content that is not otherwise solidly conceived and well prepared. Also, graphics are time-consuming in two ways: they take time to create, and they often use a lot of memory.
Use flashy, memory-intensive graphics only when absolutely necessary to your purpose. Too often users have to wait for large images to download, only to find that the images are irrelevant. Make sure you compress memory-heavy graphics to avoid slowing the download.
Avoid elaborate backgrounds, frames, Flash introductions, and busy animations that delay and distract business or technical users. Google.com has been a traditional standard for simple, highly usable website design.
Online documents can include any of the common graphics: charts, graphs, illustrations, maps, photographs, and tables (see the separate discussions of these graphics). As with graphics for documents and for presentations, graphics for an online document need to be well designed and appropriate. See GRAPHICS FOR DOCUMENTS and GRAPHICS FOR PRESENTATIONS.
Color is one feature of graphics to use sparingly in an online version. Some colored features are now conventional; for example, links generally appear in blue text and change color when they have been clicked. But too many colors can be a distraction. Contrast helps—light text on a dark background is easier to read than on a light background.
Avoid color combinations that make text illegible, such as red text on a blue background. Also, different monitors convey colors differently, and some users may be color blind. If you do use color, add a redundant feature that does not depend on color alone. For example, if you decide to use a red message box, you might add a separate icon or a distinctive border that does not depend on color to convey its message. A link in blue text might also be underlined. For more guidance, see COLOR.
7. Prepare an online index for documents that are complex and lengthy.
The terms “complex” and “lengthy” are necessarily subjective, but you should consider preparing an online index if you know that users of your online documentation will often need to search for information. Also, your survey or profile of users (as discussed in rule 2) should indicate that they are not fully knowledgeable about your topic, so they will need assistance searching for key concepts or distinctions. One of the most common user complaints is difficulty in finding exactly what they want without wading through a vast sea of possibilities. An index can help.
The design features of online indexes are still developing and evolving, but two general observations are important starting points if you intend to prepare an online index.
First, an online index is not like a screen copy of the index for a printed document. In a document, the index topics are usually keyed to pages, but pages don’t exist online and individual screens are not numbered in a traditional fashion. Also, the hierarchical arrangement within the traditional index will not match the sequence of screens in an online document.
Second, a traditional search tool does not replace a separately designed online index. In a search box, the user types a word or a phrase and then sees all uses of the phrase in the text. For example, a user of the online Style Guide who searches for the term organization will likely see 200 different contexts using that word. Such a lengthy list is not very helpful and is time-consuming to scan.
An online index is a separate subsection of your online document. Users, having accessed the index, can then either visually scroll through the index or, more efficiently, use the search tool on only the index to discover related information, synonyms, or other helpful links between sections of the document.
As an example of how the online index might work, a document on environmental issues might contain numerous uses of the following related terms (actually partial synonyms):
impacts
effects
consequences
irreversible/irretrievable commitments of resources
short-term uses vs. long-term productivity
In the online index, these terms would be linked so that users unfamiliar with one or more of these would be alerted to search the text for the other phrases, each of which is related to the simple terms impacts or effects. These links parallel, of course, the See and Also See functions of a traditional index, but what is different here is that the links help users navigate back and forth from the index to the document itself. See INDEXES.
8. Use a writing style that suits online users.
The tone of the Internet is far more informal than the tone of traditional business and technical communication. The Web audience is relatively young, tech-savvy, and casual about everything from business relationships to dress—and that includes language. The Web is a conversation, and it can be quirky.
Traditionally, a tip for website designers might sound like this:
“Users should not be required to scroll horizontally to access information.”
In the language of the Internet, the same tip might sound like this:
“Don’t make me (ack!) scroll sideways. “
For online documentation, choose a tone of voice that fits the mood and purposes of your readers, but in general, you should lean toward a casual tone. You can create such a tone by using simpler sentences, shorter and more concrete words, and contractions.
Also, keep in mind that your Internet audience is potentially enormous and unpredictable. The Internet makes it possible for nonspecialists to access highly specialized documents—an ordinary patient, for example, can now study the clinical trial reports related to the medication she’s taking, and she might want to!
Thus, you should adopt a plain style wherever possible to accommodate the needs of a wide range of users.
Plain language instead of jargon will also bring you more readers because people search the Internet using their words, not yours. See GOBBLEDYGOOK.
Finally, much weak online documentation is just text from old printed sources dropped into the Internet. It’s usually better to adapt this kind of text for the medium or even start over.
9. Keep screen size in mind.
Screens now come in all sizes. There are giant flat-screen monitors, compact little notebook screens, and handheld devices. The rules above generally apply to any screen size, but you’ll want to adjust your design for very large or very small screens.
Keep in mind that very large screens, when maximized, will require users to read wide columns of text. The effect on the reader will be like watching a tennis match. It’s usually better to fix column width if readers will use large screens.
Designing for small mobile screens presents a different challenge. A document for a small screen should be simple, with few graphics and features. Break large pages of content into small chunks accessible through a menu of links. Enlarge links and search boxes to make them clearly visible. A page of text for a mobile device should probably not exceed 500 words.
Organization
Organization is the key writing principle. If you organize your documents well, you almost surely will have successful documents—even if you violate other writing principles. But if your documents are poorly organized, nothing can save them.
The ideas presented in a document should be structured in a natural but emphatic sequence that conveys the most important information to readers at the most critical times.
The principles of organization differ slightly from document to document, depending on the type of document, the readers, the content, and the writer’s purpose. Nevertheless, logic and common sense dictate that a well-organized document must have certain features:
• The document should announce its organizational scheme and then stick to it.
• The ideas in the document must be clear and sensible, and comprehensible, given the readers.
• The document should conform to the readers’ sense of what the most important points are and of how those points are arranged.
Letters, memos, and reports differ somewhat in their organizational patterns, mostly because their readers differ. See LETTERS, MEMOS, and REPORTS.
Readers of letters are typically outside the company or agency sending the letter. Their relationship to the writer is therefore more distant, and consequently more formal, than the relationship between the writer and others within the writer’s company. See LETTERS.
Readers of emails, on the other hand, are typically from within the writer’s company or agency and share various assumptions, experiences, and knowledge—all of which tend to make emails less formal than letters.
The distance and formality between writer and reader affect organization in several ways. The greater the distance, the more the need to set up (introduce and perhaps explain) the ideas in the document. The greater the distance, the greater the need to substantiate information that might be subject to differing interpretations. The more formal the document, the more the writer must consider format traditions and reader expectations in organizing material.
Reports, technical or otherwise, often have prescribed organizations. Scientific-report organization is based on a long tradition in the sciences. The organization of such reports is strictly prescribed, and writers have very few options in varying that organization. Technical (but nonscientific) reports offer somewhat more latitude, but some companies still have strict guidelines on organizing technical reports.
Within the limitations imposed by tradition, logic, and audience, writers must carefully consider how to arrange their ideas and supporting data so a document serves its purpose and satisfies the readers’ needs.
The first eight rules listed below suggest how you can accomplish these tasks. Rule 9 introduces a basic organizational template, a document planner that shows how the preceding eight rules would apply to the design of documents. See LETTERS, MEMOS, REPORTS, and ELECTRONIC MAIL.
1. Organize information according to your readers’ needs.
How you organize information depends on your readers. You might organize the same information differently for different readers, depending on their needs and your purpose in writing to them. Here, for instance, is the text of an email written to the test director of a laboratory:
We request the following tests on the dry field cement samples that we shipped on July 20 to Mr. J. F. Springer of your laboratory:
• Thickening time
• Rheology
• High temperature/high pressure fluid loss
• 12- and 24-hr compressive strength
Davidson-Warner, a cementing company, has been using this cement in our Mt. Hogan Field. On July 17, they experienced a cementing failure while setting a string of 3½-in. casing at 11,323 ft in our Hogan BB-62 well. They pumped 688 barrels of cement and 78 barrels of displacement fluid before halting displacement when the pressure increased to 5,000 psi.
To facilitate your testing, we have attached pertinent well logs, cement data, and a copy of Davidson-Warner’s laboratory blend test results. Please submit your findings to me at your earliest convenience.
This email begins, appropriately enough, with a request. The writer wants something of the reader. Establishing what the writer wants makes sense as an opening statement. The specific details concerning the cementing failure do not appear until the middle paragraph because this particular reader will not need to know this information except as background for conducting the tests. The details of the cementing failure are less important than a list of the tests the writer is requesting.
However, if the document had been written to the production engineer who will now be responsible for this well, it might have begun like this:
The Hogan BB-62 is currently shut in because of a cementing failure that occurred on July 17. The regional office would like us to return this well to production by July 28.
On July 15, this well was shut in to allow Davidson-Warner to set a new string of 3½2-in. casing from 10,500 ft to 11,890 ft. While setting the string at 11,332 ft, they halted displacement when the pressure increased to 5,000 psi. Before stopping, they had pumped 688 barrels of cement and 78 barrels of displacement fluid. They left approximately 35 barrels of cement in the casing (with a cement top at 8,992 ft).
Wiley Laboratories has been asked to test dry field samples of the cement. In the meantime, AGF Cement has been contracted to finish setting the string. They will be onsite no later than July 25. You should plan to be present.
Mt. Hogan Field production figures are down 4.3 percent in July, primarily due to this cementing failure. The regional production manager has asked that we resume full production by July 28. If you need assistance, call me at 555-6666.
This email is written from supervisor to subordinate. Its tone is obviously different (more forceful, more directive) than the letter written to the laboratory. The organization of ideas is also very different.
The email to the engineer begins with a statement of fact (a setup), followed by a deadline. As in the first email, the details of the cementing failure appear in the middle, but in this second example, the details lead to an amplification of the implied directive that appears in the opening paragraph. The email closes with a compelling reason for action (production figures down) and a reminder of the deadline.
As you organize a document, always consider what information your readers need from you. In the examples above, the test director at Wiley Laboratories will not care that Davidson-Warner left 35 barrels of cement in the casing. The engineer will not care that the dry field samples were shipped to Mr. Springer. Each document above reflects those concerns that its readers will care most about.
2. Group similar ideas.
Separating similar ideas creates chaos. In the examples above, the details concerning the cementing failure appear in the same place. If they had been scattered, the effect could have been baffling for readers:
The Hogan BB-62 is currently shut in because of a cementing failure that occurred on July 17. Wiley Laboratories has been asked to test dry field samples of the cement.
On July 15, this well was shut in to allow Davidson-Warner to set a new string of 3½-in. casing from 10,500 ft to 11,890 ft. Please try to return this well to production by July 28. AGF Cement has been contracted to finish setting the string. Before stopping, Davidson-Warner had pumped 688 barrels of cement and 78 barrels of displacement fluid. AGF Cement will be onsite no later than July 25.
3. Place your most important ideas first.
A frequent problem with business and technical writing is the tendency to lead to, rather than from, major ideas. Many writers believe that they have to build their case, that skeptical readers will not agree with their conclusions unless they first demonstrate how they arrived at those conclusions. This tendency results in documents that are unemphatic, difficult to follow, and filled with unnecessary detail.
The strongest part of a document is its beginning. Readers typically pay more attention at the beginning because they are discovering what the document is about. The beginning, then, is the most emphatic part of the document by virtue of its position. Because the beginning is so strong, you should begin with the most important ideas in the document—then support those ideas by presenting your evidence afterward.
The Scientific Format. Many of those writers who tend to lead down to their major ideas have been schooled in the scientific method. According to the scientific method, one presents the facts, observations, and data that lead to and support a conclusion. The strength of this method is that it presents a series of steps that culminates in an inevitable conclusion. Therefore, the steps are as important as the conclusion.
In some scientific reports (notably those written from one scientist to another), an organizational scheme based on the scientific method is desirable:
Abstract
Summary
Introduction
Materials and Methods
Results and Discussion
Fact 1
Fact 2
Fact 3
Fact 4
(therefore)
Conclusions
Recommendations (optional)
Summary (optional)
This format is acceptable only if readers will be as interested in the process of arriving at the conclusions as they are in the conclusions themselves. When readers are more interested in the conclusions, follow the managerial format.
The Managerial Format. You should follow the managerial format in all documents except scientific documents written for scientific peers.
The managerial format is the reverse of the scientific format. Managers (and most other nonscientific readers) are far more interested in the conclusions than they are in the steps leading to them. This is not to say that these readers will not want to see the conclusions supported—only that they will want the conclusions before the results and discussion:
Summary/Executive Summary
Introduction
Conclusions (and Recommendations)
(because of)
Fact 1
Fact 2
Fact 3
Fact 4
Results and Discussion
Having the conclusions early in the report facilitates reading because the reader is given a perspective from which to understand the facts and data being presented. Furthermore, busy managers often know the background and tests that have led to the conclusions. See REPORTS.
NOTE 1: The principle of emphasis through placement extends to all documents and all sections of documents. Your most important ideas should appear at the beginning of your documents and of individual sections. The most important idea in most paragraphs should appear in the opening sentence. The most important words in a sentence typically come at the beginning of the sentence. See PARAGRAPHS and SENTENCES.
NOTE 2: A corollary to note 1 is that you should always subordinate detail. Place it in the middle of sentences, paragraphs, sections, and documents. Detail includes data, explanation, elaboration, description, analyses, results, etc.
NOTE 3: In lengthy documents, begin and end with important ideas.
The longer a document becomes, the more crucial this rule is. Readers of long passages need to be introduced to the subject, learn the most important points early, receive the supporting detail and explanation, and then have it all wrapped up in a tidy closing statement that reiterates the important points.
An adage regarding oral presentations (but applicable to writing) is that you should “tell ’em what you’re gonna tell ’em, tell ’em, and then tell ’em what you told ’em.” See REPETITION, REPORTS, and EMPHASIS.
4. Keep your setups short.
Sometimes you cannot begin by stating your most important idea because the reader either will not understand it or will not accept it. If such is the case, you need to set up the most important idea by providing introductory information meant either to inform readers or to persuade them.
A fundamental of organization in business and technical writing is to keep your setups short. Do not delay your major ideas any longer than necessary.
When you give people positive information, you should give them the positive information right away. They want to hear it, and hearing it will make them more receptive toward you and the rest of the information you provide.
However, when you give readers negative information, giving them the negative information first might put them off, and they will not be receptive to what follows. Moreover, they might become antagonistic toward you.
Therefore, you should say no to readers only after you have set them up for it. Be careful, however, not to delay the “no” too long. Keep your setups short, as in the following example:
I have been asked to reply to your request for additional compensation following approval of your Engineering Change Order dated March 3.
As you know, a Health Department inspector ordered the design changes, and our contract states that all design changes required for safety reasons are warranted under the contractor’s bond. Therefore, additional compensation would be inappropriate at this time.
The first sentence sets the stage. The second provides brief rationale for the decision. The third states the decision. The two-sentence setup in this example makes the decision more palatable than if the writer had begun by saying: “We will not be providing the additional compensation you requested.” See INTRODUCTIONS.
5. List items in descending order of importance.
Readers typically assume that information in lists appears in descending order of importance: most important listed item first, least important item last.
Numbering and lettering systems reinforce this assumption. We all know that being number 1 is better than being number 6. We know from school that an A is better than an F. Rightly or wrongly, we assume a natural ranking of items. Therefore, writers should list items in descending order of importance.
If you wish to create a list in which items are equally important, use bullets or dashes instead of numbers or letters, and state that the listed items are equal. See LISTS.
6. In most business or technical documents, preview your most important ideas and your major content areas, and review (summarize) major points at the end of sections.
In most business and technical documents, you must establish the structural framework of the documents. Opening previews and concluding reviews are essential if you want readers to grasp your major points. See INTRODUCTIONS, SUMMARIES, REPORTS, and REPETITION.
Even mechanical or routine features of a document can help readers understand its content. For example, a detailed, quite specific table of contents can almost be a summary of the document. In some special types of documents, the table of contents is supplemented by a matrix outlining where in the document each requirement or issue is addressed. Such a matrix is especially helpful in proposals, where the writer must respond to every one of the client’s requirements. See TABLES OF CONTENTS.
Summaries and introductions are ideal devices for previewing content, but you can also preview content in opening paragraphs. Generally, however, when the preview refers to itself as a preview, it is obtrusive. Your preview should sound natural and should be unobtrusive:
this
The Hamerling Study (March–October 2009) found that predators have played only a minor role in the recent population decline of the cutthroat trout. Far more serious impacts on this species are (1) a degraded watershed, (2) temperature increases, and (3) deforestation.
Together, these environmental changes have reshaped the cutthroat trout’s habitat, perhaps beyond the species’ ability to adapt.
not this
This report discusses the results of the Hamerling Study (March–October 2009), which found that predators have played only a minor role in the recent population decline of the cutthroat trout. The first section concerns the quality of the watershed, which has declined significantly since 1965.
Following that section is a discussion of the role of climate changes, particularly a 2-degree increase in temperature throughout the study area. In section 3, the report notes the effect of deforestation in one part of the study area. In its concluding section, the report discusses the combined impact of watershed degradation, climate changes, and deforestation. As the report notes, these changes have reshaped the cutthroat trout’s habitat, perhaps beyond the species’ ability to adapt.
The first (preferred) version amounts to a summary of the report. It could actually appear in the summary, become part of an abstract, or open the introduction. It could even appear in all three places.
7. Discuss items in the same order in which you introduce them.
When you introduce items, you should discuss them in the same order later. Saying that you are going to talk about A, B, and C, but then beginning with B violates the readers’ sense of order. Follow these examples:
The three greatest influences on cutthroat trout population are a degraded watershed, temperature changes, and deforestation.
The watershed has been declining in quality since 1965 when . . .
Temperature changes over the last 5 years have resulted in a 2-degree . . .
Deforestation through the study area has also affected . . .
______________
this
The acquisition improved our cash flow while providing significant tax advantages and allowing us to capitalize expenses. Prior to the takeover, we had negative cash flow on several . . .
not this
The acquisition improved our cash flow while providing significant tax advantages and allowing us to capitalize expenses. Prior to the takeover, our expenses were not capitalized. . . .
This second example demonstrates a subtle but important use of organization. The writer introduces three ideas: cash flow, taxes, and expenses. To be consistent with the order in which these ideas were introduced, the writer must follow the introductory statement with cash flow, not expenses, as occurs in the final version.
8. Use headings, transitions, key words, and paragraph openings to provide cues to the document’s organization.
Throughout documents, you should signal organizational shifts or changes in direction by using headings, transitions, repeated key words, and opening or closing statements in paragraphs.
Headings are especially useful when you need to signal abrupt changes in direction, such as the transition from one topic to another (unrelated) topic. If the shifts are too radical, you cannot easily indicate them in text.
Transitions and repeated key words provide for smoother changes in direction and are useful between sentences and paragraphs, as in the example below. Note how the bolded words indicate organizational patterns and shifts in direction:
The coal seam trends northwesterly for approximately 9,500 meters before pinching out on a fault line. However, seismic evidence suggests that another seam of coal extends from a point 75 meters downdip of the pinchout. This second seam appears to trend northerly for another 5,000 meters. Together, these seams represent a sizeable reserve of recoverable coal, but initiating mining operations will still be extremely difficult.
The biggest difficulty is landowner resistance to strip mining. . . .
See HEADINGS, KEY WORDS, PARAGRAPHS, and TRANSITIONS.
9. Use the Document Planner™ when you need to design a document quickly and efficiently.
Use the Document Planner, as shown on the next page, to organize and design documents of all types and lengths. The Document Planner can help you plan letters, memos, and short reports (up to 8 to 10 pages long). For these shorter documents, you would fill out only a single Document Planner.
For longer documents—business plans, economic studies, technical reports, audit reports, etc.—you could potentially use the Document Planner more than once. First, use the Document Planner to plan the whole document. Next, use a second Document Planner to design each major chapter or subsection. So if the whole document has four chapters, you would fill out four additional Document Planners, one for each of the four chapters.
The following paragraphs explain what you should record on a Document Planner.
1. Purpose. State the main point for the document. This written statement should focus on what you want readers to do and to know.
The to-do statement is especially important, and most effective letters or memos should have a clearly identified action (a to-do statement):
To-Do Statements
I want the Financial VP to approve the funding request for the Oatmark Building.
Jaclyn (my boss) should authorize the hiring of two new sales representatives.
Contemporary Architects, Inc., should design a new entry atrium for our headquarters.
Financial Analysts, Inc., should prepare a new staffing plan to reflect changes in our global market.
Occasionally, however, a letter or memo will not identify an action; instead, it will present information that readers should know. Such a document should begin with a to-know statement:
To-Know Statements
Our Executive Board wants to know why the Plum Creek Assembly Plant is less efficient than the Albany Plant.
Our CEO needs to know the steps for acquiring a controlling interest in Balkan Corporation, Inc. (He has already decided to acquire Balkan.)
The manager of marketing wants an explanation of the minimum marketing requirements for HiGro (a new liquid for growing hair).
Title/Subject Line. Write a subject line to reflect your initial to-do or to-know statement. For example, here are two subject lines based on two of the preceding to-do and to-know statements:
Title/Subject: Authorization to Hire Two New Sales Representatives
Title/Subject: Steps for Acquiring a Controlling Interest in Balkan Corporation, Inc.
Figure 1. Sample Document Planner. Use this organizer to plan whole documents or sections of documents. The four boxes guide you to use a managerial organization for documents.
These subject lines are likely to be very similar to the phrasing you have written in step 1. This repetition is deliberate and desirable. Also, make your subject line long enough so that readers can grasp your content and understand how you plan to approach the content. See LETTERS and MEMOS.
2. Preview. Rule 6 suggests that writers preview information early (usually toward the top of the first page of a document). This preview helps readers know (and remember) what points you will be discussing in the rest of the letter, memo, or report.
Do not overlook the need to preview your points even though you are writing a short letter or memo. These shorter documents can still profit from a preview list of points, as in this example:
The Plum Creek Plant is less efficient than the Albany Plant for three reasons:
1. Qualified vendors for components are not located as near to Plum Creek as they are to Albany.
2. The rejection rate for components at Plum Creek is double the rate at Albany.
3. Plum Creek is assembling a model with newly engineered components, not with the well-tested components used at Albany.
This Plum Creek document might be only a page or two long, depending upon what the readers will need to know. Or you might decide to prepare a major report with 30 or more pages of data and analysis. In either case, you should preview your main points.
3. Details. Provide as much detail about your previewed points (listed above in step 2) as necessary. Sometimes you can discuss major points in a few sentences. In other instances, you may need several pages of explanation. For shorter, more routine documents, you might need to fill out only a single Document Planner, both front and back. For longer documents, you might use a new organizer for each major topic discussed.
4. Review. Even a one-page letter can profit from a review of major points (perhaps only a reminder that a meeting is being scheduled). If appropriate, end the review with your phone number and an offer to answer additional questions. See LETTERS.
Outlines
Outlines are convenient tools for the schematic organization of material. See ORGANIZATION.
Preliminary or draft outlines help writers determine early in the writing process, usually before the document is written, whether the content is logical and complete. Preliminary outlines do not have to be neat or accurately numbered.
Final outlines (which usually form the table of contents) display the overall structure of the content. Final outlines may or may not be numbered. If they are numbered, they typically use either the traditional format (I/A/1/a, etc.) or the decimal format (1.0/1.1/1.1.1, etc.). Your word-processing program contains automated outlining features.
Traditional Outlines
Traditional outlines are those using the following numbering and lettering system:
TITLE
I. First-level division
A. Second-level division
1. Third-level division
a. Fourth-level division
(1) Fifth-level division
(a) Sixth-level division
II. First-level division
A. Second-level division
B. Second-level division
NOTE 1: Some writers and editors prefer a) instead of a. to indicate a fourth-level division.
NOTE 2: Because Roman numerals vary in length, they are customarily aligned according to the period, not the length of the numeral:
I.
II.
III.
Decimal Outlines
TITLE
1. First-level division
1.1 Second-level division
1.1.1 Third-level division
1.1.1.1 Fourth-level division
1.2 Second-level division
1.2.1 Third-level division
1.2.1.1 Fourth-level division
2. First-level division
NOTE 1: Numbers in decimal outlines do not require a period following them. Instead, two or three spaces visually set off the text from the decimal.
NOTE 2: A variation of the decimal format uses hundreds and tens. This format is not widely used, perhaps because it is less flexible than the decimal and traditional formats:
TITLE
100 First-level division
110 Second-level division
111 Third-level division
112 Third-level division
120 Second-level division
200 First-level division
1. Use a numbering system when you need to cross-reference sections of your outline (and the resulting document).
A well-designed numbering system helps readers track ideas and remember them longer. Also, a numbering system allows for cross-referencing between sections and subsections in longer technical and business documents. See NUMBERING SYSTEMS.
Occasionally, writers choose not to use a numbering system. Instead, they use a system of headings, where the placement, the type size, and the appearance of the headings tell readers which is a main heading and which is a subheading. See HEADINGS.
If you decide not to use a numbering system in a document, you will need to use page numbers to reference information. This decision often means that you cannot insert references until you are nearly ready to publish the final document. This decision may delay your project.
2. Use decimal numbering when your document is more than a few pages long and has several levels of subsections.
Decimal numbering has one main advantage over the traditional system. Readers can tell from the numbering exactly where they are in a document. See NUMBERING SYSTEMS.
For example, if readers open to the middle of a document, they might find the number 5.3.7 in the margin before a subheading. They instantly know that they are in Chapter 5, in its third subdivision, and in the seventh topic within the subdivision.
By contrast, the same page with traditional numbering would have 7. in the margin. Readers cannot know which chapter or which subsection the 7 falls under unless, of course, the document has specific information in a header or footer. See PAGE LAYOUT.
3. Avoid numbering systems (either traditional or decimal) with more than four or five levels of subordination.
As noted above in rule 2, the traditional system might have a) in the margin, but this sixth-level heading is of little use to a reader who usually can’t remember the five levels above the a).
Numerical numbering is also difficult to interpret when the numbers string out into six or seven divisions: 5.3.7.3.2.5. In this case, consider using numbers for the first three or four levels. Then change over to format options; for example, the fifth-level could be an unnumbered run-in heading:
Discount rates. Studies of the discount rate structure include . . .
4. If possible, design your outline so that each subdivision has at least two points.
If a subdivision has only one subpoint in it, then the subpoint should become the subdivision heading:
this
3. Overhead rates
4. Labor issues
not this
3. Cost analysis
a. Overhead rates
4. Labor issues
In the second example above, the subdivision for cost analysis has but a single point. If the cost analysis consists of nothing more than overhead rates, why list cost analysis as an activity? The first example properly recognizes that the cost analysis is nothing more than a determination of overhead rates.
5. Use an outline to check the logical consistency and basic organization of a piece of writing.
If an outline is not parallel and is not logical, then the document based on the outline is likely to be chaotic. See ORGANIZATION and TABLES OF CONTENTS.
Page Layout
Page layout uses visual or graphic-design techniques to enhance and arrange information on a page.
A good page layout ensures that language, graphics, and colors combine on a page to promote clear communication. Readers of the page will find it pleasing and easy to read even though they may not be conscious of all the page layout techniques. See COLOR, EMPHASIS, GRAPHICS FOR DOCUMENTS, and WRITING AND REVISING.
Just because computers now allow everybody to design and produce documents, not all do-it-yourself page layouts are successful. Some documents are cluttered and disorganized. Others are well designed but poorly written.
A high-quality, professional document still might require the help of outside professionals (graphics specialists and writers) when the outcome is crucial. These professionals will work with you to prepare a page layout for all your writers to use.
1. Develop styles for your documents.
Styles are page layout choices such as the kind of margins, headers, and fonts you plan to use. These choices are essential, particularly when many people will be working on the document. If several writers and designers are contributing to a single document, they should all agree on the styles before they begin writing.
Even a writer working alone will profit from choosing styles before beginning to write the text.
Of course, your computer program will already contain default styles that might satisfy your purpose. But for various reasons, you might want to change those style choices. For example, you might need to give a branded look to a slide presentation or a report, using the company logo and approved fonts and colors. If so, you can create a template or style sheet that will apply those styles automatically.
A good template or style sheet shows and tells writers exactly what the page layout or format will be; how to break up text using space or headings; how long (roughly) paragraphs should be; and what sorts and sizes of graphics will work best. In short, a good style sheet helps ensure that what the writer produces will fit the chosen style and format.
Because it already contains all the format options you want, the template file becomes the starting point whenever you start a new document. You will call up the template, write some text, and then save the file using another file name.
As figure 1 shows, a template or style sheet includes fonts, type sizes, and any other information you or someone else would need to use to prepare the document. Fonts, font sizes, and other format options are discussed in the following rules.
Figure 1. Sample Template for a Vertical or Portrait Format. A good template or style sheet provides very clear and specific instruction to contributors so that all contributors’ material is consistent.
2. Select a page shape (orientation) and design features that will clearly and effectively communicate to your readers.
A normal business letter and most printed pages are longer than they are wide. This shape is called a vertical or portrait format. This Style Guide uses a portrait format for its pages.
However, if you expect to use many charts and graphs or if you will present the message on a video screen or computer monitor, you might choose a horizontal or landscape format. In a horizontal format, pages are wider than they are long.
After you choose a page shape, you need to choose the design features you will use on that page. Design features include the following options:
—Margins
—Size
—Borders and divider lines
—Indention
—Line spacing or leading
—White space
—Headers and footers
—Columns
—Font styles and sizes
—Page color (if any)
—Headings
—Graphics
—Callouts
—Text wrapping
Figure 1 illustrates these design options as presented in a portrait format. Each of these options is addressed in separate rules.
Figure 2 shows these same design options, but in a landscape format.
Figure 2. Sample Template for a Horizontal or Landscape Format. This sample is the opening section of the same template or style sheet from the previous pages, presented in a horizontal or landscape format.
3. Set your margins and borders so that you have enough white space to make the page attractive and readable.
Each page and each section of a page has margins—that is, the white space separating pieces of text from each other or from the sides of the page.
Your computer has default margins, but these might be too narrow or too wide. So try different margins to see how the page will look with these margins.
Setting margins for printed letters can be a problem, especially if the text is very brief. The overall rule is to center a letter on the page so that the page looks balanced. The left and right margins will be roughly equal, and if the printed letter is very short, the text should be dropped down so that white space at the top roughly equals the white space at the bottom. See LETTERS.
Borders and divider lines can help frame your text and can be as simple as a line around the entire text on a page. They can also be complex—for example, a line of asterisks or even a curving design. Divider lines are lines used to divide or set off a column or a section of text.
Printers call these lines rules. Rules can be very fine (called hairlines and 1 point wide) or quite heavy (perhaps 12 point). See figure 3 for a sample of several common divider lines, with their point size indicated.
Figure 3. Sample Rules. Divider lines or rules, of differing widths, are labeled with their point size.
Remember that you want your page to look simple. Plenty of white space can contribute to the simplicity of your page. Remember, also, that too many borders and divider lines can ruin an effective page. Use them sparingly and only when absolutely necessary.
4. Add headers and footers that will help your readers know exactly where they are as they are reading your document.
Headers and footers are like road signs. They tell readers which section, subsection, and page they are reading. Most published books, whether printed or online, have headers and footers. Notice the header and footer on this page.
You will help orient your readers if you include headers and footers in reports, presentations, and other common business documents.
Headers usually have a page number and the number and title of a chapter or subsection in a lengthy chapter. Footers often have the name of a company or an organization, as well as an organizational logo or some other symbol, such as a trademark. See INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY.
5. Use more than one column to enhance readability.
Two or even three columns on a page can make your text seem to be more professional and attractive than a single column. Multiple columns have shorter lines of text, which make them more readable than text that moves all the way across a page. The eye can read a narrow column about 50 characters wide (six or seven words) faster than lines as wide as a full page (about 75 characters).
Two or three columns are basic to most formal publishing situations, but four or even five columns can be useful on occasion. A lengthy list of rivers, cities, or foods would go very nicely in four or even five columns. Four or five columns to the page would rarely be used for normal text, but might be used in a document printed in horizontal (landscape) format.
6. Choose a font size and style that complements your page design.
A font includes both the size and style of letters, numbers, and symbols. You probably have a wide selection of fonts available to you. Use a plain font when quick comprehension is needed. A fancy or display font should only be used when fast comprehension is not important or to make a point—STOP—for example. The examples in the following discussion will suggest some of the options you have for either plain or fancy fonts.
Choose a font size and style and then stick to your choices. Too many font choices on the same page become busy-looking or cluttered.
The names of fonts—such as Arial or Times New Roman—come from old printing fonts, which had to be set up character by character in the days before typesetting machines and computers. See figure 4 for examples of these and other common fonts.
Figure 4. Typical Type Fonts. Many popular proportionally spaced typeface fonts are based on old printing font-families. Although these faces are all shown in 12-pt. size, some look smaller because the descenders on j, p, q, and y are part of the height of a font.
Sometimes two fonts look almost alike but have different names. There are differences in some characters; look particularly at a, e, f, g, and q. These differences are important because artists design fonts, and these designs are often copyrighted. See INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY.
Manual typewriters generally had mono-spaced type, unlike the proportional fonts used today. Courier font is a reproduction of a traditional typewriter font (see figure 5).
Figure 5. Typical Mono-Spaced Type Fonts. Nonproportionally-spaced fonts are mono-spaced, meaning all letters are about the same width.
We recommend that you avoid using mono-spaced fonts that look old-fashioned and stiff today.
Serif and sans serif differ in their shape or design.
A serif font has extra lines or hooks on letters, which makes them more decorative. In a serif font, the letters have extra finishing lines—for example in figure 4, Garamond is a serif font, as illustrated in the lines at the base of the a or the d and the hooks on the G.
A sans-serif font does not have the finishing lines of the serif fonts. For example, in figure 4, Avant Garde is a sans-serif font. Note that both the A and a are plain in appearance and have no finishing feet or hooks.
In figures 4 and 5, the serif fonts are Bookman, Courier, Century School Book, Garamond, Minion, Palatino, Prestige Elite, Souvenir, Times, and Times New Roman. The sans-serif fonts are Arial, Avant Garde, Chicago, Futura, Geneva, Helvetica, Helvetica Condensed, Letter Gothic, and Optima.
Different styles of letters exist for both serif and sans-serif fonts. The common optional styles include bold, extra bold, condensed or narrow, italic, and outline (see figure 6).
Figure 6. Times Roman Font Shown in Several Forms. Italic and bold forms of any font are common; use other forms sparingly and only for compelling reasons.
Font size is measured in points—that is, from the tallest ascender (on b, d, l, or h) to the deepest descender (on g, p, q, or y). One inch (2.54 centimeters) is 72 points. See figure 7 for examples of different font sizes.
Figure 7. Times Font Shown in 6 pt. Through 36 pt. Most programs permit font-size changes in fractions of a single point size.
7. Establish a consistent system of headings and lists and stick with it throughout your document.
Design a system of headings and lists that allows readers to scan quickly for key ideas. A consistent, well-designed set of informative headlines helps readers grasp the structure of your document. Include headings in business letters and memos, especially if a letter or memo is longer than a single page.
Set up a system of headings that signal the different sections and subsections of your text. See figure 1 for examples of possible heading levels. Also see HEADINGS and LISTS.
Your program will enable you to select heading styles quickly and easily to signal various levels. As in figure 8, your decisions about headings will include the fonts to use, their size, and any other distinguishing features.
Figure 8. Typical headings use various font options—for example all capitals, different sizes, boldface, and even italics.
A very common pattern is to use sans-serif fonts for headings and a serif font for the text. This is the practice followed in this Style Guide. See rule 6 for a definition of serif and sans-serif.
You might choose to number headings—for example, 2., 2.1, 2.1.1, etc.—especially in a complex technical document.
Lists also allow for a number of options. At the simplest, decide when and where you will number lists, use bullets, or use some other symbol such as checkboxes or dashes. Also, you need to decide how you intend to indent or frame lists using white space. See figure 1 and LISTS.
8. Choose and place graphics for maximum impact and increased readability.
A well-chosen, high-quality graphic is worth a thousand words. And it is ten times more memorable than mere text. So plan for and prepare high-quality graphics.
Your template or style sheet (see rule 1) should plan for graphics and the placement of captions as a part of graphics. See GRAPHICS FOR DOCUMENTS, GRAPHICS FOR PRESENTATIONS, and CAPTIONS.
Decide what your main point is before you decide what graphics you want to include. If your goal is to present a trend or a contrast between two different methods, you might want to use a bar graph or a line graph showing two trends.
In other cases, if you want to describe a piece of unfamiliar equipment, you should consider either a photograph or an illustration (maybe a schematic or outline version of the equipment).
Finally, you might want to use a flow chart or other tree diagram to show the steps in a process or to present who is serving on different committees.
Your goal is to make your graphics fit your main point or document purpose.
Placing graphics is often a subjective skill, but the following suggestions are generally true:
—Mention a graphic in the text before it appears.
—Make a graphic and its caption largely independent from the text.
—Make a graphic large enough to be readable and don’t expect readers to turn the page to read the caption or notes.
—If a graphic is too complex or cluttered, break it into two graphics or consider making it an attachment to your document.
9. Avoid overloading pages with too much text and too many layout features.
Writers often cram too much writing onto a page, trying to stay within page limits or adhering to custom, an arbitrary format, or old myths about how pages ought to look.
Writers may even ignore the appearance of the document because they believe that page layout is someone else’s concern. They think their readers will “figure it out.” People who write mostly email messages develop this habit, which works against them when preparing more formal documents or presentations.
Later they (or a boss or an editor) have to go through the text shortening a discussion, changing an introduction, and adjusting all the graphics. Time and money are wasted because much of the text must be rewritten to meet readers’ needs.
10. Don’t forget the basics just because you have a fancy design.
Final proofreading and style checking are essential. Errors creep into the best of documents. For instance, changing the form of a subheading in the middle of a chapter may also require changes in many other places: the introduction to the chapter, the table of contents for the document, the index, the summary of key points in the chapter, and others. Unlike grammar and spelling mistakes, style mistakes will go unnoticed by your computer.
Most programs tag text (attaching invisible programming characters) for aggregation into indexes or tables of contents. See INDEXES and TABLES OF CONTENTS.
However, some other changes may not occur automatically. With computers, the ease of changing something can cause some problems. Moving text often results in leftover letters, odd punctuation, or spacing errors.
Paragraphs
Paragraphs were the mainstay of writing a generation ago. Many excellent documents broke their content into logical sections by using only paragraphs. Headings and lists were unknown or infrequent.
The traditional paragraph, especially in its more lengthy versions, is becoming less common in today’s business or technical writing. Interestingly, academic writing still relies on and composition teachers still teach the structure and form of the long paragraph.
The first eight rules in the box to the right apply to situations where you want to write your paragraphs with a traditional logical structure. Rule 9 suggests an alternative to the traditional paragraph.
In many types of documents, however, you will find that headings, lists, graphics, and other emphasis techniques can and should replace traditional paragraphs. See figure 1 for an example of how emphasis techniques can easily replace a traditional paragraph. See EMPHASIS, HEADINGS, and LISTS.
Figure 1. Two Contrastive Versions of the Same Content. The traditional paragraph is 112 words long and follows the traditional pattern of a topic sentence, supporting details, and a concluding sentence. The schematic or emphatic version (78 words) covers many of the same ideas, but it is much more readable.
As figure 1 illustrates, a traditional paragraph is often difficult to read. The typical reader cannot easily scan a traditional paragraph because an assumption behind the traditional paragraph is that a reader must read it line by line and word by word.
In contrast, the schematic or emphatic paragraph in figure 1 assists readers by visually segmenting the points into chunks. Scanning schematic paragraphs is easy.
1. Limit paragraphs to a single topic or major idea.
Ensure that your paragraphs focus on a single topic or idea. When you go to a new topic, start a new paragraph. If your paragraph on a single topic becomes too long, start a new paragraph at a logical point and have two (or more) paragraphs dealing with the same topic. When such is the case, you normally focus each paragraph on a subtopic related to the overall topic.
2. Do not allow paragraphs to become too long.
Quantifying paragraph length is difficult, but in business and technical writing, paragraphs exceeding 100 to 125 words should be rare. Most paragraphs will consist of three to six sentences. If a single-spaced paragraph goes beyond one-third of a page, it is probably too long. A double-spaced paragraph should not exceed half a page in length.
The document’s format should influence paragraph length. If a document has narrow columns (two or three to the page), then paragraphs should be shorter, perhaps on the average of no more than 50 words. If a document uses a full-page format (one column), then average paragraph length can reach 125 words.
Length is therefore a function of appearance and visual relief. Almost all readers have difficulty with dense pages of print, no matter how well-written and logically organized the text may be. Remember that paragraphs are visual devices meant to make reading easier, so keep them shorter rather than longer.
3. Vary the length of your paragraphs.
A document containing paragraphs of uniform length would be dull and difficult to read. For the sake of variety and to stimulate reader interest, you should vary the length of your paragraphs, especially in documents longer than one page.
The length of successive paragraphs will, of course, depend on content. The logic of the material will dictate, at least to some extent, where paragraphs can logically begin and end, but you still have a great deal of latitude.
A particularly involved point may require lengthy explanation and two or three examples. If so, you might state the point, explain it in one or two paragraphs, and then make each example a separate paragraph. Dividing the topic in this fashion is necessary in a double- or triple-column page format.
Your paragraph stating the main point could be relatively short. Short paragraphs usually draw attention to themselves, so they are useful for stating major ideas. The explanatory paragraph should be much longer. The paragraphs providing the examples should vary in length, with the most important example appearing in the longest paragraph.
Are single-sentence paragraphs acceptable?
Yes. A common misconception about paragraphing is that single-sentence paragraphs somehow violate a principle of writing. In fact, single-sentence paragraphs are very emphatic, especially if they are surrounded by longer paragraphs. You should take care not to use single-sentence paragraphs too often, however. See EMPHASIS.
4. Ensure that the opening sentence of every primary paragraph accurately reflects the content of that paragraph and any following secondary paragraphs.
Primary paragraphs introduce an idea. Secondary paragraphs develop and support that idea. All primary paragraphs should have an opening sentence that introduces the content of the primary and any following secondary paragraphs. The opening sentence is called a topic sentence.
The opening sentence should establish a key word or phrase that indicates the paragraph’s topic. If your paragraph will focus on health problems, then the opening sentence should contain at least two key words: health and problems. These key words help establish the paragraph’s viewpoint, which is often called its thesis. The three examples below each have a topic sentence that announces the thesis of the paragraph:
Software sales in the Eastern Region have substantially increased. From Q1 to Q2, the Sales Division conducted four sales campaigns that . . .
MOGO’s May reservoir study indicates that remaining recoverable reserves exceed previous estimates by over 66 percent. Seismic data gathered in conjunction with the study . . .
The Packaging Department examined the problem and recommends replacing our standard cardboard containers with molded plastic wrap. The plastic is applied from a hot roller after the cases . . .
Secondary paragraphs do not begin with topic sentences. In a technical report discussing a series of tests, for instance, the results section of the report might have several paragraphs opening as follows:
Test 1, series 1, involved decreasing eluants by 0.4 cm3⁄hr and noting pH changes occurring as the solution was heated to 250 degrees F . . .
During test 1, series 2, eluants were removed altogether, and the solution was subjected to pressure variations during heating . . .
These paragraphs develop and support the thesis that was established within a topic sentence in a previous primary paragraph.
As readers, we should expect the first secondary paragraph to focus entirely on test 1, series 1. Any information in that paragraph that is not related to test 1, series 1, does not belong there. Similarly, the second secondary paragraph should focus on test 1, series 2.
Open every primary paragraph with a topic sentence that states the thesis of that paragraph and any following secondary paragraphs. See ORGANIZATION.
5. Organize paragraphs logically.
The structure of the ideas within a paragraph should be logical. Furthermore, the paragraph structure should be obvious to readers.
Sometimes this structure follows a classic organizational pattern: chronological, whole to parts, problem to solution, cause to effect, most important to least important, general to specific, and so on. Sometimes the structure follows some logic that is inherent to the subject. A paragraph on drilling-rig problems, for instance, might be organized according to a series of problems that relate to each other in some way that uninformed readers would not perceive.
The following paragraph is paraphrased from Charles Darwin’s Origin of Species. It demonstrates a classic organizational pattern: general to specific. Note that the opening sentence is a topic sentence and that the three succeeding sentences substantiate Darwin’s thesis. The boldfaced key words indicate one of the most common methods of achieving coherence: repeating key words. The key words in the Darwin paragraph form a clear link between sentences.
Without exception, every species naturally reproduces at so high a rate that, if not destroyed, the earth would soon be covered by the progeny of a single pair. Even slow-breeding man has doubled in 25 years, and at this rate, in less than 1,000 years, there would literally not be standing room for his progeny. Linneaus has calculated that if an annual plant produced only two seeds—and no plant is so unproductive—and their seedlings next year produced two, and so on, then in 20 years there should be 1,000,000 plants. The elephant is reckoned the slowest breeder of all animals, and I have taken some pains to estimate its minimum reproductive rate; it will be safest to assume that it begins breeding when 30 years old, and goes on breeding till 90 years old, bringing forth six young in the interval, and surviving till 100 years old; if this be so, after 750 years there would be nearly 19,000,000 elephants alive, descended from the first pair.
6. Use key words and other devices to ensure that paragraphs are coherent.
Coherence refers to the cohesiveness of a paragraph’s sentences. In a coherent paragraph, the sentences seem to “stick together”—they all clearly belong in the paragraph and are logically connected to one another.
As you read the paragraph below, note the lack of coherence:
A great number of apparatus are available today for field work in the broad sense, including gas-chromatographs, as well as infrared, electrochemical, and other analyzers. In connection with the early prediction of possible pollutants and the assessment of natural discharge prior to the development of geothermal resources, however, hydrogen sulfide and volatiles such as ammonia, mercury, and arsenic are the major concern. Under the conditions prevailing before industrial development, preliminary evaluation and prediction of the discharge of such chemicals depends to a sizeable extent on water analyses. Surveying mercury content in air might deserve consideration; however, it is not discussed here, as mercury determination in soil is likely to be a valid substitute for it.
The opening sentence to this paragraph suggests that the paragraph will discuss the apparatus available for field work, particularly those apparatus listed. However, this equipment is never again discussed. The second, third, and fourth sentences seem loosely connected, but the paragraph never “gels”; it never seems to be focused on a single topic. In short, the paragraph is incoherent. See PARAGRAPHS.
You can achieve coherence by opening with a topic sentence, by using a clear organizational scheme, by repeating key words, by using transitional words (such as however, furthermore, consequently, next, then, additionally, etc.), and by using pronouns to link sentences to the major idea or theme of the paragraph. See ORGANIZATION, KEY WORDS, TRANSITIONS, and PRONOUNS.
7. Emphasize the important ideas within a paragraph.
As figure 1 illustrated, one way to emphasize important ideas is to use a schematic or emphatic approach to the content. Lists, headings, and graphics are all common tools for emphasizing important ideas. See EMPHASIS.
In one sense, extensive use of such emphasis techniques makes many of the traditional rules for writing paragraphs unnecessary.
In traditional paragraphs, however, important ideas are emphasized by being placed in the initial or topic sentence. The initial sentence is visually and logically the most important sentence in a paragraph, so use it to capture the most important ideas.
Traditionally, the final sentence in a paragraph was the second most emphatic position. This viewpoint assumed that readers would take time to read the final sentence. In most technical or business writing, however, the final sentence either drops out (because it is repetitive) or it moves up to become part of the initial sentence.
8. Provide transitions between paragraphs.
In most well-written documents, the information flows from paragraph to paragraph. To achieve this effect, you must provide smooth transitions between paragraphs.
Writers can set up transitions by previewing content. If you announce, for instance, that you will be discussing five topics and then list those topics, you have set up a progression that the reader will expect. As you move from topic to topic, the transitions will be automatic:
The first topic concerns . . .
Likewise, the second topic . . .
The third topic . . .
However, the fourth topic . . .
Finally, the fifth topic . . .
As you can see, these paragraph openings also use some transitional words to make the transition, but merely moving to and announcing the next topic is sufficient.
Sometimes you can create the transition between paragraphs by using key words to connect the closing sentence of one paragraph and the opening sentence of the next:
. . . because deep salt domes usually occur as a result of normal faulting.
Thrust (reverse) faults, on the other hand, are normally responsible for piercement salt domes . . .
In this excerpt, the first paragraph closes with a key word (faulting), a variation of which is repeated in the opening sentence of the next paragraph. The first paragraph concerns deep salt domes; the second concerns piercement salt domes. Repeating a variation of faulting helps make the transition.
In this example, the opening sentence of the succeeding paragraph makes the transition. However, the transition could also be made by the closing sentence of the preceding paragraph:
. . . because deep salt domes usually occur as a result of normal faulting. Thrust (reverse) faults, on the other hand, are normally responsible for piercement salt domes.
Piercement domes, which are common along the Texas and Louisiana Gulf Coast, are produced from traps caused when complex faulting forces a salt core upward through overlying sediments . . . .
In some documents, the information cannot easily flow from paragraph to paragraph because the paragraph topics are too disjointed. When such is the case, use headings, lists, and numbering systems to indicate the transition from one topic to another:
. . . Reef-producing areas might or might not be obvious from overlying sediments.
Piercement Domes
Piercement domes, which are common along the Texas and Louisiana Gulf Coast, produce from traps caused when complex faulting forces a salt core upward through overlying sediments . . . .
See HEADINGS, LISTS, NUMBERING SYSTEMS, and TRANSITIONS.
9. If appropriate, break up or replace paragraphs with lists.
If a paragraph contains or consists of a long series of items, consider replacing the paragraph with a displayed list. Lists are more emphatic than paragraphs, so if you want to emphasize the series of items, display it. See LISTS.
A Final Case Study in Paragraphing
Some writers dump everything they can think of about a topic into a single paragraph. Then when a paragraph becomes long enough (by whatever standard), these writers pause, indent, and start another paragraph. This sort of paragraphing is neither logical nor effective, as the following example illustrates:
Oxides of nitrogen include nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and nitric oxide (NO). NO2 is a pungent gas that causes nose and eye irritation and pulmonary discomfort. NO is converted to NO2 by atmospheric chemical reaction. Both NO and NO2 participate in photochemical reactions leading to smog. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a colorless and pungent gas that causes irritation to the respiratory tract and eyes and causes bronchoconstriction at high concentrations. Hydrocarbons react with NO or NO2 and sunlight to form photochemical oxidants or smog. Health effects include irritation of the eye, nose, and throat. Extended periods of high levels of oxidants produce headaches and cause difficulty in breathing in patients suffering from emphysema.
What did the writer of this paragraph want to accomplish? Is the first sentence on NO and NO2 an accurate reflection of the rest of the content? How do the other facts and points in the paragraph fit together? Can readers see a definite pattern or structure to the facts?
A Traditional Rewrite
You could rewrite the paragraph using these traditional remedies:
• Shorten the paragraph and focus on only one topic.
• State the topic in the opening sentence.
• Supply organizational cues in the opening sentence and, as appropriate, in later sentences.
By applying these remedies, we can improve the paragraph as follows:
Nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, and sulfur dioxide—these constituents of smog can cause health problems. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a pungent gas that causes nose and eye irritation and pulmonary discomfort. Hydrocarbons that react with NO2 or with nitric oxide (NO) and sunlight form photochemical oxidants that can irritate the eyes, nose, and throat. Extended exposure to high levels of oxidants can produce headaches and cause persons with emphysema to have trouble breathing. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a colorless and pungent gas that irritates the eyes and respiratory tract and, at high concentrations, can cause bronchoconstriction.
A Nontraditional Rewrite
You might decide to transform the paragraph into a graphic, especially if you decide that the information merits high emphasis. Figure 2 is a possible version of such a nontraditional rewrite. See ORGANIZATION and GRAPHICS FOR DOCUMENTS.
Figure 2. Major Components of Smog and Their Health Effects. All three components are colorless, yet pungent and irritating, especially in high concentrations.
Parallelism
Parallelism is essentially a convention of sentence construction. The principle behind it is that similar ideas should be expressed in a similar fashion, thereby demonstrating their similarity and making reading easier. The following sentence is not parallel:
The analysis will include organizing, dividing, and assessment of turnaround functions.
The sentence verb include is followed by three key words: organizING, dividING, and assessMENT. These three words appear in series. They are equal in purpose and use in the sentence. Therefore, they should have the same grammatical form:
The analysis will include organizing, dividing, and assessing turnaround functions.
1. Ensure that two or more parts of speech behaving similarly in a sentence, or coordinated (connected) in some way, are parallel in construction.
Parallelism applies not only to verbs, but also to nouns, adjectives, phrases, and every other part of a sentence:
The Interface Team will be responsible for integrating the functional units developed by the QA Team and for executing the model test matrix.
Applying abstraction, partition, and projection to the system development process results in the traditional top-down view of the software engineering process.
Figure 2.2–1 shows the documentation relationships: where things happen, why things happen, and how things can be changed.
Multilevel training was necessary to meet the needs of managers, designers, and programmers.
A final report was prepared describing the case-study process and referencing the documents containing the code.
NOTE: Often a repeated who, which, or that will signal a sentence with parallelism:
The departmental white paper specified who would head the new project team and who would be the team members.
not
The departmental white paper specified the head of the new project team and who would be team members.
2. Make items in lists parallel.
Parallelism is especially important in lists. A list, whether displayed vertically on the page or embedded within a paragraph, is a series. To make it parallel, each item should be constructed similarly and should begin with the same kind of word (noun, verb, etc.):
This file will include the following items:
1. Problem headings
2. Database specifications
3. Reporting intervals
4. Restart options
5. Report macros
The following list is also parallel (each item completes the sentence started by the introductory statement). Note that each item begins with the same kind of verb:
The study concluded that the ATAC fighter must:
1. Have a long-range, high-payload capability.
2. Be flexible in mission and payload design.
3. Be survivable against A-A and S-A threats.
4. Be maneuverable in the F-15/F-16 class.
NOTE: This example has several variations. Many editors, including the authors of this Style Guide, would prefer a different lead-in sentence (one with a complete grammatical structure):
A study concluded that the ATAC fighter must have these features:
See COLONS, CONJUNCTIONS, and LISTS.
Parentheses
Parentheses are used to insert material into a sentence. Dashes—which are more emphatic than parentheses—are also used to insert material. Commas, which are also used to insert material, are less emphatic than either dashes or parentheses.
Using parentheses appropriately and effectively is an art. The following rules will help you develop this art.
1. Parentheses enclose explanatory sentences within a paragraph:
Only the total systems approach can deal with the trade-off in performance between the weapon and the aircraft platform. Existing beyond-visual-range air-to-air missiles are inhibited, for instance, by the lack of an effective IFF system. The total systems approach, with its full range of analysis tools, may be the only acceptable means of evaluating tradeoffs prior to the detail design phase. (The discussion of IFF design under Targeting Systems on p. 89 reveals how we solved the problem cited above.)
2. Parentheses enclose references, examples, ideas, and citations that are not part of the main thought of a sentence:
Our Level 6 analysis (see figure 9.4) illustrates how a single multi-mission destroyer can contribute to task force operations.
Our design accounts for all environmental factors that may affect sensitivity (smoke, terrain, weather, and physical damage).
Affordability (cited in the RFP as a primary concern) was the guiding principle behind our application of new technologies.
Our previous state-of-the-art survey (conducted over a 3-month period in 2007) suggested that RDF SOPs were not current.
The most recent research (Smithson 2008) revealed pollution problems from nearby gasoline storage tanks.
See CITATIONS.
Parentheses, Commas, and Dashes
Commas and dashes also enclose explanatory ideas. Commas are less emphatic than parentheses; dashes are more emphatic. Note how emphasis progressively increases in the following examples:
Cost analyses using both parametric and detail O&S cost methodologies helped us determine the right support systems.
Cost analyses, using both parametric and detail O&S cost methodologies, helped us determine the right support systems.
Cost analyses (using both parametric and detail O&S cost methodologies) helped us determine the right support systems.
Cost analyses—using both parametric and detail O&S cost methodologies—helped us determine the right support systems.
3. Parentheses enclose numbers in a paragraph list:
The operational characteristics we will discuss below are (1) manning, (2) training, and (3) providing required support.
See LISTS.
4. Parentheses enclose acronyms, abbreviations, definitions, and figures that have been written out:
The CARP (Capital Area Renovation Project) is adequately funded as long as the contractor trims costs by using off-the-shelf materials wherever possible.
United’s South Fork Mine can deliver over 20,000 dwt (deadweight tons) of ore every month.
Artesian water (water naturally confined in the ground under pressure) is the primary source for the city’s culinary use.
By the project deadline date, Northrop will deliver fifty (50) centrifugal pump assemblies to the San Diego facility.
See ABBREVIATIONS and ACRONYMS.
NOTE 1: As in the first example above, we recommend using the acronym followed by its explanation in parentheses. Some editors prefer the reverse:
The Capital Area Renovation Project (CARP) is adequately funded as long as the contractor trims costs by using off-the-shelf materials wherever possible.
NOTE 2: The practice of writing out numbers and enclosing the figure in parentheses is not necessary except in legal, contractual, or requisition documents. Do it only when you need to protect against unauthorized alteration of numbers in a document. See NUMBERS.
Parentheses and Brackets
Brackets are, in effect, parentheses. They enclose incidental or explanatory words and phrases within parentheses or within quoted material:
The environment and activities of opposing forces may change the capabilities of a particular sensor (see appendix 4, Battlefield Adaptability Requirements, for a fuller discussion of RGS [Remote Ground Sensing] and ground-based sensor limitations).
Your original letter stated: “Our onsite project coordinator [Walt Petersen] will be responsible for maintaining the Schedule of Deliverables.”
See BRACKETS.
Parentheses and Periods
If the entire sentence is enclosed by parentheses, the period at the end of the sentence goes inside the closing parentheses:
(See appendix 2 for the complete test results.)
If only part of a sentence is enclosed by parentheses and the closing parenthesis occurs at the end of the sentence, the period goes outside the closing parenthesis:
Hydrostatic and thermostatic monitors ensure system equilibrium (see figure 5–15 for monitor locations).
See PERIODS.
Parentheses and Question Marks
Question marks come inside parentheses when they are part of the parenthetical (added) information:
this
The project deadline (April 1?) is never stated in the Statement of Work.
not this
The project deadline (April 1)? is never stated in the Statement of Work.
See QUESTION MARKS.
Periods
Periods primarily indicate a break or a full stop in text. At the end of a spoken sentence (signaled by a period), the voice drops and the speaker takes a breath.
1. Use periods following statements, commands, indirect questions, and questions intended as suggestions:
Statements
The workover plan was finished.
Tomorrow we will visit the mine site.
Mr. Smythe owes OP&L $75.
Commands
Stop working on the project now.
Please help us tomorrow.
Redesign the pump housing to accommodate the larger intake pipe.
Indirect questions
I wonder how he managed the project.
Jane Greer asked whether we would approve the budget.
Questions intended as suggestions
Will you please return the forms by a week from Monday.
Would you let me know if you have any questions.
2. Use periods following numerals or letters marking a list, but periods need not follow the items listed unless they are full sentences (see rule 1 above):
a. A larger pump
b. An extra ventilation fan
c. A heavy-duty circuit breaker
1. The cost is 50 percent greater than was budgeted.
2. Materials were not equal to those specified.
3. Installation procedures were violated.
NOTE: You may need a period to end a list that continues the syntax established in its lead-in sentence:
We tested the procedure by
1. increasing the flow,
2. decreasing the temperature, and
3. contaminating the water.
This pattern of continued syntax and punctuation is much rarer than it used to be. See LISTS.
3. Use periods (decimal points) to separate integers from decimals:
4.567
327.5
1,456.25
NOTE 1: In tables, the decimal points (periods) are aligned:
4.567
327.5
1,456.25
NOTE 2: In some foreign countries, a comma separates integers from decimals, and spaces separate groups of three numerals in longer numerals:
4,567
56 764,534 45
4. Use a period with run-in headings, but not with displayed headings:
Two Options. The first option is to discontinue the testing until safety procedures are developed. The second option . . .
This same heading would not be followed by a period if it appeared on its own line:
Two Options
The first option is to discontinue the testing until safety procedures are developed. The second option . . .
NOTE: You can also use run-in headings with dashes, colons, or no punctuation. But be consistent. Once you’ve established a pattern, use it throughout a document. See HEADINGS.
5. Use periods following some abbreviations:
NOTE: Many abbreviations and most acronyms no longer require periods, especially names of fraternal organizations, government agencies, corporations, and colleges and universities:
See ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS, and PARENTHESES.
Persuasion
Persuasion relies on any techniques used by a writer or speaker to gain agreement or to support an idea. The most obvious persuasive technique is an appeal based on a logical rationale and on solid reasons, but the most effective technique is really the one that also enlists the reader’s or listener’s emotional support.
Successful persuasion is 50 percent emotion and only 50 percent logic and facts. Without the emotion and the subjectivity, logic and facts just don’t convince.
The following rules use examples primarily from written documents. The rules, however, would apply equally well to oral presentations.
The following rules also refer to customers rather than readers. A customer is someone involved in a process or an activity and someone to negotiate with. World-of-work documents presume that readers are like customers—that is, these readers have something they need to learn, and your task is to service their needs.
Some documents are all persuasion—for example, a sales letter or a proposal to hire more employees. Other documents may not be obviously persuasive, yet they usually have a persuasive intent. A scientific study or a financial audit report may be primarily factual, but their writers still intend that readers understand and act upon the value and reliability of the information presented. Therefore, the scientific study and the audit report are persuasive documents, whatever their other purposes might be.
1. Assess your customers’ needs and objectives.
The customers’ needs and objectives are important starting points because persuasion must be a two-way process. The old model of the salesperson with a pitch is gone. Today’s persuasive writing is based on problem solving and consultation, not pitching a canned presentation to skeptical customers.
Initially, list your customers, both internal and external. Next, profile each of them by asking the following questions:
—What are their jobs and professional responsibilities?
—What level and type of decisions can they make?
—Whom do they work for and whom do they supervise?
—What problems or questions are they working on now?
—What do they already know about your services or your ideas?
—How likely are they to use the information you can provide?
Your primary goal in asking these questions is to determine what your customers’ needs are.
Example 1—Recommendation Document. Your customer needs to obtain a more reliable source for computer network service. Your questions reveal just how important this need is to the customer, and you discover that the customer values a solution enough to spend money hiring a new employee or a new vendor. You have to decide what to recommend to the customer.
Example 2—Research Report. Your customers are readers of your report on a new surgical procedure. As you profile these customers, you determine how they intend to use your report and how likely they are to agree with your views. Based on what you determine about their needs, you can either adjust your existing report or, perhaps, add to it.
As in both of these examples, you must identify your customers’ needs before you can begin to design persuasive documents.
2. Define your own role and objectives in relation to those of your customers.
As two-way communication, effective persuasive writing requires you to know your own role and objectives.
The following examples expand on the two examples introduced under rule 1 above.
Example 1—Recommendation Document. You decide that you would propose that the customer hire a new network computer specialist rather than obtain a new vendor. You might have a choice of roles, however. If your role is as an advisor, then your approach is more factual and neutral than it would be if you would profit from the decisions being made. Your second role might be as an advocate for a friend or family member. With this role, you move from neutrality to a more aggressive presentation of your points. Your changing roles control the slant of your persuasive documents.
Example 2—Research Report. If you discover that readers of your report are likely to be very skeptical about your new surgical procedure, you can adjust your research report to make it more convincing. Perhaps you add more detailed explanations of the prior literature related to your procedure.
At times, your role in relation to customers may lead you to ask questions where your honesty will be tested. For instance, do you need to admit to the customer that you made a mistake or that your equipment won’t meet the written specifications? Such questions and problems are essentially ethical issues. See ETHICS.
Hesitation over an ethical question is perhaps the surest way to lose your persuasive credibility. See rule 5 below.
Unless you establish your own role, your objectives and, if appropriate, your ethical stance, you cannot prepare persuasive documentation.
3. Collaborate with customers to generate persuasive solutions and benefits.
This rule means that you continue to work with your customers, validating your initial perceptions and checking up on your progress. You never want your customers to feel neglected.
The following two examples build on details already introduced in the prior rules.
Example 1—Recommendation Document. As you work to list the pros and cons of the hiring of a new computer network specialist, you discover that you still have some unresolved questions about the problem. How frequent and severe are the network problems? Who is currently handling them and what does this service now cost? You need the data before you can complete your recommendations.
Your goal with these or similar questions is to refine your ideas so you can specify the benefits related to your proposal.
Example 2—Research Report. You transmit a working copy of your research report to a colleague who will be a sharp critical reviewer. Your intent is to find out if your approach and the details in your draft are on target. This review—essentially a usability test—is a crucial step if you want to guarantee that your report has the most persuasive impact possible. This review would parallel the peer review often required prior to publication in the scientific arena.
See the reviewing section of WRITING AND REVISING.
4. Design a message that speaks clearly, effectively, and persuasively to your customers.
Make your message customer-centered. An effective and a persuasive message will have the customer in the foreground. You and your interests remain in the background.
Test yourself by looking at a recent persuasive letter or sales document: The you’s in your message should outnumber two to one the I’s and we’s.
The two letters in figure 1 illustrate what we mean by customer-centered writing. The “Before” letter is typical of many sales letters. Its persuasive power is lost because the writer can’t stop talking about her own product and her own interests.
Figure 1. Before and After Versions of the Same Letter. The “Before” version is writer centered and not well organized. The “After” version focuses on the reader (customer) and uses a variety of emphasis techniques. See EMPHASIS.
The “After” letter moves the customer to center stage. It also illustrates the following three writing principles:
1. Be as clear as possible.
2. Organize your information with your customers’ needs in mind.
3. Choose effective and forceful examples.
Be as clear as possible. An undefined term or an unclear explanation allows customers to dismiss your ideas on the trivial grounds of their not being able to understand you. So do everything you can (or need to) to make sure that you have been clear. Be especially careful to define all technical terms and technical assumptions. Use page layout, boldface, headings, lists, and other format options to make your message as unambiguous and as effective as possible. See EMPHASIS.
Organize your information with your customers’ needs in mind. Organization means that you have considered both the logic of your points and the arrangement of these points for the maximum effectiveness on your customers. See ORGANIZATION.
Example 1—Recommendation Document. You have two options. One is to open with your recommendation and state it both in the subject line and in your opening lines of the document. This option is the strongest and clearest way to begin your document.
A second option would be to lead up to your recommendation by giving some background—perhaps the scope of your investigation or some details about similar problems you’ve analyzed. This option delays your recommendation for a few lines or a paragraph or two. You would use this option only if you felt that your customers needed to be prepared for your recommendation. This opening is not as forceful as the opening in option 1, and it will likely not be as clear.
Example 2—Research Report. Often you have no discretion as to how to organize the body of your report. The major headings are standard as they are in many scientific reports: Introduction, Methods, Materials, Results, Conclusions, and Recommendations. Still, you have some choices to make. For example, you may precede the report with a summary, an abstract, or a transmittal letter. If so, you need to decide how direct and specific you want or need to be. This decision will rely on your view of the customers’ point of view about your proposed surgical procedure.
Choose effective and forceful examples. Persuasive writing requires an interplay between general principles and good examples. Choose examples that match the backgrounds of your customers. If your customers have a limited technical background, choose nontechnical examples.
Example 1—Recommendation Document. You might choose to develop a scenario with associated times for troubleshooting a network service problem. This hypothetical example would demonstrate the cost savings to your customers.
Example 2—Research Report. You may have limited discretion to change the information you include. Certain figures, data, and analysis procedures would likely be required for the discussion of any new surgical procedure. You might decide, however, to present before-and-after pictures of the typical patient. You make this decision based on your estimate of your customers’ needs for a visualization of the benefits of your procedure.
As examples 1 and 2 show, no rules exist about which examples or details would be most effective and most desirable. You can only choose appropriate ones if you have profiled your customers. For example, if your customers were raised in the 1980s, you can refer to incidents during the presidencies of Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush. For customers a generation younger, you might use allusions to later presidents.
5. Maintain a credible position so customers have reasons for agreeing with you and your ideas.
You will be establishing and maintaining your credentials from your first discussion with your customers to the writing of your final document. Your persuasive case stands or falls depending upon your customers’ perception of your credibility.
Do the customers see you as honest? knowledgeable? professional? a good listener? sympathetic? In other words, should the customers trust what you have to say or to recommend?
From a personal standpoint, honesty and trust are the basis of any persuasive relationship. Without these virtues, you will have no success mustering reasons or developing a logical case. No questions about your ethics should ever arise. If they do, you will have damaged your own persuasive case. See ETHICS.
Don’t rely on purely personal facts about yourself or your organization to help maintain your credibility. You can occasionally refer to your background or your prior business experiences. But these references will not buy you any credibility if you can’t, for instance, produce a professionally appearing document or sound analyses of the problems at hand.
From what the clients see in your documents, you also establish your persuasive credibility by providing the following features or information:
—Careful, well-designed format—one that is professional and excellent
—Clear, persuasive organization and examples (see rule 4 above)
—Technically sound, valid analyses of data and examples
—No slips in spelling or punctuation
Photographs
Photographs convey realism and authenticity. In the past, photos were especially persuasive because readers trusted this realism. Today photos are still persuasive, but readers now know that a photograph often does not portray reality. Digital enhancements and virtual-reality techniques mean that the images in a photo or on a monitor may never have existed except in someone’s imagination.
Choose a photograph if you want to show your readers what is (or, perhaps, what could be). Choose a diagram or an illustration if you want to convey a concept, not realism. See ILLUSTRATIONS.
The following discussion presents a few principles for selecting and placing photographs in your documents and presentations. Techniques of how to take a photograph are beyond the scope of this discussion. Several of the rules, however, mention principles that would help you take effective photographs.
For related information about graphics, see GRAPHICS FOR DOCUMENTS and GRAPHICS FOR PRESENTATIONS. See also COLOR, ILLUSTRATIONS, and PAGE LAYOUT.
1. Before choosing (or taking) a photograph, visualize its role by deciding exactly what your message is.
A document or a presentation should have a clear, forceful message. Graphics and any photographs you choose must support this message.
Identifying your readers (viewers) is the first step in deciding what your message should be. What do you want readers to do, to know, to feel, and to remember? You must strive to view each photograph as your readers would view it.
Assume, for instance, that you are preparing a brochure to promote a hospital. You have done your homework by talking to medical doctors, nursing supervisors, hospital directors, and others in health care. As they explained their needs, they said their highest goal was to center everything they do on the health and welfare of the patient.
Figure 1 (actually two pages with a single photo) shows how the marketing challenge was solved. The right side of figure 1 is the cover for the brochure. The left side of figure 1 is the back cover of the brochure, so the two halves are continuous if a reader opens up the brochure and looks at both halves at the same time.
Figure 1. The Front and Back Covers for a Brochure. The horizontal photograph links the front cover (the right side of the figure) with the back cover (the left side). As in this example, the creative use of a photograph enhances the message in the text.
The photograph in this figure shows two doctors talking while a patient with a leg brace and crutches moves toward them. Only the patient appears in color and front center, communicating his central importance to the hospital.
Figure 1 illustrates the rich options you have for creating layouts and presentations that are visually effective. In this figure, the underlying photograph supports the overlaid text and the two panels flow together to convey a single message: high-quality patient care.
As in the preceding health care example, each photograph (image) you choose must capture your readers’ interest and convey the message you want to send. Choosing the right photograph should be an early step in the design of an effective document. See EMPHASIS and WRITING AND REVISING.
2. Survey different sources of photographs so that you have a rich array of photos to choose from.
Professional-quality photographs are widely available and easy to copy and paste into a document.
A convenient option is to access online collections of stock photographs. These collections often contain thousands of pictures categorized by theme—such as business architecture or coins and money.
Remember, however, that almost all photographs are protected by copyright, as are other graphics. You may not use someone else’s photograph without permission and, often, the payment of a fee.
Some websites contain photos that are free for any use, but they are often of low quality.
Also, when you request permission, you should ask if you are restricted from changing the photo to suit your purposes. Some photographers will not grant you permission to print a black-and-white version of a color photograph. Other photographers want to know what size of reproduction you intend to make. See INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY.
If you decide to shoot your own photographs, be sure to get a signed release from anyone appearing in your photos. Such a release allows you to publish and distribute the photos.
3. Remove or adjust the features in a photograph to complement the purpose of your document or presentation.
This rule expands on rule 1 because, after you have identified a document’s message, you may find that no available photograph conveys your exact message.
Tools for choosing or adjusting a picture are common and are increasingly easy and inexpensive to use. Once a picture is electronically downloaded or scanned into a computer file, you can adjust the light, the texture, the color, or even add or crop images to fit the intended purpose.
The high angle of the photo in figure 2 dramatizes the setting of the ruins of Petra in Jordan. Figure 3, a cropped and enlarged version of figure 2, emphasizes the scale of the monument by bringing the human figures closer.
Figure 2. A View of the Treasury at Petra, Jordan. This high-angle photo captures the entire front side of the historic ruin. The dramatic size of the ruin is, however, diminished because it is so small. An optional format would be to enlarge the area directly around the ruin, cutting out the foreground area. See figure 3 for an example of this optional format.
Figure 3. A Cropped View of the Treasury at Petra. In this photograph, the emphasis is directly on the massive, awe-inspiring size of the ruin. The human figures show its massive scale.
Figure 4 is an example of a computer-enhanced photo. In this photograph, images relating to the digital world are imposed on the photo of a monitor. Viewers can easily see that this photograph is not realistic even though some of its components began as realistic images.
Figure 4. The Digital World. This combination of illustration and photograph communicates both symbolism and reality.
If you are taking a picture for a document, you should eliminate distracting details before you even shoot the picture. You might move a person or subject so that the background is not distracting. Or you can adjust your camera angle or direction of the shot so that a distracting image is not part of the picture. Figure 5 is an example of a picture with a distracting image. The people standing to the left of the red arch are likely a distraction to most viewers, so you would want to remove the people either by changing the camera angle (while the picture is being taken) or by cropping the picture, as in figure 3. Of course, if your purpose is to illustrate the scale of the arch, the people should stay.
Figure 5. Delicate Arch in Arches National Park. This arch, a favorite with tourists, appears on many professional postcards. People usually don’t appear in such photos even though the people do help viewers realize how large the arch is. (Photo courtesy of Bill Grubbs)
Whether you are using someone else’s photographs or taking your own pictures, you are responsible for the final images your readers will see. Choosing the proper image is just one step in the design of a document. See EMPHASIS and GRAPHICS FOR DOCUMENTS.
4. Choose a photo with a simple yet interesting composition.
Ensure that your subject is the principal point of interest in the photo, but a subject in the center of a photo often results in a static, uninteresting picture. Instead, choose a photograph where the main image is a bit off-balance or off-center.
This off-center arrangement—called the rule of thirds—is a widely accepted principle. Imagine that the picture plane is divided into thirds, vertically and horizontally. See figure 6 for a photograph with a superimposed grid of thirds. This grid shows in its four intersections where the primary points of emphasis or focus would usually be.
Figure 6. A Rule-of-Thirds Grid Overlaying a Photograph. Professional photographers often choose an off-center or off-balance view of a scene. In this case, the near pylon is left of center, allowing a view of more distant pylons and thus the scale of the electrical transmission line. Another, less effective version of this picture might have moved the near pylon into the vertical center, with the other pylons out of the picture.
In this picture, the giant pylon lies on the vertical line marking the left-hand third of the picture. Another more distant pylon recedes into the lower third of the image.
Your goal is to choose a photo that has a balanced and interesting composition. Experimenting with the balance between different points of interest is why photographic professionals often take dozens of shots of the same scene, but from slightly different angles or with variations in the lighting.
Figure 7 has a balanced and interesting composition. The staircase with its converging spiral and ascending steps conveys a strong sense of depth and power. The composition is not quite centered, and the upper and lower handrails would line up horizontally with the left and right grids in the rule of thirds.
Figure 7. A Balanced and Formal View of Ascending Steps. The photograph of these steps effectively uses both the composition (arrangement) of the architectural details and the light coming down from a high angle. As rule 4 says, choose photographs with an impressive, interesting composition.
5. Select photographs with lighting that enhances the subject and reinforces the message.
Photographs, either in color or monochrome, record light in two dimensions, but we see in three dimensions. In a photograph, the illusion of three dimensions is created by the reflection of light at various angles off the subject(s). Proper lighting also produces shadows in a photograph, helping to create images and make the photograph more interesting.
Look at photographs with a critical eye. Is the existing light sufficient to provide depth and dimension? Light direction, for instance, is important in how we perceive an object.
Direct light from behind the camera makes colors bright but may reduce detail and texture in the background. Sometimes, objects may seem flat. In Figure 8, the direct light from behind the camera throws the emphasis on the tiger, and the overall impression is more two-dimensional than three-dimensional.
Figure 8. A Tiger in Direct Light (from Behind the Camera). Notice that the light tends to flatten the image of the tiger. The tiger’s face, which is offset to the left, illustrates the rule of thirds, as discussed above in rule 4.
Side light emphasizes shape, texture, and detail, but it also can accentuate only those features you want readers to focus on. In figure 9, the light coming from the left of the picture highlights dramatically the glass vial and the gloved hand holding the vial. Notice that the side lighting gives the ice and the other vials a jewel-like texture. Also, as in this figure, side lighting often fades out any background details, most of which would likely be irrelevant to the point of this photograph.
Figure 9. Side Light on a Hand Holding a Vial. The light comes from the left of the picture and highlights the hand and its interaction with the vial. Notice that background details vanish into darkness because the side light is falling on the vial and the ice.
Back light is especially dramatic. A subject lit only with a back light is a silhouette. Added side, overhead, or direct light can create a striking photo. This can be the most difficult lighting to do well because often the photo will be over- or under-exposed. Figure 10 uses back lighting to convert the two standing figures into silhouettes. The interaction between the two figures is the focus of the photograph, as expressed in their body postures and the extended hand of the figure on the left. Notice that the photograph does not include any distracting details, such as their facial expressions or their clothing.
Figure 10. Back Light of a Business Conversation. The back lighting makes the images of the men dramatic, even energetic. Small details, such as the facial features of the man facing the camera, are not the purpose or goal of the photograph.
6. Choose a photograph with an angle that best shows your subject and reinforces your purpose.
The angle from which a photograph was taken is often not particularly obvious, but it still affects how viewers interpret the picture.
A normal straight-on, frontal shot is often the choice for routine photos.
This angle (or lack of an angle) would be appropriate for a control panel or for a static display.
In many other contexts, however, different angles would produce more interesting effects.
A picture taken from a low camera angle accents the subject and makes it more impressive, perhaps even dominant. Too obvious an angle, however, will make the subject seem distorted, so be cautious in choosing low-angle shots. Figure 11 is an example of an extremely low-angle shot. Notice that it makes the man seem to be unrealistically tall. As with any such shot, this lack of realism was likely the photographer’s goal, especially if the photographer wanted to show a commanding figure, with implications of control. The man is also looking into the distance, as if to signal vision and determination. As rule 1 suggests, you (and a photographer) must choose photographs to fit your intended message.
Figure 11. A Low-Angle Photograph of an Engineer. The extremely low angle makes the figure seem unrealistically tall, yet also powerful and in command of a situation. This message may well have been the photographer’s goal in this instance. In other cases, however, this picture might not be acceptable precisely because it is unrealistic.
A picture taken from a high camera angle makes human subjects more abstract and appear less human. The image of the man in figure 12 is overshadowed by the mechanisms around him; the raised angle further de-emphasizes the man.
Figure 12. Operator of Assembly-Line Equipment. Both the raised angle and the foregrounding of the equipment de-emphasize the role of the man.
7. Use color photographs to enhance the effectiveness of your document or presentation.
Color photographs provide more information than a black-and-white (monochrome) picture. Colors convey tints, hues, and textures that no monochrome can hope to convey. As figure 13 (the inset color version and its monochrome version) shows, a color photograph has richer details and a sharpness of focus. If you need to print in only one or two colors, either take monochrome pictures or pictures that have a full range of contrast and color shades. See COLOR.
Figure 13. A Monochrome Version of a Color Photo. As the small inset photo shows, the original photograph was in color. The monochrome print is still effective even though it has fewer contrasts between light and dark areas and between different hues or shades of color. (Photo courtesy of Bill Grubbs)
Reproduction quality remains an issue, whether you are using color or monochrome photos. Some printers make photographic images fuzzy or indistinct. In other cases, the final colors may not be true to the original image. So be sure to print a trial version of a photograph. Validate that the quality is what you or your client expects.
Sometimes a photograph can be the background for a page of text. Figure 1 is an example of this technique. If you decide to use a photographic background, experiment with the color balance of the picture. Sometimes you might shift the main color toward blue or even fade it out toward a neutral tan or even white, rather than a high-contrast black-and-white.
8. Establish the size, scale, and orientation of the objects in a photograph.
A photograph can be puzzling to viewers if the size, scale, or orientation of an image is not immediately obvious.
When the size of an image is not obvious, include rulers, a human hand, or common objects in the photograph to make the scale obvious. As options, use a ballpoint pen, a key, or a coin next to the main image. This technique is illustrated in figure 14, where the size of the circuit board would have been uncertain without the accompanying figure of an American one-cent coin.
Figure 14. Close-Up of a Computer Circuit Board. The American one-cent coin shows how tiny the circuitry is.
For similar reasons, geographical photographs may also be puzzling. Often viewers would need to know from which direction a picture was taken. The freeway interchange in figure 15, for instance, could run either north and south or east and west. If the orientation is important, then, as in figure 15, insert an arrow showing which direction would be north.
Figure 15. Freeway Interchange. The superimposed arrow in the lower right corner shows the north/south orientation of the interstate in the photo.
Plurals
Plurals of most nouns and pronouns are signaled by their spelling. Such changes are no problem if they follow the regular pattern: an –s or an –es added to the singular form makes the plural form:
report + s = reports
book + s = books
church + es = churches
tax + es = taxes
Problems arise when the plural does not follow the regular pattern:
The following discussion covers these and other irregular plurals. The best guide, however, is a good recent dictionary. See REFERENCES, NOUNS, and SPELLING.
1. Check a list of irregular forms to determine the correct plural, especially those plurals borrowed from Latin or other languages:
addendum, addenda
agendum, agenda
alga, algae
alumnus, alumni (masc. or mixed)
alumna, alumnae (fem.)
antenna, antennas (antennae, zoology)
appendix, appendixes (or appendices)
axis, axes
basis, bases
cactus, cactuses
calix, calices
cicatrix, cicatrices
Co., Cos.
coccus, cocci
consortium, consortia
crisis, crises
criterion, criteria
curriculum, curriculums (or curricula)
datum, data
desideratum, desiderata
ellipsis, ellipses
equilibrium, equilibriums (equilibria, scientific)
erratum, errata
executrix, executrices
focus, focuses
folium, folia
formula, formulas
fungus, fungi
genus, genera
gladiolus (singular and plural)
helix, helices
hypothesis, hypotheses
index, indexes (indices, scientific)
lacuna, lacunae
larva, larvae
larynx, larynxes
lens, lenses
locus, loci
madam, mesdames
matrix, matrices
medium, mediums (or media)
memorandum, memorandums (better memo, memos)
minutia, minutiae
nucleus, nuclei
oasis, oases
octopus, octopuses
opus, opera
parenthesis, parentheses
phylum, phyla
plateau, plateaus
radius, radii
radix, radixes
referendum, referendums
septum, septa
seta, setae
stimulus, stimuli
stratum, strata
stylus, styluses
syllabus, syllabuses (or syllabi)
symposium, symposia
synopsis, synopses
terminus, termini
testatrix, testatrices
thesaurus, thesauri
thesis, theses
thorax, thoraxes
vertebra, vertebras (vertebrae, zoology)
virtuoso, virtuosos
vortex, vortexes
NOTE 1: Many of the above forms now have regular plurals (appendix, appendixes or memorandum, memorandums). However, some editors still prefer the irregular forms (usually based on the word’s origin in Latin or another language: appendices, memoranda). The longer a word is in English, the stronger the tendency is to make the plural conform to the regular English pattern (adding an –s or –es to the singular form).
NOTE 2: Data (the plural of datum) is now used as both a singular and plural form. In everyday conversation or informal writing, the singular is common:
Data shows that the new . . .
In technical contexts, the plural is usually preferred:
Test data show that a high correlation exists between . . .
See WORD PROBLEMS.
NOTE 3: Though many of these words come from other languages, they are now sufficiently English words and do not need underlining or italics. See ITALICS and UNDERLINING.
2. Add the plural ending (usually –s or –es) to the most significant word in compound terms:
attorneys at law
bills of fare
brothers-in-law
comptrollers general
daughters-in-law
goings-on
grants in aid
lookers-on
reductions in force
surgeons general
assistant chiefs of staff
assistant surgeons general
assistant attorneys
deputy judges
lieutenant colonels
trade unions
hand-me-downs
higher-ups
pick-me-ups
3. Add an –es to form the plural of nouns ending in –o with a preceding consonant:
echo, echoes
potato, potatoes
tomato, tomatoes
veto, vetoes
NOTE: This rule has many exceptions, so if in doubt, check a good dictionary. See REFERENCES. Here are some of the common exceptions:
dynamo, dynamos
Eskimo, Eskimos
ghetto, ghettos
halo, halos
indigo, indigos
magneto, magnetos
octavo, octavos
piano, pianos
sirocco, siroccos
two, twos
zero, zeros
4. Add an –s or sometimes an apostrophe plus an –s to form the coined plurals of abbreviations, titles, figures, letters, and symbols:
ABC’s or ABCs
COD’s or CODs
g ’s
OK’s or OKs
1 by 4’s
SOS’s
the three Rs
NOTE: Use the apostrophe only if necessary. Save the apostrophe to show possession, as in John’s hat. The trend is for the apostrophe to vanish, leaving the simple –s to signal that the item is a plural. See APOSTROPHES.
5. Plurals of pronouns, when they exist, are very irregular:
See PRONOUNS.
Possessives
Possessives are those forms of nouns and pronouns that show ownership or, in some cases, other close relationships:
Ownership
IBM’s service booklet
Mr. Vaughan’s store
his store
Susan’s desk
her desk
Lewis’ (or Lewis’s) report
the engineer’s schedule
the Lewises’ house
Other relationships
the book’s cover
its cover
the corporation’s support
his lawyer’s consent
the captain’s story
a summer’s day
a day’s absence
a doctor’s degree
three years’ experience
NOTE: Noun possessive forms routinely require an apostrophe or an apostrophe plus an –s. See APOSTROPHES.
1. Distinguish between true possessives and descriptive terms:
Possessives (whose . . . )
Exxon’s reply
the employee’s record
Oregon’s laws
the Smiths’ house
Descriptive terms (what kind of . . . )
an Exxon reply
the employee record
Oregon laws
the Smith house
NOTE 1: Either form of the above phrases is correct, so decide which form you prefer and then be consistent within the same document. See ADJECTIVES.
NOTE 2: The names of countries, governmental units, and organized groups ending in –s usually do not require apostrophes:
the United States plan
a Massachusetts statute
the mineworkers court case
a United Nations publication
2. Add an apostrophe and an –s to form the possessive of singular nouns not ending in –s and for plural nouns not ending in –s:
the cat’s paw
Anne’s statement
a man’s coat
men’s coats
an accountant’s books
the children’s payments
3. Add only an apostrophe to form the possessive for both plural nouns and singular nouns ending in –s or an –s sound:
General Dynamics’ proposal
Sears’ 4th Quarter Report
Penneys’ reaction
the boss’ idea
James’ speech
for goodness’ sake
NOTE: Some editors and writers prefer to add both an apostrophe and an –s, especially if the new word has an extra syllable:
General Dynamics’s proposal
the actress’s script
the boss’s idea
James’s speech
Use of this extra –s is, however, declining.
4. Use only a single apostrophe plus –s when joint possession is intended:
Susan and Harry’s proposal
Irene and Sam’s book
NOTE: As in the preceding examples, joint possession is usually clear when the two people possess only a single item. But when plural objects or items are involved, the meaning is sometimes ambigious:
Irene and Sam’s books
Do Irene and Sam own all books jointly? From this sentence it is hard to tell, so a clearer version would be this one:
Irene’s and Sam’s books
or
Irene’s books and Sam’s books
5. Add an apostrophe plus an –s to the end of personal and organizational names and abbreviations showing possession:
Sears and Roebuck’s policy
Charles F. Shook’s decision
the Odd Fellows’s initiation (or Odd Fellows’ initiation)
Dewey, Cheatum, and Howe’s corporate policy
HUD’s policy
BLM’s guidelines
NOTE: Corporate and organizational practices vary, so if possible, check the letterhead or other correspondence for exceptional cases:
American Bankers Association
Steelworkers Union
Investors Profit Sharing
See APOSTROPHES.
6. Do not use an apostrophe to form the possessives of personal pronouns and of the relative pronoun who:
My secretary had mine.
Your supervisor had hers.
The company lost its comptroller.
We refused to pay for ours.
They lost theirs when the market fell.
He mentioned his.
Whose report is this?
NOTE 1: These are the possessive forms of personal pronouns: my/mine, your/yours, his, her/hers, its, our/ours, their/theirs. In cases with two forms, the first form must come before the noun it possesses and the second form comes after the verb, with its noun implied:
They were her ideas.
The ideas were hers.
NOTE 2: Distinguish between possessive forms without apostrophes and contractions with apostrophes:
The pump had lost its cover.
We decided that it’s (it is) time to redrill.
He had changed his job recently.
He’s changing his job.
Whose idea was this?
Who’s going to be at the meeting?
See APOSTROPHES.
7. Add apostrophes to form the possessives of indefinite pronouns:
anyone else’s task
one’s ideas
the other’s notion
the others’ schedules
anybody’s recommendation
someone else’s job
8. Be aware that possessives sometimes occur without a following noun:
My ideas are like Sue’s.
His nose is like a bloodhound’s.
I’ll be at Jim’s.
She was at the doctor’s.
NOTE: Large, established companies sometimes violate the usual rule (singular form plus an apostrophe and an –s):
We conducted a survey at Woolworths.
Harrods is splitting its stock.
9. Use a possessive to modify an –ing form of a verb used as a noun:
Bill’s speaking to my boss helped.
I objected to his working on the rig overnight.
I admired Sue’s planning.
Prepositions
Prepositions are words that connect or relate nouns and pronouns to preceding words and phrases:
The engineer moved from his desk.
The plans for the new substation have yet to be completed.
The case against her became even more convincing.
There is truth in what you say.
The firm submitted a summary of the specifications.
The simple prepositions are at, by, in, on, down, from, off, out, through, to, up, for, of, and with. More complex, even phrasal, prepositions also exist: against, beneath, in front of, on top of, on board, according to, on account of, by means of, etc.
Although they number less than a hundred, prepositions are essential words in English. Most normal sentences contain one or more prepositions.
1. Do not be overly concerned if you end a sentence with a preposition.
For over a thousand years English has had normal sentences that ended with prepositions:
That’s something we can’t put up with.
The Universal acquisition is the most difficult deal we’ve gotten into.
This is the report I’ve been telling you about.
She’s the accountant you spoke to.
This project is the one that you objected to.
Winston Churchill was once corrected for ending a sentence with a preposition, and he supposedly replied, “That is the sort of English up with which I will not put.”
As Churchill’s witty reply indicates, many English sentences sound awkward if you try to avoid ending them with prepositions:
The Universal acquisition is the most difficult deal into which we’ve gotten.
This is the report about which I told you.
She is the accountant to whom you spoke.
This project is the one to which you objected.
Make your sentences as simple, smooth, and direct as possible, and don’t worry about such misconceptions as not ending a sentence with a preposition. The fact is, a preposition is a fine word to end a sentence with.
2. Omit certain prepositions if you can do so without changing the meaning.
In each of the following sentences, the preposition within parentheses is unnecessary. In the last sentence, at is both unnecessary and incorrect.
All (of) the engineers visited the site.
We moved the pipe off (of) the loading dock.
The filing cabinet is too near (to) the door.
We met (at) about 8 p.m.
Where are they (at)?
Generally, native speakers of English can be guided by their innate sense of what constitutes smooth and clear uses of prepositions. See MODIFIERS.
3. Distinguish between the prepositions between and among.
Between usually refers to two things, while among refers to more than two things. However, between can also refer to more than two things if each of the things is compared to all the others as a group:
The judge divided the land between the two parties. (not among)
The judge divided the land among a dozen parties. (not between)
We had trouble deciding between the two pumps. (not among)
We carefully analyzed the differences between the six alternatives. (or among)
We had trouble deciding among all the possible small trucks. (or between)
See among/between in WORD PROBLEMS.
Presentations
Presentations have much in common with documents. Both should have at least one specific purpose and an identified audience. If you want to accomplish the purpose of your presentation and get your audience to know, do, and feel what you want, you must plan your presentation with care and deliver it with confidence.
1. Develop your presentation according to standards of effective design and delivery.
Presentations consist of two equally important elements—design (organization) and delivery.
The design and delivery standards that we recommend in rules 2 through 9 apply generally to effective presentations. However, if you are delivering a presentation for a particular professional society or for a technical organization, you may find that they have special requirements you should strive to follow.
2. Identify clearly the purpose of your presentation.
Nothing is more important for an effective presentation than having a clear purpose—knowing specifically what you want your audience to do, to know, and to feel.
Identifying the purpose is important — not only for yourself in the planning phase of the presentation, but for the aid of your audience as well:
Today I intend to explain the benefits of the TTCL proposal and recommend that we accept it.
The purpose of my remarks this evening is to encourage you to reject the formation of a new water district.
Unless you, as a presenter, have a clear understanding of the purpose of your presentation, you cannot expect your audience to know what you hope to achieve with it. See ORGANIZATION.
3. Analyze your audience and plan your presentation to meet their needs.
To be truly effective as a presenter, you must know as much about your audience—their needs, desires, biases, etc.—as you can, even before you plan your presentation.
In addition to general information about audiences (e.g., that the attention span of the average adult is somewhere between 20 and 30 minutes), you would be wise to learn as much as you can about your specific audience. Ask yourself and others these questions:
—Who will be there? Why?
—What are their expectations?
—What do they need or want from me?
—What do they already know about the topic? How much or how little?
—What biases do they have?
—What questions will they have?
Many otherwise well-planned presentations have failed simply because the presenter knew too little about the audience, as in the case of the politician who unwisely called for an end to public old-age assistance at a convention of retired people.
4. Assess the situation in which you will deliver your presentation.
By “situation,” we mean the time, setting, and occasion of the presentation.
If your purpose is to win audience support, for example, you may find that you could do just the opposite—simply by allowing your presentation to run 15 minutes overtime.
The setting can be a major factor in the overall effectiveness of your presentation. If possible, go beforehand to the place where you will deliver your presentation. That will give you a good idea of the advantages and disadvantages of the setting. Consider any possible changes that may contribute to a better situation (room setup, seating, lighting, your position in relation to the audience, screen visibility, etc.).
The occasion will often dictate certain elements of your presentation, such as the degree of formality, the use of visual aids, and even the type of clothing you choose to wear.
5. Build the evidence necessary to support your points.
Once you have determined the main points of your presentation, make sure that you provide enough (but not too much) evidence to support those points adequately. Among the types of support available, you may select the following:
Definition
Increased control means you’ll be able to make your own decision about your investments.
Explanation
Each of you will be able to direct your money into 10 available funds.
Example
I divided my money among three different funds and am very pleased with the returns.
Testimony
Our comptroller, Brenda Lewis, estimates your return will be between 5 and 7 percent.
Statistics
Our former plan returned only half a percentage point last quarter.
See THINKING STRATEGIES.
6. Organize your message logically.
Organization is one of the keys to effective presentations. Unless you can lead your audience logically through your presentation, they may miss the points you are trying to make.
Preview your main points when you present your message. Basically, tell the audience very briefly what you intend to talk about:
These are the three reasons my committee chose Acme Plumbing:
1. Next to lowest price
2. Existing contracts with similar firms
3. Branch office less than 10 minutes away
One organizational technique that works very well is what we call the “Triple-S formula”:
State your point.
Support your point.
Summarize your point.
Use and even repeat this organization—to ensure a logical flow, a solid format, and a convincing message. This kind of repetition increases the likelihood that your audience will remember your key points. Repetition improves retention. The Triple-S formula will work for your entire presentation or for each subpoint or subtopic.
7. Design graphics that support your message.
Graphics (graphs, charts, tables, photographs, etc.) can be a valuable means of supporting your message. But avoid the tendency of using them too much. Some suggestions to keep in mind about the use of visuals in presentations:
—Use one primary visual to communicate your main point. This visual might be a comparison of two courses of action, a description of a process, or a graph that reveals a key trend. Whatever your main point is, visualize it in a simple and memorable way for your audience. Return to this primary visual at the end of your presentation to summarize the point.
—Keep the visuals simple, clear, and uncluttered. If a complicated graph or chart is essential to your purpose, distribute a handout of it so audience members can see and understand it.
—Use no more graphics than you need to convey your message. A common mistake presenters make is to “firehose” the audience with dozens of slides.
—Consider taking a low-tech approach instead of using a computer projector. A simple whiteboard or paper flip chart allows you more spontaneity in drawing visuals and capturing information from the audience.
—Be cautious about using multimedia for your presentation. The more complex the stew of video, animations, and sound effects, the more likely you are to have a technical problem. Your message can get lost in the technology. Unless the situation requires multimedia, most business audiences prefer a simple visual presentation.
—Put informative headings on graphics, not just mysterious one- or two-word labels. See HEADINGS.
For additional suggestions regarding the use of graphics, see GRAPHICS FOR PRESENTATIONS, CHARTS, GRAPHS, ILLUSTRATIONS, LISTS, MAPS, PHOTOGRAPHS, and TABLES.
8. Deliver your presentation engagingly and with confidence.
Delivery is just as important as good organization and design.
Without an effective delivery, even an excellent message may suffer.
Excellent delivery results to a great extent from practicing effective delivery techniques. Among the techniques that contribute to effective stand-up presentations are the following:
—Approach and leave the podium with confidence.
—Begin your presentation with a relevant attention-getter. A brief personal story is often the most effective way to start, or you could begin with a startling fact or a provocative question.
—Do not read your presentation (although you may refer to notes for specific information).
—Speak clearly, confidently, and with enthusiasm.
—Vary your voice in pitch, volume, and rate of speed.
—Use appropriate (and natural) gestures, facial expressions, and body movements.
—Maintain good eye contact with members of your audience. Talk to individuals, not to a crowd.
—End with a powerful call to action.
9. If appropriate, invite your audience to participate.
Tell your audience when and if you would welcome comments or questions.
In formal situations, you might decide to reserve questions until after your presentation. This strategy allows you to finish all of your prepared content.
In less formal situations, plan to stop to ask for an exchange of ideas. If you have just finished with an example of cost-saving techniques, you might turn to the audience with a question:
What are some cost-saving steps you noticed?
or
What steps would be necessary to implement the cost-saving techniques I just outlined?
Notice that both of the preceding questions are substantive, requiring examples or facts. Avoid dead-end yes/no questions:
Do any of you have ideas?
How many of you here thought the same thing?