Note to reader: illustrations are indicated by italicized page numbers.
Abiotic Resource Depletion Potential (ADP), 254
Acidification Potential (AP), 253–254
ADP (Abiotic Resource Depletion Potential), 254
Africa, energy use and generation, 239–244
Agriculture residues, 27
Alkaline electrolyzers, 205, 207
Ammonia fiber explosion, 100
Amylases, 113
Anaerobic digestion, 117–120, 118
AP (Acidification Potential), 253–254
Ash, 90
Asia (excluding China), energy use and generation, 239–244
Autohydrolysis, 100
car batteries, 196
Ni-MH, 198
redox flow, 201
sodium-metal halide, 201
vanadium redox, 201–203, 202, 203
Becquerel, Edmund, 59
Betz limit, 135
Binary-cycle geothermal plants, 37, 143–146
environmental impact, 253
process flow sheet, 121
worldwide consumption, 244, 244–245
in Brazil, 265
environmental impact, 253
worldwide consumption, 244, 244–245
Biofuels, advantages of, 16
BioGrace, 255
Biomass. See also Biomass, biochemical treatment of; Biomass pretreatment; Biomass, thermochemical processing of, 27–28
algal, 91–93, 101–103, 119–120, 124
comparison with other fuels, 84–85
conversion process, 40
effect of moisture on, 85
potential total energy of, 28, 83
storage of, 94
thermochemical processing, 104–112
transformations, 39–40, 40, 103, 103–123
unbound moisture in, 93
use since ancient times, 83
in world energy mix, 241
Biomass, biochemical treatment of, 83, 112–120
anaerobic digestion, 117–120, 118
biochemical biomass systems defined, 83
enzymatic hydrolysis of biomass, 113–116
fermentation of sugars, 116–117
pretreatment in, 112
Biomass energy systems. See also Biomass; Biomass, biochemical treatment of; Biomass, thermochemical processing of, Biomass pretreatment, 83–124
biochemical treatment of biomass, 112–120
biomass energy lipid extraction and conversion to biodiesel, 120–121
biomass transformations, 103–123
transformations and chemical processes in, 83–124
Biomass pretreatment, 94–103, 102
acid pretreatment, 96
alternatives, 95
oxidative, 97
Biomass, thermochemical processing of, 104–112
processes classified, 104
thermochemical biomass systems defined, 83
Bipolar membrane, in carbon dioxide reduction, 214
CAES (compressed air energy storage), 188, 192
Capacitive mixing (CAPMIX) systems, 166–167
Capacitive reverse electrodialysis (CRED), 168, 168–169
Capacity factor, for RESs, 179
CAPEX (overnight capital cost), 247
Capital recovery factor (CRF), 247
CAPMIX (capacitive mixing) systems, 166–167, 167
Carbohydrates in biomass, 86–88
Carbon dioxide, and global warming, 9
Carbon dioxide reduction, in methane synthesis, 212, 212–216
Carbon pricing, 267
Carnallite, 55
Carnot, Sadi, 279
CELF (co-solvent-enhanced lignocellulosic fractionation), 100
Cellotriose, 114
Cellubiose, 114
Cellulases, 113
Chemical energy, defined, 22
Chemical energy storage, 203–223, 231
carbon in, 211
ethanol in, 218
gravimetric energy density of various forms of, 203–204
merits and demerits of alternatives, 218–219
separations and processes in, 193–223
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD), 71–76, 74
China
energy policies, 263
energy use and generation, 239–244
Climate change
linkage to fossil fuel use, xv
and necessity of renewable energy sources, xvii–xviii
Co-firing
in combustion processing, 105–106
indirect / gasification, 106
parallel, 106
Co-solvent-enhanced lignocellulosic fractionation (CELF), 100
as dominant energy source, 240
Combustion processing, 104–106
Compressed air energy storage (CAES), 188, 192
Conduction band, 61
Conductive (hydrothermal) systems, 138
Conservation hypothesis, 3
Constants, important, 277
Convective (hydrothermal) systems, 138
COP 21 (congress of parties 21), 259–260
CRED (capacitive reverse electrodialysis), 168, 168–169
CRF (capital recovery factor), 247
Crops, 28
Crushed rock heat storage, 225, 227
CSP (concentrating solar power) systems, 45–59, 177–180, 258
heat transfer fluids compared, 58
second generation, 53
ternary salt combinations for, 55–57, 56
Dark fermentation, and hydrogen production, 122–123
Deep aquifers, 138
Direct photobiolysis, and hydrogen production, 122
Direct solidification (DS) process, 71, 72
Distillation, 117
Doping, 62
Dry steam power plant, 37
Dynamic electricity, defined, 184
Earth, interior structure, 24–26, 25
Economic indicators, and energy systems, 245
EGD (European Green Deal), 262
Electric vehicles, 5, 198, 200
as dominant application for RES, 32
global electricity generation, 240, 240
as most versatile currency, 5
Electricity consumption
Electrochemical capacitors, 185
Electrochemical energy storage, 189, 194–203, 231
comparison of alternatives, 203
Electrodes (in RED systems), 166
Electrons, and photovoltaic effect, 60–63
Electrostatic capacitors, 185
Energy. See also under individual topics
as driver of economic growth, 1–2
as master resource, 1
Energy carriers, defined, 4
Energy consumption, 239–245, 259–267
Energy currencies, defined, 4
Energy return on energy investment (EROEI)), 251–253
Energy sources
defined, 4
renewable. See Renewable energy sources
Energy storage. See also Energy storage systems
by conversion into chemical energy, 188–189, 193–223
by conversion into mechanical energy, 188–189
by conversion into thermal energy, 189–190, 223–230
defined, 184
as desirable feature for all energy systems, 183
electrical energy storage alternatives, 186
fundamentals and alternatives, 184–193
indirect, 187
Energy storage systems. See also Energy storage, 191–194, 193
applications of, 191–194, 193, 194
calendar and cycle life, 191
energy-power diagram, 193
environmental impact, 191
load leveling applications, 192
load shifting applications, 192
peak shaving applications, 192
power availability, 191
power quality management, 191–192
reliability, 191
round-trip efficiency, 191
standby applications, 192
storage capacity, 191
Energy system architecture, five elements of, 3–5, 4
Energy systems. See also RESs (renewable energy systems)
choice of, 5
economics and energy balance of, 245–253
environmental indicators, 245
physical indicators for, 245
social indicators, 246
Energy transformations, challenges of, xv–xvi
Energy transitions, role of public policy in, 259–267
Environmental impact. See also under individual technologies
damage cost of power technologies, 258, 258–259
of energy storage systems, 191
of renewable energy systems, 170
Environmental indicators, and energy systems, 245
Enzymatic hydrolysis of biomass, 113–116
EP (Eutrophication Potential), 254
EROEI (energy return on energy investment), 251–253
EROI (energy return on energy investment), 251–253
Ethanol. See also Bioethanol, 124
in chemical energy storage, 218, 219
European Green Deal (EGD), 262
European Union
energy use and generation, 239–244
Eutrophication Potential (EP), 254
Exergy
defined, 6
Faraday's law, 132
FBR (fluidized bed reactor), 69–70, 70
Feed-in tariffs, 266
Feedback hypothesis, 3
Fermentation of sugars, 116–117
Financial incentives in renewable strategies, 266
First Solar Civilizations, 16
Fischer-Tropsch process, 107, 124
Flash steam power plant, 36, 37
Float zone (FZ) process, 71
Fluidized bed reactor (FBR), 69–70, 70
Fluoride salts, 57
Flywheel energy storage, 187
Food crops, 124
ethical considerations re, 83, 93–94, 124
harvest timing, 94
Fossil resources. See also Climate change
as key to societal expansion, xv
resource limitations and climate change, 8–9
France. See also Paris Agreement, energy policies, 262–263
Frictional energy losses, 187–188
advantages, 220
direct ethanol (DEFC), 220, 222
direct methanol (DMFC), 220, 222, 222–223
molten carbonate (MCFC), 220–221, 221
phosphoric acid (PAFC), 220–221
polymer electrolyte membrane (PEMFC), 220, 220–221, 220–223
Fumasep® FBM, 214
Furnaces, in combustion processing, 105
Future of renewable energy, 1, 273–274
FZ (float zone) process, 71
Galvanic processes, 194
Gas-solid systems in TCS, 228–229
Gas turbine, principle of, 33
Gasification in biomass processing, 106–108
GDP, and energy consumption, 1–3, 2
Gen IV reactor systems, 15
Generators, principle of, 33
Geopressed energy, 26
Geothermal energy. See also Geothermal energy, transformations of, 143–144
history of, 131
source of, 22
vapor-dominated systems, 143
Geothermal energy, transformations of, 35–39, 138–146, 141
binary-cycle power plant, 143–146, 145
emissions of geothermal plants, 145–146
energy conversion technologies for, 141–146
enhanced geothermal systems, 145
flash steam power plant, 143, 144
liquid-dominated systems, 36
resources classified, 138–141, 139
space heating systems, 142
vapor-dominated systems, 36
Geothermal fields, 138
Germany, energy policies, 262
GhGenius, 255
GHGs (greenhouse gases)
emissions from various electricity generators, 255–259, 256
and fossil sources, 9
and renewable and fossil sources, 255–258
Gibbs energy, in ocean energy systems, 160
Global warming. See also Climate change, impact of, 9–11
Global Warming Potential (GWP), 253
Goodenough, John B., 198
Green gasoline, 111
Greenhouse gases (GHGs). See GHGs (greenhouse gases)
GREET, 255
GWP (Global Warming Potential), 253
H2@Scale initiative, 211
HAWTs (horizontal axis wind turbines), 34–35, 136
Heat exchange media in CSP systems, 51–59
Heliostats, 47
High temperature co-electrolysis (HTCE), 215–218
History, and standard of living, 1
Horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWTs), 34–35, 136
Hot dry rock energy, 26
HTCE (high temperature co-electrolysis), 215–218
Hubbert, M. King, 8
Hubbert's Peak, 8
Hybrid chlorine cycle, 210
Hybrid energy systems. See also Energy storage; Energy storage systems, 177–231
architecture, 182
Hydroelectric turbine, 34
in energy storage, 189, 204–211, 218–219
means to produce, 122–123, 209–211
Hydropower energy. See also Ocean energy; Ocean energy, transformations of, 267
conversion to electricity, 33
hydropower plant capacity, 133
as mechanical energy form, 22
potential total energy of, 30
as world's primary source of renewable energy, 135, 170, 267
Hydrothermal liquefaction, 109–110
reactions in, 111
India, energy policies, 264
Indirect photobiolysis, and hydrogen production, 122
Industrial Revolution, 273, xvii
as milestone, xv
Insolation, 178
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 9–11
Intermittency, 230
Internal energy forms, defined, 22
Ion exchange membrane (in RED systems), 166
Kalina, Alexander, 282
Kaplan turbine, 133
Kinetic energy, defined, 22
Kyoto Protocol, 10
LACE (levelized avoided cost of electricity), versus LCOE, 249–250
Latent heat storage, 190, 223–224, 227–228
LCA (life cycle assessment), 253, 267
LCOE (levelized cost of electricity), 245–253, 246
usefulness of, 247
Lead-acid batteries, 189, 195–196, 196, 203
Levelized avoided cost of electricity (LACE), 249–250
Levelized cost of electricity (LCOE), 245–253, 246
Li-ion batteries, 198, 198–199, 203
Linear Fresnel reflectors (LFRs), 47, 47–48
Linear systems (CSP), 47
Lipases, 113
Macroscopic energy, 41
defined, 22
Magma energy, 26
Malthus, Thomas, xvii
MayGen project, 150
MEBs (mixing entropy batteries), 167
Mechanical energy, defined, 22
Mechanical energy, transformations of. See also Hydropower energy; Ocean energy; Wind energy, 33–35, 132–137
in chemical energy storage, 216–218, 219
Methanol
in chemical energy storage, 211–216, 219
in transesterification, 121
Microgenerator systems, 105
Microscopic energy, 41
defined, 22
Mixing entropy batteries MEBs), 167
Na-S batteries, 199–201, 200, 203
Neo-Malthusianism, xvii
Neutrality hypothesis, 3
NHES (nuclear hybrid energy system), defined, 183
Ni-Cd batteries, 197, 197–198, 203
advantages and disadvantages, 198
Fairbanks installation, 198
barriers to use of, xv
public opinion of, 15
Nuclear hybrid energy system (NHES), 183
Nuclear-renewable hybrid energy systems, 183
Ocean energy. See also Hydropower energy; OTEG (ocean thermoelectric generation) systems, 31–32
history of, 131
installed capacity of ocean energy technologies, 146, 146–147
thermal energy, 32
transformations of. See Ocean energy, transformations of
in world energy mix, 242
Ocean energy, transformations of, 146–170
chemical energy transformations, 160–169
driving force in, 160
kinetic energy transformations, 149–153
potential energy transformations, 147–149
pressure-retarded osmosis (PRO), 161–164
salinity gradient energy (SGE) systems, 160–161
Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) systems. See OTEC (ocean thermal energy conversion) systems
Ocean thermoelectric generation systems. See OTEG (ocean thermoelectric generation) systems
ODP (Ozone Depletion Potential), 254
Oil production, 8
Organic waste streams, 28
Oscillating water column, 152, 153
Osmosis, defined, 161
OTEC (ocean thermal energy conversion) systems, 154–157
closed-cycle systems, 154–156, 155
currently active plants, 156
drawbacks of, 169
hybrid-cycle systems, 156, 156
theoretical energy potential of, 154
OTEG (ocean thermoelectric generation) systems, 157, 157–160, 158
Overnight capital cost (CAPEX), 247
Oxidation reaction, 194
Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP), 254
Ozonolysis, 97
P-doping, 62
Parabolic dish (PD) systems, 47, 47–48
Parabolic troughs (PTs), 47, 47, 49, 49
Paris Agreement, 9–11, 259–261, 263
PD (parabolic dish) systems, 47, 47–48
Peak oil, 8
Pectinases, 113
PECVD (plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition), 71, 73
defined, 67
solar cell with, 75
uses of, 74
Photofermentation, and hydrogen production, 122
Photons
and photovoltaic effect, 59–63
Photosynthesis, and biomass energy, 27
Photovoltaic cells. See PV (photovoltaic) cells
Photovoltaic effect. See also PV (photovoltaic) cells, 59–63, 60n3
Photovoltaic systems. See PV (photovoltaic) cells; PV (solar photovoltaic) systems
PHS (pumped hydro storage), 187–188, 192, 231
Physical indicators, and energy systems, 245
Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD), 71, 73
POCP (Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential), 254
Population growth, 15–16, xvii
Potential energy, defined, 22
Power demand, typical daily, 178, 179
Power plants. See also under individual forms of energy, overnight costs of, 250, 250–251
Pressure-retarded osmosis (PRO), 161–164, 163, 169
PRO (pressure-retarded osmosis), 161–164, 163, 169
Proteases, 113
Protein, 89
Pseudocapacitors, 185
Public policy, role in energy transitions, 259–267
Pumped storage hydropower plants, 30
PV (photovoltaic) cells. See also PV (solar photovoltaic) systems, 59–77
chemistry and processing of PV cell materials, 67–77
classification of, 64
crystalline silicon in, 66
dye-sensitized, 67
functioning of, 62
Gen 1, 66
Gen 3, 67
hybrid, 67
operational curve, 65
organic, 67
photovoltaic effect, 59–63, 60n3
quantum dot, 67
thin-film-based, 63
voltage and power conversion efficiency of, 66
wafer-based, 63
PV (solar photovoltaic) systems, 59–77
history of, 59
Pyrolysis
catalytic, 109
slow, 109
RAD (Radioactive Radiation), 254
Radiation energy balance, 25
RED (reverse electrodialysis), 164–166, 165, 169
Redox flow batteries, 201
Reduction reaction, 194
Reliability, as consumer preference, 179
Renewable energy sources. See also RESs (renewable energy systems); sources, 21–41, 265
categorized, 23
cost compared to conventional sources, 247–248, 248
easy-to-grasp principles but technological complexities, xv
Renewable energy strategies, 265–267
carbon pricing, 267
feed-in tariffs, 266
financial incentives, 266
renewable portfolio standards, 266
Renewable energy systems. See RESs (renewable energy systems)
Renewable portfolio standards, 266
Reservoir hydropower plants, 28–30, 29
Reservoirs
Resource limitations and climate change, 8–9
RESs (renewable energy systems). See also under individual topics, 170
can meet global energy demand, 239, 273
challenges of, 177
current status of. See also under individual systems, 239–245
economics and energy balance of, 245–253
environmental impacts of, 253–259
factors in transitioning to, 239
function of, 21
overall benefits of, 239
techno-economic analysis of, 239–268
worldwide (2018), 242
worldwide growth needed, 245
Reverse electrodialysis. See RED (reverse electrodialysis)
Reverse osmosis membranes, 163–164
RHES (renewable hybrid energy system), defined, 183–184
principle of, 33
Salinity gradient energy, 32
Salinity gradient energy systems. See SER (specific exergy rate)
Second Solar Civilizations, 16
Secondary cells, 195
Sensible heat storage, 190, 223–227, 227, 230
chloride salts systems, 226, 227
nitrate salt systems, 226, 226
SER (specific exergy rate), 139–140
Service technologies, defined, 4
Services, defined, 3
SGE (salinity gradient energy) systems, 146, 160–162, 162
drawbacks of, 169
environmental impact of, 169
potential total energy of, 161
Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF), 117
SMES (superconducting magnets), 184–185
Social indicators, and energy systems, 246
Sodium-metal halide batteries, 201
Solar civilizations, 16
Solar concentrator (two-stage), 48, 48–49
Solar constant, 23
Solar energy. See also CSP (solar thermal) systems; PV (solar photovoltaic) systems; Solar energy, transformations of, summary of, 23–24
Solar energy, transformations of. See also CSP (solar thermal) systems; PV (solar photovoltaic) systems, 45–77
longtime uses of, 45
low capacity factor of, 179
summary, 39
Solid oxide electrolyzers, 206–207
Solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) cells, 183
SPE (solid polymer electrolyte) cells, 183
Specific exergy rate (SER), 139–140
SSF (simultaneous saccharification and fermentation), 117
Standard of living, and history of humankind, 1, xvii
Static electricity, defined, 184
Steam-driven geothermal plants, 143, 144
Steam explosion treatment, 98–100
Steam turbine, principle of, 33
Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 46
Stopping voltage, 61
Sugars, fermentation of, 116–117
Superconducting magnets (SMES), 184–185
Sustainability. See also Climate change; Public policy; RESs (renewable energy systems), xviii
Sustainable aviation fuel (SAF), 111
TCS (thermochemical heat storage), 190, 224, 228–229
Temperature rise, effects of, 9
TES (thermal energy storage) systems, 189–190, 230, 231
advantages of, 223
alternatives, 224
comparison of alternatives, 229–230
latent heat storage systems, 223–224, 227–228
sensible heat storage systems, 223–227
separations and processes in, 223–230
Thermal energy storage (TES) systems. See TES (thermal energy storage) systems
Thermal oils (in CSP systems), 52–53
Therminol VP-1, 52
Thermochemical heat storage (TCS), 190, 224, 228–229
Thermodynamic power cycles, 279–283
working fluids in, 282
Thin film composite membranes, 164
Three-step thermochemical cycles in hydrogen production, 209
Tidal barrage energy, 32
Tidal barrage systems, 147–149
bidirectional generation, 148
currently active plants, 149
drawbacks of, 169
ebb generation, 148
embankments in, 147
flood generation, 148
locks in, 148
openings in, 148
turbines in, 148
Tidal current energy, 31, 149–151
Transformations of primary RESs. See also Biomass energy, transformations of; geothermal energy, transformations of; Mechanical energy sources, transformations of; Solar energy, transformations of, summary of, 32–40
Transformer technologies, defined, 4
in hydropower systems, 133–134, 148, 150–151
impulse, 133
reaction, 133
in tidal barrage systems, 148
in tidal current systems, 150, 151
in wind energy systems, 33–35, 136–137
Two-step thermochemical cycles in hydrogen production, 209–211
Uehara, Haruo, 283
UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change), 259–260
United Nations Environmental Program, 10
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC), 259–260
energy use and generation, 239–245, 243
Utgikar, Vivek, biography, xxiii
Valence band, 61
Vanadium redox batteries, 201–203, 202, 203
VAWTs (vertical axis wind turbines), 34, 136
Vehicles, electric, 5, 198, 200
Vertical axis wind turbines (VAWTs), 34, 136
Vortex Induced Vibration for Aquatic Clean Energy (VIVACE), 134–135
Water
direct thermolysis of, 207–208
indirect thermolysis of, 208–209
Wave energy, 32
WEC (wave energy conversion) devices, 152–153, 153
WHESs (wind hybrid energy systems), 183
Whittingham, M. Stanley, 198
conversion to electricity, 33
energy power equation, 135
intermittency, 35, 178, 178–180
low capacity factor of, 179
as mechanical energy form, 22
potential total energy of, 31
variation of, 35
in world energy mix, 241–242, 267
evolution of, 35
power curve for, 137
Yoshino, Akira, 198
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