Index

Note to reader: illustrations are indicated by italicized page numbers.

Numbers

05-HMF, 115, 115

A

Abiotic Resource Depletion Potential (ADP), 254

Absorptivity, defined, 46n1

Acid rain, 89

Acidification Potential (AP), 253254

Acidogenesis, 117119

ADP (Abiotic Resource Depletion Potential), 254

Africa, energy use and generation, 239244

Agriculture residues, 27

Algal biomass, 9193, 124

and biogas, 119120

pretreatment of, 101103

Alkaline electrolyzers, 205, 207

Ammonia fiber explosion, 100

Amylases, 113

Anaerobic digestion, 117120, 118

AP (Acidification Potential), 253254

Ash, 90

Asia (excluding China), energy use and generation, 239244

Autohydrolysis, 100

B

Batteries, 189, 193, 203223

car batteries, 196

as Galvanic devices, 194195

lead-acid, 195196, 196, 203

Li-ion, 198199, 203

Na-S, 199201, 200, 203

Ni-Cd, 197, 197198, 203

Ni-MH, 198

rechargeable, 195204

redox flow, 201

sodium-metal halide, 201

vanadium redox, 201203, 202, 203

Becquerel, Edmund, 59

Betz limit, 135

Binary-cycle geothermal plants, 37, 143146

Biochar, 106, 108109

Biodiesel, 93, 111, 116

environmental impact, 253

and lipid extraction, 120121

process flow sheet, 121

worldwide consumption, 244, 244245

Bioethanol, 93, 119120

in Brazil, 265

environmental impact, 253

and EROI, 252253

and LCA, 254, 254255

worldwide consumption, 244, 244245

Biofuels, advantages of, 16

Biogas, 119120

production of, 117120

BioGrace, 255

Biomass. See also Biomass, biochemical treatment of; Biomass pretreatment; Biomass, thermochemical processing of, 2728

algal, 9193, 101103, 119120, 124

characteristics of, 8494

chemical structure of, 8490

comparison with other fuels, 8485

conversion process, 40

disadvantages of, 3940, 83

effect of moisture on, 85

forms of, 2728

heating value of, 8485

lignocellulosic, 9192

physical structure of, 9194

potential total energy of, 28, 83

storage of, 94

thermochemical processing, 104112

transformations, 3940, 40, 103, 103123

unbound moisture in, 93

use since ancient times, 83

in world energy mix, 241

Biomass, biochemical treatment of, 83, 112120

anaerobic digestion, 117120, 118

biochemical biomass systems defined, 83

enzymatic hydrolysis of biomass, 113116

fermentation of sugars, 116117

hydrolysis in, 112113

pretreatment in, 112

Biomass energy systems. See also Biomass; Biomass, biochemical treatment of; Biomass, thermochemical processing of, Biomass pretreatment, 83124

biochemical treatment of biomass, 112120

biomass energy lipid extraction and conversion to biodiesel, 120121

biomass transformations, 103123

four generations of, 122123

transformations and chemical processes in, 83124

Biomass pretreatment, 94103, 102

acid pretreatment, 96

of algal biomass, 101103

alternatives, 95

biological, 100101

chemical, 9698

overall impact of, 102103

oxidative, 97

physical, 9596

physiochemical, 98100

Biomass, thermochemical processing of, 104112

combustion, 104106

gasification, 106108

hydrotreating, 110112

processes classified, 104

pyrolysis, 108110

thermochemical biomass systems defined, 83

Bipolar membrane, in carbon dioxide reduction, 214

Brayton cycle, 280281, 281

Brazil, energy policies, 264265

C

CAES (compressed air energy storage), 188, 192

Capacitive mixing (CAPMIX) systems, 166167

Capacitive reverse electrodialysis (CRED), 168, 168169

Capacitor storage, 184185

Capacity factor, for RESs, 179

CAPEX (overnight capital cost), 247

Capital recovery factor (CRF), 247

CAPMIX (capacitive mixing) systems, 166167, 167

Carbohydrates in biomass, 8688

Carbon dioxide, and global warming, 9

Carbon dioxide reduction, in methane synthesis, 212, 212216

Carbon pricing, 267

Carbonate salts, 5759

Carnallite, 55

Carnot cycle, 279280, 280

Carnot, Sadi, 279

CELF (co-solvent-enhanced lignocellulosic fractionation), 100

Cellotriose, 114

Cellubiose, 114

Cellulases, 113

Cellulose, 87, 87, 93

Chemical energy, defined, 22

Chemical energy storage, 203223, 231

carbon in, 211

electrochemical, 194203

ethanol in, 218

gravimetric energy density of various forms of, 203204

hydrogen, 204211

merits and demerits of alternatives, 218219

methane in, 216218

methanol in, 211216

separations and processes in, 193223

Chemical vapor deposition (CVD), 7176, 74

Chernobyl, 1315

China

energy policies, 263

energy use and generation, 239244

Chloride salts, 55, 5859

Climate change

agreements on, 259265

and fossil sources, 89

linkage to fossil fuel use, xv

and necessity of renewable energy sources, xviixviii

Co-firing

in combustion processing, 105106

direct, 105106

indirect / gasification, 106

parallel, 106

Co-solvent-enhanced lignocellulosic fractionation (CELF), 100

Coal, 239244, 263

and co-firing, 105106

damage cost, 258, 258259

as dominant energy source, 240

drawbacks of, 89, 258259

Combustion processing, 104106

Compressed air energy storage (CAES), 188, 192

Conduction band, 61

Conductive (hydrothermal) systems, 138

Conservation hypothesis, 3

Conservation of energy, 2122

Conservation of mass, 21n2

Constants, important, 277

Convective (hydrothermal) systems, 138

Conversion factors, 275277

COP 21 (congress of parties 21), 259260

CRED (capacitive reverse electrodialysis), 168, 168169

CRF (capital recovery factor), 247

Crops, 28

Crushed rock heat storage, 225, 227

CSP (concentrating solar power) systems, 4559, 177180, 258

configurations, 4751

damage cost, 258259

first generation, 5253

heat exchange media in, 5159

heat transfer fluids compared, 58

liquid metals in, 5759

molten salts in, 5357

second generation, 53

ternary salt combinations for, 5557, 56

thermal energy storage in, 4951, 50

thermal oils in, 5253

third generation, 5559

in world energy mix, 241242

CZ process, 71, 72

D

Dark fermentation, and hydrogen production, 122123

Deep aquifers, 138

Delignification, 9697

Direct photobiolysis, and hydrogen production, 122

Direct solidification (DS) process, 71, 72

Distillation, 117

Doping, 62

Dry steam power plant, 37

Dynamic electricity, defined, 184

E

Earth, interior structure, 2426, 25

Economic indicators, and energy systems, 245

EGD (European Green Deal), 262

Electric vehicles, 5, 198, 200

Electricity, 7, 242

as dominant application for RES, 32

global electricity generation, 240, 240

as most versatile currency, 5

primary sources for, 67

and transportation, 56

Electricity consumption

and economic growth, 3, 17

worldwide, 240245

Electrochemical capacitors, 185

Electrochemical energy storage, 189, 194203, 231

comparison of alternatives, 203

Electrodes (in RED systems), 166

Electrons, and photovoltaic effect, 6063

Electrostatic capacitors, 185

Energy. See also under individual topics

as driver of economic growth, 12

as master resource, 1

and society, 13

Energy carriers, defined, 4

Energy consumption, 239245, 259267

and GDP, 13, 2

global, 13, 1516

Energy currencies, defined, 4

Energy return on energy investment (EROEI)), 251253

Energy sources

defined, 4

renewable. See Renewable energy sources

Energy storage. See also Energy storage systems

capacitor storage, 184185

by conversion into chemical energy, 188189, 193223

by conversion into mechanical energy, 188189

by conversion into thermal energy, 189190, 223230

defined, 184

as desirable feature for all energy systems, 183

direct, 184187

electrical energy storage alternatives, 186

fundamentals and alternatives, 184193

indirect, 187

Energy storage systems. See also Energy storage, 191194, 193

applications of, 191194, 193, 194

calendar and cycle life, 191

characteristics of, 190191

energy-power diagram, 193

environmental impact, 191

load leveling applications, 192

load shifting applications, 192

peak shaving applications, 192

power availability, 191

power quality management, 191192

reliability, 191

round-trip efficiency, 191

standby applications, 192

storage capacity, 191

Energy system architecture, five elements of, 35, 4

Energy systems. See also RESs (renewable energy systems)

choice of, 5

economics and energy balance of, 245253

environmental indicators, 245

evolution of, 57

future, 1516

physical indicators for, 245

social indicators, 246

Energy transformations, challenges of, xvxvi

Energy transitions, role of public policy in, 259267

Environmental impact. See also under individual technologies

damage cost of power technologies, 258, 258259

of energy storage systems, 191

of renewable energy systems, 170

of RESs, 253259

Environmental indicators, and energy systems, 245

Enzymatic hydrolysis of biomass, 113116

EP (Eutrophication Potential), 254

EROEI (energy return on energy investment), 251253

EROI (energy return on energy investment), 251253

types defined, 251252

Ethanol. See also Bioethanol, 124

in chemical energy storage, 218, 219

European Green Deal (EGD), 262

European Union

energy policies, 263265

energy use and generation, 239244

Eutrophication Potential (EP), 254

Exergy

defined, 6

in hydropower, 139140

Extractives in biomass, 9091, 91

F

Faraday's law, 132

Fatty acids, 8990, 90

FBR (fluidized bed reactor), 6970, 70

Feed-in tariffs, 266

Feedback hypothesis, 3

Fermentation of sugars, 116117

Financial incentives in renewable strategies, 266

First Solar Civilizations, 16

Fischer-Tropsch process, 107, 124

05-HMF, 115, 115

Flash steam power plant, 36, 37

Float zone (FZ) process, 71

Fluidized bed reactor (FBR), 6970, 70

Fluoride salts, 57

Flywheel energy storage, 187

Food crops, 124

ethical considerations re, 83, 9394, 124

harvest timing, 94

Fossil resources. See also Climate change

as key to societal expansion, xv

resource limitations and climate change, 89

France. See also Paris Agreement, energy policies, 262263

Francis turbine, 133, 134

Frictional energy losses, 187188

Fuel cells, 189, 193, 220223

advantages, 220

alkaline (AFC), 220, 220221

direct ethanol (DEFC), 220, 222

direct methanol (DMFC), 220, 222, 222223

molten carbonate (MCFC), 220221, 221

phosphoric acid (PAFC), 220221

polymer electrolyte membrane (PEMFC), 220, 220221, 220223

Fukushima, 1415

Fumasep® FBM, 214

Furfural, 115, 115

Furnaces, in combustion processing, 105

Future of renewable energy, 1, 273274

FZ (float zone) process, 71

G

Galvanic processes, 194

Gas-solid systems in TCS, 228229

Gas turbine, principle of, 33

Gasification in biomass processing, 106108

basic reactions in, 106107

hydrothermal, 107108, 110

GDP, and energy consumption, 13, 2

Gen 2 thin films, 7173

Gen IV reactor systems, 15

Generators, principle of, 33

Geopressed energy, 26

Geothermal energy. See also Geothermal energy, transformations of, 143144

binary-cycle plants, 3637

defined, 24, 138

history of, 131

source of, 22

summary of, 2427, 170

total available energy, 2526

uses of, 3536

vapor-dominated systems, 143

in world energy mix, 241242

Geothermal energy, transformations of, 3539, 138146, 141

binary-cycle power plant, 143146, 145

emissions of geothermal plants, 145146

energy conversion technologies for, 141146

enhanced geothermal systems, 145

flash steam power plant, 143, 144

heat pumps, 3536, 141, 141

liquid-dominated systems, 36

resources classified, 138141, 139

space heating systems, 142

steam-driven plants, 143, 144

vapor-dominated systems, 36

Geothermal fields, 138

Germany, energy policies, 262

GhGenius, 255

GHGs (greenhouse gases)

emissions from various electricity generators, 255259, 256

and fossil sources, 9

and renewable and fossil sources, 255258

Gibbs energy, in ocean energy systems, 160

Global warming. See also Climate change, impact of, 911

Global Warming Potential (GWP), 253

Goodenough, John B., 198

Green gasoline, 111

Greenhouse gases (GHGs). See GHGs (greenhouse gases)

GREET, 255

GWP (Global Warming Potential), 253

H

H2@Scale initiative, 211

HAWTs (horizontal axis wind turbines), 3435, 136

Heat exchange media in CSP systems, 5159

Heliostats, 47

Hemicellulases, 113, 114

Hemicellulose, 8788, 88

High temperature co-electrolysis (HTCE), 215218

History, and standard of living, 1

Horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWTs), 3435, 136

Hot dry rock energy, 26

HTCE (high temperature co-electrolysis), 215218

Hubbert, M. King, 8

Hubbert's Peak, 8

Hybrid chlorine cycle, 210

Hybrid energy systems. See also Energy storage; Energy storage systems, 177231

architecture, 182

defined, 180182, 183

Hydrochar, 108109

Hydroelectric turbine, 34

Hydrogen, 218219

in energy storage, 189, 204211, 218219

means to produce, 122123, 209211

Hydropower energy. See also Ocean energy; Ocean energy, transformations of, 267

conversion to electricity, 33

environmental impact, 257258

GHG emissions, 257, 257258

hydropower plant capacity, 133

as mechanical energy form, 22

potential total energy of, 30

summary of, 2830

transformations of, 132135

in world energy mix, 241242

as world's primary source of renewable energy, 135, 170, 267

Hydrothermal energy, 2627

Hydrothermal liquefaction, 109110

Hydrotreating, 110112

reactions in, 111

I

India, energy policies, 264

Indirect photobiolysis, and hydrogen production, 122

Industrial Revolution, 273, xvii

as milestone, xv

Insolation, 178

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 911

Intermittency, 230

in RESs, 177180, 230231

Internal energy forms, defined, 22

Ion exchange membrane (in RED systems), 166

Ionic liquids (ILs), 9798, 98, 99

IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), 911

K

Kalina, Alexander, 282

Kalina cycle, 282283, 283

Kaplan turbine, 133

Kinetic energy, defined, 22

Kyoto Protocol, 10

L

Laccases, 113, 116

LACE (levelized avoided cost of electricity), versus LCOE, 249250

Latent heat storage, 190, 223224, 227228

LCA (life cycle assessment), 253, 267

LCOE (levelized cost of electricity), 245253, 246

defined, 246247

usefulness of, 247

Lead-acid batteries, 189, 195196, 196, 203

Levelized avoided cost of electricity (LACE), 249250

Levelized cost of electricity (LCOE), 245253, 246

Li-ion batteries, 198, 198199, 203

Lignin, 8889, 89, 93

Lindal diagram, 3639, 38

Linear Fresnel reflectors (LFRs), 47, 4748

Linear systems (CSP), 47

Lipases, 113

Lipids, 8990

lipid extraction and conversion to biodiesel, 120121

Liquid metals (in CSP systems), 5759

M

Macroscopic energy, 41

defined, 22

Magma energy, 26

Malthus, Thomas, xvii

MayGen project, 150

MEBs (mixing entropy batteries), 167

Mechanical energy, defined, 22

Mechanical energy, transformations of. See also Hydropower energy; Ocean energy; Wind energy, 3335, 132137

Methane, 118119, 124

in chemical energy storage, 216218, 219

Methanol

in chemical energy storage, 211216, 219

in transesterification, 121

Microalgae, 9293, 121

Microgenerator systems, 105

Microscopic energy, 41

defined, 22

Mixing entropy batteries MEBs), 167

Molten salts (in CSP systems), 5357

N

Na-S batteries, 199201, 200, 203

Neo-Malthusianism, xvii

Neutrality hypothesis, 3

NHES (nuclear hybrid energy system), defined, 183

Ni-Cd batteries, 197, 197198, 203

advantages and disadvantages, 198

Fairbanks installation, 198

Nuclear energy, 1115, 179

barriers to use of, xv

damage cost, 258, 258259

economics, 1112

public opinion of, 15

safety, 1215

waste management, 1215

Nuclear hybrid energy system (NHES), 183

Nuclear-renewable hybrid energy systems, 183

O

Ocean energy. See also Hydropower energy; OTEG (ocean thermoelectric generation) systems, 3132

history of, 131

installed capacity of ocean energy technologies, 146, 146147

thermal energy, 32

transformations of. See Ocean energy, transformations of

in world energy mix, 242

Ocean energy, transformations of, 146170

chemical energy transformations, 160169

driving force in, 160

kinetic energy transformations, 149153

potential energy transformations, 147149

pressure-retarded osmosis (PRO), 161164

salinity gradient energy (SGE) systems, 160161

wave energy, 151153

Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) systems. See OTEC (ocean thermal energy conversion) systems

Ocean thermoelectric generation systems. See OTEG (ocean thermoelectric generation) systems

ODP (Ozone Depletion Potential), 254

Oil production, 8

Organic waste streams, 28

Organosolv process, 97, 120

Oscillating bodies, 152, 153

Oscillating water column, 152, 153

Osmosis, defined, 161

OTEC (ocean thermal energy conversion) systems, 154157

closed-cycle systems, 154156, 155

currently active plants, 156

drawbacks of, 169

hybrid-cycle systems, 156, 156

open-cycle systems, 154, 155

theoretical energy potential of, 154

OTEG (ocean thermoelectric generation) systems, 157, 157160, 158

Overnight capital cost (CAPEX), 247

Overtopping devices, 152, 153

Oxidation reaction, 194

Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP), 254

Ozonolysis, 97

P

P-doping, 62

Parabolic dish (PD) systems, 47, 4748

Parabolic troughs (PTs), 47, 47, 49, 49

Paris Agreement, 911, 259261, 263

PD (parabolic dish) systems, 47, 4748

Peak oil, 8

Pectinases, 113

Pectins, 88, 92

PECVD (plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition), 71, 73

Pelton turbine, 133, 133

Perovskites, 7377, 76

defined, 67

solar cell with, 75

uses of, 74

Photofermentation, and hydrogen production, 122

Photons

defined, 5960

and photovoltaic effect, 5963

Photosynthesis, and biomass energy, 27

Photovoltaic cells. See PV (photovoltaic) cells

Photovoltaic effect. See also PV (photovoltaic) cells, 5963, 60n3

Photovoltaic systems. See PV (photovoltaic) cells; PV (solar photovoltaic) systems

PHS (pumped hydro storage), 187188, 192, 231

Physical indicators, and energy systems, 245

Plant cell wall, 9192, 92

Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD), 71, 73

POCP (Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential), 254

Policy, public, 259267

Polysilicon, 7172, 72

Population growth, 1516, xvii

Potential energy, defined, 22

Power demand, typical daily, 178, 179

Power plants. See also under individual forms of energy, overnight costs of, 250, 250251

Pressure-retarded osmosis (PRO), 161164, 163, 169

Primary cells, 194195

PRO (pressure-retarded osmosis), 161164, 163, 169

Proteases, 113

Protein, 89

Pseudocapacitors, 185

Public policy, role in energy transitions, 259267

Pumped storage hydropower plants, 30

PV (photovoltaic) cells. See also PV (solar photovoltaic) systems, 5977

amorphous silicon in, 6667

chemistry and processing of PV cell materials, 6777

classification of, 64

crystalline silicon in, 66

dye-sensitized, 67

efficiency of, 6366

functioning of, 62

Gen 1, 66

Gen 2, 6667

Gen 3, 67

hybrid, 67

materials for, 6667

operational curve, 65

organic, 67

photovoltaic effect, 5963, 60n3

quantum dot, 67

technology of, 6367

thin-film-based, 63

voltage and power conversion efficiency of, 66

wafer-based, 63

PV (solar photovoltaic) systems, 5977

history of, 59

in world energy mix, 241242

PV/T systems, 7677

concentrator types, 7677

Pyrolysis

catalytic, 109

mild, 108109

slow, 109

R

RAD (Radioactive Radiation), 254

Radiation energy balance, 25

Rankine cycle, 280282, 281

Rankine cycle plants, 143144

RED (reverse electrodialysis), 164166, 165, 169

Redox flow batteries, 201

Reduction reaction, 194

Reliability, as consumer preference, 179

Renewable energy sources. See also RESs (renewable energy systems); sources, 2141, 265

categorized, 23

cost compared to conventional sources, 247248, 248

easy-to-grasp principles but technological complexities, xv

growth of, 1516

Renewable energy strategies, 265267

carbon pricing, 267

feed-in tariffs, 266

financial incentives, 266

renewable portfolio standards, 266

Renewable energy systems. See RESs (renewable energy systems)

Renewable portfolio standards, 266

Reservoir hydropower plants, 2830, 29

Reservoirs

classification of, 138140

vapor-dominated, 140, 143

Resource limitations and climate change, 89

RESs (renewable energy systems). See also under individual topics, 170

can meet global energy demand, 239, 273

challenges of, 177

current status of. See also under individual systems, 239245

economics and energy balance of, 245253

environmental impacts of, 253259

factors in transitioning to, 239

function of, 21

future of, 273274

investment needed, 245253

overall benefits of, 239

techno-economic analysis of, 239268

worldwide (2018), 242

worldwide growth needed, 245

Reverse electrodialysis. See RED (reverse electrodialysis)

Reverse osmosis membranes, 163164

RHES (renewable hybrid energy system), defined, 183184

Run-of-river plants, 28, 132

principle of, 33

S

Sabatier process, 217218

Salinity gradient energy, 32

Salinity gradient energy systems. See SER (specific exergy rate)

Second Solar Civilizations, 16

Secondary cells, 195

Seebeck effect, 156157

Sensible heat storage, 190, 223227, 227, 230

chloride salts systems, 226, 227

materials for, 225227

nitrate salt systems, 226, 226

sand systems, 226, 227

SER (specific exergy rate), 139140

Service technologies, defined, 4

Services, defined, 3

SGE (salinity gradient energy) systems, 146, 160162, 162

drawbacks of, 169

environmental impact of, 169

potential total energy of, 161

Siemens process, 6971, 70

Silicon, amorphous, 7173

Silicon (PV grade), 6869

metallurgical grade, 68, 70

production of, 6871

Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF), 117

SMES (superconducting magnets), 184185

Social indicators, and energy systems, 246

Sodium-metal halide batteries, 201

Solar civilizations, 16

Solar concentrator (two-stage), 48, 4849

Solar constant, 23

Solar energy. See also CSP (solar thermal) systems; PV (solar photovoltaic) systems; Solar energy, transformations of, summary of, 2324

Solar energy, transformations of. See also CSP (solar thermal) systems; PV (solar photovoltaic) systems, 4577

intermittency, 178180

longtime uses of, 45

low capacity factor of, 179

summary, 39

Solar irradiance, 2324, 24

Solar salt, 5355

Solar towers (STs), 4748, 49

Solid oxide electrolyzers, 206207

Solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) cells, 183

SPE electrolyzer, 205207

SPE (solid polymer electrolyte) cells, 183

Specific exergy rate (SER), 139140

SSF (simultaneous saccharification and fermentation), 117

Standard of living, and history of humankind, 1, xvii

Starch, 8687

hydrolyzation of, 113114

Static electricity, defined, 184

Steam-driven geothermal plants, 143, 144

Steam explosion treatment, 98100

Steam turbine, principle of, 33

Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 46

Stopping voltage, 61

Sugar crops as biomass, 9394

Sugars, fermentation of, 116117

Superconducting magnets (SMES), 184185

Sustainability. See also Climate change; Public policy; RESs (renewable energy systems), xviii

Sustainable aviation fuel (SAF), 111

Syngas, 106107, 121, 124

T

TCS (thermochemical heat storage), 190, 224, 228229

Temperature rise, effects of, 9

TES (thermal energy storage) systems, 189190, 230, 231

advantages of, 223

alternatives, 224

comparison of alternatives, 229230

latent heat storage systems, 223224, 227228

sensible heat storage systems, 223227

separations and processes in, 223230

Thermal energy storage (TES) systems. See TES (thermal energy storage) systems

Thermal oils (in CSP systems), 5253

Therminol VP-1, 52

Thermochemical heat storage (TCS), 190, 224, 228229

Thermodynamic power cycles, 279283

working fluids in, 282

Thin film composite membranes, 164

Three Mile Island, 1213, 15

Three-step thermochemical cycles in hydrogen production, 209

Tidal barrage energy, 32

Tidal barrage systems, 147149

basic components of, 147148

bidirectional generation, 148

currently active plants, 149

drawbacks of, 169

ebb generation, 148

embankments in, 147

flood generation, 148

locks in, 148

openings in, 148

turbines in, 148

Tidal current energy, 31, 149151

turbines in, 150151, 151

Torrefaction, 108109

Transformations of primary RESs. See also Biomass energy, transformations of; geothermal energy, transformations of; Mechanical energy sources, transformations of; Solar energy, transformations of, summary of, 3240

Transformer technologies, defined, 4

Turbines, 133134, 150

in hydropower systems, 133134, 148, 150151

impulse, 133

reaction, 133

in tidal barrage systems, 148

in tidal current systems, 150, 151

in wind energy systems, 3335, 136137

Two-step thermochemical cycles in hydrogen production, 209211

U

Uehara, Haruo, 283

UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change), 259260

United Nations Environmental Program, 10

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC), 259260

United States, 240245

energy use and generation, 239245, 243

and Paris Agreement, 260261

Utgikar, Vivek, biography, xxiii

V

Valence band, 61

Vanadium redox batteries, 201203, 202, 203

VAWTs (vertical axis wind turbines), 34, 136

Vehicles, electric, 5, 198, 200

Vertical axis wind turbines (VAWTs), 34, 136

Vortex Induced Vibration for Aquatic Clean Energy (VIVACE), 134135

W

Water

direct thermolysis of, 207208

electrolysis of, 204207, 206

indirect thermolysis of, 208209

Water cycle, 28, 29

Wave energy, 32

Wave energy systems, 151153

WEC (wave energy conversion) devices, 152153, 153

WHESs (wind hybrid energy systems), 183

Whittingham, M. Stanley, 198

Wind energy, 135137

conversion to electricity, 33

efficiencies of, 135136

energy power equation, 135

and GHGs, 256257

history of, 131, 170

intermittency, 35, 178, 178180

low capacity factor of, 179

as mechanical energy form, 22

potential total energy of, 31

summary of, 3032, 170

variation of, 35

wind cycle, 3031, 31

in world energy mix, 241242, 267

Wind energy systems, 135137

growth of, 3132

Wind turbines, 135137

blades, 3435, 136137

evolution of, 35

power curve for, 137

principle of, 3334, 34

Work function, 6061

World Meteorological Organization (WMO), 10, 134135

X

Xylose, 114115, 115

Y

Yoshino, Akira, 198

..................Content has been hidden....................

You can't read the all page of ebook, please click here login for view all page.
Reset
34.229.223.223