Contents

Forewords

Preface

Acknowledgments

Reviewers

Contributors

Drafting

Support Personnel

Contributing Authors

Special Recognition and Thanks from Daniel J. Tearpock

Special Recognition and Thanks from Richard E. Bischke

Special Recognition and Thanks from David C. Metzner

Special Recognition and Thanks from James C. Brenneke

About the Authors

In Memoriam Daniel J. Tearpock

Richard E. Bischke

James C. Brenneke

David C. Metzner

Chapter 1 Introduction to Subsurface Mapping

Textbook Overview

The Philosophical Doctrine of Accurate Subsurface Interpretation and Mapping

Mentors and Mentoring

Types of Subsurface Maps and Cross Sections

Chapter 2 Contouring and Contouring Techniques

Introduction

Three-Dimensional Perspective

Calculation of Bed Dip

Rules of Contouring

Methods of Contouring by Hand

Computer-Based Contouring Concepts and Applications

Surface Modeling

Steps Involved in Gridding

Conformable Geology and Multisurface Stacking

Contouring Faulted Surfaces on the Computer

Chapter 3 Measuring Depth, Directionally Drilled Wells, and Directional Surveys

Introduction

Vertical Wells

Surface Location Uncertainty

Well Depth

Wireline Depth Measurements

LWD Depth Measurements

Pipe-Conveyed Log Depth Measurement

Relative Depth Uncertainty

Absolute Depth Uncertainty

Directionally Drilled Wells

Application of Directionally Drilled Wells

Common Types of Directionally Drilled Wells

General Terminology

Horizontal Wells

Directional Well Plan

Directional Tools Used for Measurements

Magnetic Surveys

Nonmagnetic Surveys

Survey Frequency

Directional Survey Calculations

Directional Survey Uncertainties

Sag Correction in MWD Directional Surveys

Directional Well Plots

Wells Without Directional Surveys

Reservoir Pressures

Chapter 4 Log Correlation Techniques

Introduction

General Log Measurement Terminology

Electric Log Correlation Procedures and Guidelines

Correlation Type Log

Electric Log Correlation—Vertical Wells

Log Correlation Plan

Basic Concepts in Electric Log Correlation

Faults Versus Variations in Stratigraphy

Pitfalls in Vertical Well Log Correlation

Electric Log Correlation—Directionally Drilled Wells

Log Correlation Plan

Correlation of Vertical and Directionally Drilled Wells

Estimating the Missing Section for Normal Faults

MLT, TVDT, TVT, AND TST

Electric Log Correlation—Horizontal Wells

Direct Detection of Bed Boundaries

Modeling Log Response of Bed Boundaries and Fluid Contacts

True Vertical Depth Cross Section

True Stratigraphic Depth Method

Computer-Based Log Correlation

Well Log Correlation: The Transition from Paper-Based to Screen-Based

On-Screen Log Correlation

Example of Unconformity Identification

Example of Fault Identification

Repeated Section

Estimating Restored Tops

Vertical Wells

Deviated Wells

Unconformities

Annotation and Documentation

Chapter 5 Integration of Geophysical Data in Subsurface Mapping

Introduction and Philosophy

Seismic Data Applied to Subsurface Interpretations

Assumptions and Limitations

The Process

Data Validation and Interpretation

Examining the Seismic Sections

Concepts in Tying Seismic Data

Procedures in Tying Seismic Data

Mis-Ties

Data Extraction

Picking and Posting

Converting Time to Depth

Some Final Thoughts on Seismic Mapping

Chapter 6 Cross Sections

Introduction

Planning a Cross Section

Structural Cross Sections

Electric Log Sections

Stick Sections

Stratigraphic Cross Sections

Problem-Solving Cross Sections

Finished Illustration (Show) Cross Sections

Correlation Sections

Cross-Section Design

Extensional Structures

Diapiric Salt Structures

Compressional Structures

Strike-Slip Faulted Structures

Vertical Exaggeration

Projection of Wells

Plunge Projection

Strike Projection

Other Types of Projections

Projection of Deviated Wells

Projecting a Well into a Seismic Line

Cross-Section Construction Across Faults

Three-Dimensional Views

Log Maps

Fence Diagrams

Isometric Projections

Three-Dimensional Reservoir Analysis Model

Cross-Section Construction Using a Computer

Correlation Cross Sections

Stratigraphic Cross Sections

Structural Cross Sections

Fault-Seal Analysis

Fault Surface Sections Constructed by Hand

Computer-Based Fault-Seal Analysis

Conclusions

Chronostratigraphic Sections

Chapter 7 Fault Maps

Introduction

Fault Terminology

Definition of Fault Displacement

Mathematical Relationship of Throw to Vertical Separation

Quantitative Relationship

Fault Data Determined From Well Logs

Fault Surface Map Construction

Contouring Guidelines

Fault Surface Map Construction Techniques

Types of Fault Patterns

Extensional Faulting

Compressional Faulting

Fault Data Determined from Seismic Information

Seismic and Well Log Data Integration—Fault Surface Map Construction

Seismic Pitfalls

Growth Faults

Estimating the Vertical Separation for a Growth Fault

Growth-Fault Surface Map Construction

Directional Surveys and Fault Surface Maps

Directional Well Pitfalls

Fault Maps, Directional Wells, and Repeated Sections

Vertical Separation—Correction Factor and Documentation

Chapter 8 Structure Maps

Introduction

Guidelines to Contouring

Summary of the Methods of Contouring by Hand

Contouring Faulted Surfaces

Techniques for Contouring across Normal Faults

Technique for Contouring across Reverse Faults

Manual Integration of Fault and Structure Maps

Normal Faults

Reverse Faults

Fault Traces and Gaps—Shortcuts and Pitfalls

Rule of 45

Tangent or Circle Method

New Circle Method

Equation to Determine Radius of Circle

Equation to Determine Heave

Fault Gap Versus Fault Heave

Structure Map—Generic Case Study

The Additive Property of Faults

Integration of Seismic and Well Data for Structure Mapping

Other Mapping Techniques

Mapping Unconformities

Mapping across Vertical Faults

Top of Structure Versus Top of Porosity

Contour Compatibility—Closely Spaced Horizons

Application of Contour Compatibility Across Faults

Exceptions to Contour Compatibility across Faults

Mapping Techniques for Various Tectonic Habitats

Extensional Tectonics

Diapiric Salt Tectonics

Strike-Slip Fault Tectonics

Compressional Tectonics

Requirements For a Reasonable Structural Interpretation and Completed Maps

Multiple Horizon Mapping

Perched Water

Chapter 9 Interpretation of Three-Dimensional Seismic Data

Introduction and Philosophy

The Philosophical Doctrine Relative to the Workstation

Data Optimization

Work Environment

Optimizing Interpretation in Three-Dimensional Space

Framework Interpretation and Mapping

Planning an Effective Three-Dimensional Interpretation Project

The Role of the Geoscientist

Developing an Interpretation Workflow

Organizing a Workstation Project

Documenting Work

Fault Interpretation

Introduction

Reconnaissance

Tying Wells Using Synthetic Seismograms

Integrating Well Control

Fault Interpretation Strategies

Horizon Interpretation

Selecting the Framework Horizons

Interpretation Strategy

Autotracking Methodology

Manual Interpretation Methodology

Infill Strategies in the Absence of Autotracking

Structure Mapping

Drawing Accurate Fault Gaps and Overlaps

Depth Conversion

The Basic Methodology

Final Steps

Quality Control of the Results

Creating and Contouring the Target Map

Conclusion

Chapter 10 Compressional Structures: Balancing and Interpretation

Introduction

Structural Geology and Balancing

Mechanical Stratigraphy

Classical Balancing Techniques

Volume Accountability Rule

Area Accountability

Bed Length Consistency

Pin Lines

Line-Length Exercise

Computer-Aided Structural Modeling and Balancing

Retrodeformation

Locating Thrust Faults on Dip and Strike Lines

Picking Thrust Faults on Dip Lines

The 3D Interpretation of the Waha Field, West Texas

Three-Dimensional Models of Lateral Ramps

Distinguishing Structural from Stratigraphic Dips

Cross-Section Consistency

Cross-Section Construction

Busk Method Approximation

Kink Method Approximation

Kink Method Applications

Depth-To-Detachment Calculations

Nonclassical Methods

Introduction

Suppe’s Assumptions and Dahlstrom’s Rules

Fault Bend Folds

Fault Propagation Folds

Determining Structural Styles to Reduce Risk Using Qualitative and Quantitative Techniques

Qualitative Observations for Determining Structural Styles

Quantitative Methods for Determining Structural Styles

Real Fault Bend Fold and Fault Propagation Data

Fault Bend Folds

Fault Propagation Folds

Conclusions

Imbricate Structures

Box and Lift-Off Structures

Triangle Zones and Wedge Structures

Interference Structures

Chapter 11 Extensional Structures: Balancing and Interpretation

Introduction

Origin of Hanging Wall (Rollover) Anticlines

Coulomb Collapse Theory

Growth Sedimentation

A Graphical Dip Domain Technique for Projecting Large Growth Faults to Depth

Rollover Geometry Features

Projecting Large Normal Faults to Depth

Procedures for Projecting Large Normal Faults to Depth

Determining the Coulomb Collapse Angles from Rollover Structures

Origin of Synthetic and Antithetic Faults, Keystone Structures, and Downward Dying Growth Faults

Backsliding Process

Three-Dimensional Effects and Cross Structures

Strike-Ramp Pitfall

Compaction Effects Along Growth Normal Faults

Prospect Example

Inverting Fault Dips to Determine Sand/Shale Ratios or Percent Sand

Example from Corsair Fault Offshore Texas

Using Structural Relief and Throw to Predict the Downthrown Stratigraphic Section

Topics

Linear Growth

Calculations and Examples

A Pregrowth Structure

Accuracy of Methods

Growth Structure and Calculations

Syndepositional Growth Models

Uniform Growth

Low Variances in Growth Sedimentation

High Variations in Growth

The Growth Axial Surface Increases Dip

The Growth Axial Surface Decreases Dip

Large Growth, Multibend Structure

Real Structures

Seismic

Corsair Trend/Brazos Ridge Offshore Texas

Haynesville Shale Play, Texas/Louisiana

Well Log Data

Unconformity in Shale Basin

Conclusions

Chapter 12 Strike-Slip Faults and Associated Structures

Introduction

Mapping Strike-Slip Faults

The Problem of Strike-Slip Fault Interpretation

Strain Ellipse Model

Problems Interpreting Stress

Stress Measurements across Strike-Slip Faults

Criteria for Strike-Slip Faulting

Analysis of Lateral Displacements

Surface Features

Piercing Point or Piercing Line Evidence

Scaling Factors for Strike-Slip Displacements

Balancing Strike-Slip Faults

Compressional Folding along Strike-Slip Faults

Extensional Folding along Strike-Slip Faults

Summary for Section

General Conclusions for Chapter 12

Chapter 13 Growth Structures

Introduction

Expansion Index for Growth Faults

Multiple Bischke Plot Analysis and ∆d/d Methods

Method

Common Extensional Growth Patterns

Unconformity Patterns

Accuracy of Method

Examples of the ∆d/d Method

Generic Example of a Delta

Applying the ∆d/d Method to Seismic Data

Resolving a Log Correlation Problem

An Example of Stratigraphic Interpretation

Locating Sequence Boundaries in a Compressional Growth Structure

Analysis of the Timing of a Strike-Slip Growth Structure

The Multiple Bischke Plot Analysis

MBPA to Recognize Correlation Problems

The Use of a Stacked Multiple Bischke Plot

Vertical Separation Versus Depth Method

Method

Generic and Real Examples of Analysis of VS/d Plots

Conclusions

Chapter 14 Isochore and Isopach Maps

Introduction

Sand–Shale Distribution

Basic Construction of Isochore Maps

Bottomwater Reservoir

Edgewater Reservoir

Methods of Contouring the Hydrocarbon Wedge

Limited Well Control and Evenly Distributed Impermeable Rock

Walking Wells—Unevenly Distributed Impermeable Rock

Vertical Thickness Determinations

The Impact of Correction Factors

TVT Correction (Setchell’s Equation) Discussion

Vertical Thickness and Fluid Contacts in Deviated Wells

Mapping the Top of Structure Versus the Top of Porosity

Fault Wedges

Conventional Method for Mapping a Fault Wedge

Mid-Trace Method

Nonsealing Faults

Volumetric Configuration of a Reservoir

Reservoir Volume Determinations From Isochore Maps

Tilted Hydrocarbon/Water Contacts

Introductory Reservoir Engineering

Reservoir Characterization

Estimation of Reserves

Field Production History

Interval Isopach Maps

True Stratigraphic Thickness from Well Logs

Interval Isopach Construction Using Seismic Data

Appendix

References

Index

Credits

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