CHAPTER 14

Audio for Television

“Just as you should preplan camera angles for a shoot, you should preplan mic types and positioning. Carefully plan cable runs and connections, and scout every location to determine if it will cause undesirable noise from air conditioners, trains, traffic, or other uncontrollable sounds that will end up being recorded.”

Douglas Spotted Eagle, Grammy Award–Winning Producer

“Who the hell wants to hear actors talk?”

Harry Warner, President, Warner Bros., in the silent film era, 1927

Acoustics: High-frequency sound waves travel in straight paths and are easily deflected and reflected by hard surfaces. They are also easily absorbed by porous fibrous materials. Lower-frequency sound waves (below 100 Hz) spread widely, so they are not impeded by obstacles and are less readily absorbed. As sound waves meet nearby materials, they are selectively absorbed and reflected; the reflected sound’s quality is modified according to the surfaces’ nature, structures, and shapes.

Audio mixer: The audio mixer is needed whenever there are a number of sound sources to select, blend together, and control (such as microphones, CD, VCR audio output, etc.). The output of this unit is fed to the recorder.

Audio sweetening: The process of working on the program sound after the video portion is completed; also known as a dubbing session or track laying.

Condenser microphone: This microphone produces very high audio quality and is ideal for musical pickup. A significant advantage to the condenser is that it can be very small, making it the logical choice for a shotgun, lavalier mic, and other miniature microphones.

Directional microphone: The directional (or cardioid) mic pickup pattern. This broad heart-shaped pickup pattern is insensitive on its rear side.

Dynamic microphone: Dynamic microphones are the most rugged, provide good quality sound, and are not easily distorted by loud sounds such as nearby drums.

Dynamic range: The range between the weakest and loudest sounds that can be effectively recorded by a recording device.

Foley: Creating sounds in a studio that can replace the original sounds.

Line level: The audio signal generated by a nonmicrophone device, such as a CD player.

Mic level: The audio level of a signal that is generated by a microphone.

Monaural sound: Also known as mono, this single track of audio is limited, because its only clue to distance is loudness, and direction cannot be conveyed at all.

Omnidirectional microphone: The omnidirectional pickup pattern is equally sensitive in all directions and cannot distinguish between direct and reflected sounds.

Perambulator: A large microphone boom on wheels.

Super-cardioid microphone: A super-cardioid (or highly directional) pickup pattern is used wherever you want extremely selective pickup, to avoid environmental noises, or for distance sources.

Stereo sound: Two audio tracks create an illusion of space and dimension. Stereo gives the viewer a limited ability to localize the direction of the sound.

Surround sound: Can provide a sense of envelopment when mixed correctly. Instead of the one channel for mono or the two channels for stereo, 5.1 surround has six discrete (distinct, individual) channels.

Wild track: General background noise.

 

Historically, audio has been slighted in the world of television. Most manufacturers and producers cared more about the image, relegating audio to an inexpensive, poor-sounding little speaker on televisions. However, if you really want to find out how important audio is, just turn off the audio on a video and try to follow the story. You will soon get lost. Look away from the screen, with the audio turned up, and you can still follow the story. Audio is as important to television as the video image. Audio gives images a convincing realism. It helps the audience feel involved in what they are seeing. Dennis Baxter, sound designer for the Olympics, believes that “audio, in partnership with video, delivers a holistic experience with all of the intense emotion and interesting nuances to the viewer.”

The valuable contribution that sound makes to television cannot be underestimated. In a good production, sound is never just a casual afterthought. It is an essential part of its appeal. Soundtrack composer Marc Fantini says that “Music cues are the unseen actors in the scene. Music in a production’s goals are the same as the visual, to move the story along.”

People often think of television as “pictures accompanied by sound.” Yet, when the best television productions are analyzed, people are usually surprised that most of the time it is the sound that is conveying the information and stimulating the audience’s imagination, while the image itself may be the accompaniment. Audio has the power to help the audience conjure mental images that enhance what is being seen.

Sounds are very evocative. For example, consider an image of a couple of people leaning against a wall, shown with the open sky as a background. If noises of waves breaking and the shrill cries of birds are heard, we quickly assume that they are near the seashore. Add the sound of children at play, and now we are sure that our subjects are near the beach. Replace all those sounds with the noise of a battle, explosions, and passing tanks, and they are immediately transported to a war situation. They might even appear particularly brave and unfazed as they remain so calm in the middle of this tumult.

In fact, all we really have here is a shot of two people leaning on a wall. The wall itself might have been anywhere—up a mountain, in a desert, or in a studio. The location and the mood of the occasion have been conjured up by the sound and our imagination.

Successful audio is a blend of two things:

 Appropriate techniques—the way the equipment is used to capture the audio

 Appropriate artistic choices—how the sounds are selected and mixed

Both are largely a matter of technical know-how, combined with experience.

THE AUDIO SYSTEM

The dynamic range (volume range) that any audio system can handle is limited. When too loud, sounds will cause overload distortion, producing a deteriorated sound signal. If too quiet, wanted sounds will become merged with background noise of comparable level (volume), such as tape noise, hum, and ventilation. So to avoid exceeding these limits, it is essential that you do not overload the microphone itself (too near a loud source), or over-amplify the signal (overmodulation). Conversely, you must prevent the audio signal from becoming too weak (undermodulation) by placing the microphone close enough and using sufficient amplification. But at the same time, as you will see later, you must not destroy an impression of the dynamics of the original sound source.

ACOUSTICS

You have only to compare sound in an empty room with the difference when that same room is furnished or filled with people to realize how acoustics alter sound quality. If the basics of acoustics are understood, many of the audio problems can be avoided during the production.

A certain amount of reverberation enriches and strengthens sounds, conveying an impression of vitality and spaciousness. Therefore, most television and audio studios have quite carefully chosen the acoustics so that they are neither too live or too dead.

In practice, you will find that the amount of sound absorption or reflection within an environment can change considerably as the conditions alter. Sound quality may be dampened (dull) or brightened (well defined) as furnishings are added or removed. The difference in a theater’s acoustics with and without an audience can be quite remarkable. Moving a large scenic flat can alter local sound quality, making it harsh, hollow, or boxy—particularly if there is an extensive ceiling to the setting.

When a sound wave hits a hard surface (plastic, glass, tile, stone walls, metal), little is absorbed, so the reflected sound is almost as loud as the original. In fact, when its higher frequencies have actually been reinforced by this reflection, the sound bouncing off the surface can actually sound brighter and sharper.

When a sound wave hits a soft surface (curtains, couches, rugs), some of its energy is absorbed within the material. Higher notes are the most absorbed, so the sound reflected from this sort of surface is not only quieter than the original sound wave, but lacks the higher frequencies. Its quality is more mellow, less resonant—even dull and muted. Certain soft materials absorb the sound so well that virtually none is reflected (Figure 14.1).

FIGURE 14.1
The variety of angles of the set walls, curtains, carpet, furniture, and people help dampen the live sound…but be careful that it is not dampened too much.

Where there are a lot of hard surfaces around (as in a bathroom, a large hall, or a church), a place can become extremely reverberant, or live. Sound waves rebound from one surface to another so easily that the original and the reflected versions completely intermixed are heard. This can cause considerable changes in the overall sound quality and significantly degrade its clarity.

When surroundings are very reverberant, reflections are often heard seconds after the sound itself has stopped—in extreme cases, as a repeated echo. Whether reverberations add richness to the original sound or simply confuse is determined by the design of the space, the position of the sound source, the pitch and quality of the sound, and the position of the mic.

FIGURE 14.2
During the shooting of a dramatic program, the boom operator got the microphone as close as possible, while still being off-camera, because open-air sound does not usually travel far.

If, on the other hand, the sound is made in a place with many absorbent surfaces, both the original sound and any reflections can be significantly muffled. Under these dead conditions, the direct sound can be heard with few reflections from the surroundings. Even a loud noise such as a handclap or a gunshot will not carry very far and dies away quickly. When outside, in an open area, sound can be very dead. This is due to the air quickly absorbing the sound, as there are few reflecting surfaces (Figure 14.2).

We all know how dead sound seems when outside in the open. Open-air sound is very weak and does not travel far, because the air quickly absorbs it and there are few reflecting surfaces. Microphones often have to get much closer to a subject than normal to pick up sufficient sound, especially if a person is speaking quietly.

Open-air sound has a characteristic quality that can be immediately recognized; it has an absence of reflected sounds, combined with a lack of top and bass. This effect can be very difficult to imitate convincingly in the studio, even when the subject is completely surrounded with highly absorbent acoustic panels.

Acoustics often influence where the microphone is positioned. To avoid unwanted reflections in live surroundings, the mic needs to be placed relatively close to the subject. If working in dead surroundings, a close mic is necessary, because the sound does not carry well. When the surroundings are noisy, a close mic helps the voice (or other sound) to be heard clearly above the unwanted sounds.

However, there can be problems if a mic is placed too close to the source. Sound quality is generally coarsened and the bass can be over-emphasized. The audience can become very aware of the noise of breathing; sibilants (the letter S); blasting from explosive letters P, B, and T; and even clicks from the subject’s teeth striking together. Placed close to an instrument, a mic can reveal various mechanical noises such as key clicks, bow scrapes, and so on.

MONO SOUND

In everyday life, the audience is used to listening with two ears. As their brains compare these two separate sound images of the external world, they build a three-dimensional impression from which the direction and distance of sound is estimated (see the next section).

Nonstereo television sound is not as sophisticated as this. It presents a monaural (mono) representation of sound in space. The only clue to distance is loudness; direction cannot be conveyed at all. Listening to mono reproduction, we are not able to distinguish between direct and reflected sounds, as we can when listening in stereo. Instead, they become intermixed, so that the sound is often “muddy” and less distinct. In mono sound, we become much more aware of the effects of reverberation.

Because the audience cannot easily distinguish direction and distance, the mono microphone needs to be carefully positioned. Audio personnel need to be careful that:

 Too many sound reflections are not picked up

 Louder sounds do not mask quieter sounds (particularly in an orchestra)

 Extraneous sounds do not interfere with the ones we want to hear

STEREO SOUND

Stereo sound creates an illusion of space and dimension. It enhances clarity. Stereo gives the viewer the ability to localize the direction of the sound. This localization give the audience a sense of depth—a spatial awareness of the visual image and the sound. However, because the speakers in television receivers are quite close together, the effect can be somewhat limited. Sound quality and realism are enhanced, but our impressions of direction and depth are less obvious.

FIGURE 14.4
A home surround-sound setup.

FIGURE 14.5
The NHK network in Japan has designed a 22.2 surround-sound system aimed primarily at theaters. (Illustration courtesy of NHK)

To simplify sound pickup, many practitioners mix central mono speech with stereo effects and music. When a stereo microphone is used, care must be taken to maintain direction (such as mic left to camera left), and to hold the mic still; otherwise, the stereo image will move around. In a stereo system, reverberation even appears more pronounced and extraneous noises such as wind, ventilation, and footsteps are more prominent, because they have direction, rather than merging with the overall background.

SURROUND SOUND

Surround sound can provide a sense of envelopment when mixed correctly. Instead of the one channel for mono or the two channels for stereo, 5.1 surround has six discrete (distinct, individual) channels: left front and right front (sometimes called stereo left and right), center, a subwoofer for low-frequency effects (LFEs), and left rear and right rear speakers (sometimes called surround left and right). The feeling of depth, direction, and realism is obtained by the audio personnel panning between the five main channels and routing effects to the LFE channel (Figure 14.4).

Although 5.1 surround sound is currently the most popular type of surround, it is not the only type available. There are currently 6.1 and 7.1 surround systems and Japan’s NHK is currently marketing a 22.2 surround-sound system for theaters (Figure 14.5).

MICROPHONE CHARACTERISTICS

The microphone characteristics that are most important to you will depend largely on the type of sound pickup involved and operating conditions. For example, ruggedness may be at the expense of fidelity. The main things that you need to know about microphones are:

Physical features. Although size may be unimportant for some situations, it can matter where the microphone is to appear in the shot or to be held by the talent. Appearance also counts. Ruggedness is a consideration where rough or inexperienced usage is likely.

Audio quality. Ideally, a microphone should cover the entire audio spectrum evenly. Its transient response to brief sharp sounds should be impeccable. Audio should be accurately reproduced without coloration or distortion. Fortunately, such parameters are less critical in many situations.

Sensitivity and directionality. A microphone’s sensitivity determines how large an audio signal it produces for a given sound volume, although audio amplifiers can compensate for even the least-sensitive microphones. However, excessive amplification can add hiss and hum to the audio signal. All microphones normally have to work closer to quiet sounds than louder ones, but less-sensitive microphones must be positioned even closer. However, they are less liable to be overloaded or damaged by loud sounds, so that in certain applications (percussion) they may be preferable. The directional properties of the microphone are determined by its sensitivity pattern

Choice of microphone/installation suitability. All audio personnel have prejudices about the right microphone for the job and exactly where to place it; no two situations are identical. While most audio personnel may agree on specific types of mics in many settings, the positioning of the mic is very subjective.

Microphone Care

Though most people regard the video camera with a certain apprehension, there are those who tend to dismiss the microphone (or mic) all too casually. They clip it onto a guest’s jacket with an air of “that’s all we have to do for audio,” instead of treating the mic as a delicate tool. If the microphone is damaged, if it is poorly positioned, the program sound will suffer. No amount of postproduction work with the audio can compensate for doing it right from the beginning. Program sound all begins with the microphone.

Although most microphones are reasonably robust, they do need careful handling if they are to remain reliable and perform up to specification. It is asking for trouble to drop them, knock them, or get liquid on them.

Directional Features of Microphones

Microphones do not all behave in the same way. Some are designed to be omnidirectional—they can hear equally well in all directions. Others are directional (also known as cardioid)—they can hear sounds directly in front of them clearly, but are comparatively deaf to sounds in all other directions.

FIGURE 14.7
The omnidirectional pickup pattern is equally sensitive in all directions, generally rugged, and not too susceptible to impact shock. This mic cannot distinguish between direct and reflected sounds, so it must be placed close to the sound source. (Image courtesy of Sennheiser)

FIGURE 14.8
The directional (or cardioid) mic pickup pattern. This broad, heart-shaped pickup pattern (roughly 160 degrees) is insensitive on its rear side. (Image courtesy of Sennheiser)

FIGURE 14.9
A super-cardioid (or highly directional) pickup pattern is used wherever you want extremely selective pickup, to avoid environmental noises, or for distance sources. (Image courtesy of Sennheiser)

The advantage of an omnidirectional mic (Figure 14.7) is that it can pick up sound equally well over a wide area. It is great when covering a group of people, or someone who is moving around. The disadvantage is that it cannot discriminate between the sound you want to hear and unwanted sounds such as reflections from walls, noises from nearby people or equipment, ventilation noise, footsteps, and so on. The more reverberant the surroundings, the worse the problem. The mic must be positioned so that it is closer to the wanted sounds than to the extraneous noises. This mic is great for picking up ambient or natural (NAT) sounds.

When a directional mic (Figure 14.8) is pointed at the desired sound, it will tend to ignore sounds from other directions, providing a much cleaner result. On the other hand, the directional mic needs to be aimed very carefully. It is also important to make sure that the audio source does not move out of the main pickup zone, otherwise the source will be “off-mic.” The off-mic sound becomes weaker, will probably include high-note losses, and may cause the audience to hear what it is being pointed at, instead of the desired source.

There are several different forms of unidirectional pickup patterns. The cardioid (Figure 14.8) or heart-shaped pattern is broad enough for general use, but not overly selective, and the super or hyper-cardioid (Figure 14.9) response also has a limited pickup area at its rear to receive reflected sounds.

Microphone Pickup Methods

There are two predominant methods for converting sound energy to an electrical-equivalent signal: dynamic and condenser.

Dynamic microphones are the most rugged, provide good-quality sound, and are not easily distorted by loud sounds such as nearby drums. These mics need little or no regular maintenance. They can be handheld without causing unwanted “handling noise” and used with all types of microphone mountings. These mics generally cannot be as small as a condenser mic and some are not of as high quality. However, they can be just as high quality as the condenser microphone.

The condenser microphone produces very high audio quality and is ideal for musical pickup. A significant advantage to the condenser is that it can be very small, making it the logical choice for a shotgun, lavalier mic, and other miniature microphones. The condenser mic is generally powered by an inboard battery, phantom-powered (power sent from the mixer) audio board, or a special power supply. The electret condenser microphone has a permanent charge applied when it is manufactured, which remains for the life of the microphone and does not need to be externally powered.

TYPES OF MICROPHONES

In most television production situations, any number of a variety of microphones can be used to record the audio. One audio person may select one type of mic and another may choose a radically different mic. Each person is looking for the best mic that will provide the sound that they are looking for. The following microphones are just some of the audio tools that are available. As the audio plan is created, the mic that is right for you must be chosen.

Camera Microphones

If the camera is fitted with a microphone, the theory is that when it is aimed at the subject to capture the video, the mic will pick up quality audio. However, a lot depends on the situation, the camera/mic placement, and the type of sound involved. Nothing beats a separate, high-quality microphone placed in exactly the right place. However, single-camera operators, working by themselves and moving around to various shooting positions, may have to use a camera microphone.

Some of the less professional mics are known to pick up sound from all around the camera, including noise from the camera zoom lens and camera operator sounds. With care, though, this basic microphone is useful for general atmospheric background sounds (traffic, crowds), and occasionally has good enough pick-up to capture a voice quality, if the camera is close to the subject.

The most popular type of camera microphone is the shotgun mic, attached to the top of the camera (Figure 14.10). Plugged into the camera’s external mic socket, this mic will give the best-quality pickup from the subject. As always with directional mics, these must be aimed accurately.

FIGURE 14.10
Shotgun mics are the most popular type of camera microphones.

Camera microphones do have their drawback and should be only used for voice when better options are unavailable. Distance is the biggest problem with a camera microphone:

 If the camera mic is more than 4 to 6 feet away from the talent, it may result in unacceptably high levels of background noise and/or acoustical reflections.

 Distance is the same for all shots. The camera may zoom in to a close-up shot or take a wide-angle shot, but the sound level remains the same.

 The microphone is often too far away from the subject for the best sound. Its position is determined by the camera’s shot, not by the optimum place for the microphone.

 The camera microphone cannot follow somebody if he or she turns away from a frontal position, such as to point to a nearby wall map. The sound’s volume and quality will fall off as they move off-mic.

Handheld Microphone

The handheld mic (or stick mic) is a familiar sight on television, used by interviewers, singers, and commentators. It is a very simple, convenient method of sound pickup, provided that it is used properly. Otherwise, results can be erratic. The handheld mic is best held just below shoulder height, pointed slightly toward the person speaking. Make it as unobtrusive as possible (Figure 14.11).

FIGURE 14.11
The handheld microphone is widely used for interviews, commentaries, and stage work. If the mic has a cardioid directional response, extraneous noise pickup is lower. If it is omnidirectional, the mic may need to be held closer to the subject to reduce atmosphere sounds. The mic is normally held just below shoulder height.

To reduce the low rumbling noises of wind on the microphone and explosive breath-pops when it is held too close to the mouth, it is advisable to attach a foam windshield to the microphone. Note the yellow foam windshield in the interview photo in Figure 14.11. Whenever possible, talk across the microphone rather than directly into it. This will provide the optimal audio quality.

Some people attempt to hold the mic around waist height to prevent it from being visible in the picture, however, this generally results in weak pickup, poor quality, and more intrusive background noise.

Handheld microphones with cardioid patterns help reduce the amount of extraneous sound overheard, so it can be used about 1 to 1.5 feet (0.30 m–0.45 m) from the person speaking. If an omnidirectional handheld mic is used, it should normally be held much closer—around 9 inches (22 cm) for optimal sound quality.

Shotgun Microphone

The shotgun microphone (hyper-cardioid) consists of a slotted tube containing an electret microphone at one end. This microphone is designed to pick up sound within quite a narrow angle, while remaining much less sensitive to sounds from other directions. It is great at isolating a subject within a crowd or excluding nearby noises (Figure 14.12).

Unfortunately, the shotgun microphone is not good at maintaining these directional properties throughout the audio range. At lower frequencies, it loses its ability to discriminate. The narrow forward-pointing pickup pattern then becomes increasingly broader.

When shooting in very “live” (reverberant) surroundings, a shotgun microphone has advantages, as it will pick up the subject’s sound successfully while reducing unwanted reflections, although how effectively it does so depends on the pitch or coloration of the reflected sounds.

The shotgun microphone is quite adaptable, and is regularly used as:

 A handheld microphone supported by some type of shock mount (Figure 14.12, and 14.15)

 A mic connected to the end of a boom pole or fishpole (Figures 14.14, and 14.16)

FIGURE 14.12
Shotgun microphones are one of the most commonly used mics in television. They are very susceptible to handling noise and must be held or connected to a pole or stand with a shock mount.

 A mic in the swiveled cradle support of a regular sound boom or perambulator boom (Figure 14.1).

 As a camera microphone, fitted to the top of the camera head (Figure 14.10).

Most people working in the field fit a shotgun microphone with some type of a windshield (also called a windjammer or wind muffler). The most effective types at suppressing obtrusive wind noises are a furry overcoat with “hairs” or a plastic/fabric tube (Figure 14.13). An alternative design of the wind filter is a tubular plastic sponge (Figure 14.12). Although much lighter, this design may prove inadequate except in the lightest breeze.

USING THE SHOTGUN MICROPHONE

Selecting the best position for shotgun microphones takes some advance planning. Audio personnel need to know how the action is going to develop. They may get this from a briefing beforehand or find it out from a camera rehearsal:

FIGURE 14.13
Different types of windshields are used to protect a shotgun mic from wind noise.

 Will the shotgun be used for long takes or for brief shots? It is one thing to stand in a fixed position for someone talking straight to the camera and another to have to follow action around as people and cameras move through a sequence.

 Will audio personnel have an uninterrupted view of the action?

 Is anyone or anything going to get in their way or are they going to get in anyone else’s way?

THE SHOTGUN AND THE BOOM POLE (FISHPOLE)

The boom pole (or fishpole) has become the most popular choice for sound pickup on location and in many smaller studios. This adjustable lightweight aluminum pole is usually about 6 to 9 feet long, carrying a microphone at its far end. The sound cable is either designed inside the pole or is taped securely along the pole (Figures 14.14 and 14.15).

FIGURE 14.14
A mic boom (or fishpole) is a regular method of mounting the shotgun microphone, particularly in the field. It allows the operator to stand several feet away from the subject, reaching over any foreground obstacles, and to place the microphone at an optimum angle. This position can be tiring if it has to be maintained for a long period of time. However, it may be the only solution when people are standing and/or walking about. (Photo by Dennis Baxter)

FIGURE 14.15
The shotgun microphone is not attached directly to the pole. Instead, a shock mount, such as the one shown here, must be used to prevent the rumbles of handling noise traveling along the pole and being picked up by the microphone. (Photo courtesy of Audio-Technica)

Lavalier (Lapel or Clip-On) Microphone

The lavalier microphone, also known as a lav, lapel, mini-mic, or a clip-on mic, has become the favorite mic in productions where it is unimportant whether the viewer sees a mic attached to someone’s clothing. These microphones are compact, unobtrusive, and provide high sound quality. This microphone is usually clipped to outside clothing (such as a tie, lapel, shirt, or blouse) so that noises from rubbing on clothing will be kept to a minimum. If lavalier mics are tucked beneath a heavy sweater or coat, understandably the sound becomes muffled and less distinct (Figure 14.17). The incredibly small lav mics, as shown in Figure 14.17, can also be used as an “earset” or “headworn” mic, as shown in Figure 14.18.

One of the challenges when using a lavalier mic is that the volume and clarity of the sound can change as a wearer turns their head left and right, or toward and away from the microphone.

A lavalier mic can be relied on to effectively pick up only the sound of the person wearing it. When two or three people are speaking, each will need to wear his or her own microphone.

FIGURE 14.17
Lavalier microphones come in many different sizes and shapes. Generally, a lavalier mic is clipped to a necktie, lapel, or shirt. Sometimes a “dual redundancy” pair is used, whenever a standby mic is desired. (Photos courtesy of Audio-Technica and Countryman Associates)

FIGURE 14.18
The talent is using an “earset” or “headworn” microphone that utilizes the lavalier microphone. It is mounted on a tiny mic “boom” and attached to the ear. It is available in a flesh color and is almost invisible to the viewing audience. In this situation, it was used by hosts of ESPN’s X Games. (Photos courtesy of Dennis Baxter and Sennheiser)

However, that does not mean that the mics won’t pick up the sound from others—it just won’t be the same quality and will not be the same level. When working in noisy surroundings, a small foam windshield over the end of the microphone will reduce the rumble of wind noise. The mic’s cable can be concealed beneath clothing.

Lavalier microphones can also be used to record subjects other than people. They are used effectively in sports productions (mounted in places like the nets at a soccer/football field) and they can be used to pick up the sound of some musical instruments. The clip-on mic in Figure 14.19 is actually a type of lavalier mic.

Boundary or PZM Microphone

The boundary microphone and pressure zone microphone (PZM) are low-profile mics that can be used to capture audio from talent that is 6 or more feet away without the “hollow” sound of a hanging handheld mic. Although the pickup technology is very different, these two mics are used similarly. These microphones are especially good for dramatic productions where microphones should not be seen (they can be attached to the back of set pieces). They are also good for stage performances of large groups. They can be hung from the ceiling, set on a floor, or attached to furniture. The pickup distance can be increased by mounting these mics on a hard surface (Figure 14.20).

Hanging Microphone

Hanging microphones are especially designed for high-quality sound reinforcement of dramatic productions, orchestras, and choirs. The mics are suspended over the performance area. Their small size is ideal since they will probably be visible to the viewing audience (Figure 14.21).

Surround-Sound Microphone

Surround-sound microphones can capture 5.1 to 7.1 channels of discrete (separate) audio with the multidirectional pickup pattern. Using the small microphone shown in Figure 14.22 the audio can be recorded directly on to the camera’s internal media along with video images. The small microphone has five microphone elements (left, right, center, left side, right side) and a dedicated LFE (this counts as the “.1” in the channel count) microphone.

FIGURE 14.19
These photos show a variation of lavalier microphones often used to record musical instruments or any other subject that requires close microphones. (Photo courtesy of Audio-Technica)

FIGURE 14.20
The boundary microphone is a low-profile mic that can pick up accurate sounds from six or more feet away.

FIGURE 14.21
Hanging microphone. (Photo courtesy of Audio-Technica)

The higher-end version is much larger and provides 7.1 surround sound. The smaller system, designed specifically for a camcorder, utilizes an internal Dolby® Pro Logic II–encoded line-level stereo output for connection directly to the camera on a single 3.5-mm stereo female miniplug jack. Some nonlinear editing systems have a Dolby logic decoder built in, allowing the channels from the stereo input to be split into the five surround channels, which allows a user to record programs in surround sound without having a full-surround mixing board (Figures 14.22 and 14.23).

Surround-sound microphones must be positioned carefully. They should not just be mounted on top of a camera if the camera will be panning and tilting around quite a bit. Moving the microphone around with the camera can really spatially disorient the audience. Generally these microphones are mounted on a separate stand or clamped to something stationary in order to pick up a quality ambient sound (Figure 14.24).

FIGURE 14.22
This small surround-sound microphone includes a Dolby ® Pro Logic II encoder with a line-level stereo output designed for stereo inputs on camcorders. (Photo courtesy of Holophone)

Suggestions for Using a Surround-Sound Microphone

 Use the surround mic to provide the “base” ambient surround sound for the audio mix.

 For a concert situation with arena-style seating, the sound mic should be placed a little higher than the orchestra, tilting the nose down toward the performers.

 When panning and tilting, mount the mic on a stationary stand, not on the camera.

 In most situations, try to position the surround mic as close to “front row center” as possible, rather than near the back of the room.

 When shooting sports events, it is best to place the surround mic either near the center of the field or near a main camera position. Always keep in mind the perspective of the television viewer. Mounting the surround mic on a side of a field or rink opposite to the main camera angle would seem backwards and unnatural.

 For surround recording of acoustic instruments, including drum kits, pianos, and voice at close range, try placing the mic near or above the instrument that is being recorded. For vocal or choirs, position the singers around the mic and monitor in surround to hear the results.

FIGURE 14.23
There are a variety of surround-sound microphones available. Audio personnel must select the one that best fits their specific situation. (Photos courtesy of Holophone and Core Sound)

FIGURE 14.24
ABC Television’s Extreme Makeover: Home Edition uses a professional surround-sound microphone, separate from the camera, to capture the audio. (Photo courtesy of Holophone)

FIGURE 14.25
An audio person adjusts a microphone stand for an on-location interview project.

MICROPHONE STANDS AND MOUNTS

Microphone stands are very useful in situations where the director does not mind the microphone possibly being seen in the shot. It is especially useful for stage announcements, singing groups, and for miking musical instruments. It does have some disadvantages. If people move around much, they can easily walk out of the mic’s range. Directors have to rely on the talent to get to the right place and keep the right distance from the mic. It is a good idea to give talent taped marks on the floor to guide them. And, of course, there is always the danger that he or she will kick the stand or trip over a cable (Figures 14.25 and 14.26).

FIGURE 14.26
There are many different types of microphone stands and mounts, from bottom-weighted telescopic stands to small versions with thin flexible or curved tubing intended for lavalier or miniature mics. (Photos by Paul Dupree and Dennis Baxter)

Wireless Microphones

The most commonly used wireless microphones (or radio microphones) are the lavalier mic and the handheld mic. Both of these types of mics can be purchased with the wireless transmitter built into the mic (or belt pack) and include a matching receiver. Lavalier mics are very popular because they allow the talent to have generally unrestricted movement while moving around the location. They are used in the studio with interview shows, on referees to hear their calls, and hidden on actors to catch their words (Figures 14.27, 14.28, and 14.29).

FIGURE 14.27
A wireless (radio) belt pack transmitter and receiver. A lavalier microphone can be plugged into the transmitter. (Photo courtesy of Audio-Technica)

FIGURE 14.28
Wireless receivers can be located on a camera. In this situation, the interviewer is using a handheld wireless. (Photo courtesy of Sennheiser)

FIGURE 14.29
Any type of microphone can become a wireless microphone if some type of wireless plug-on transmitter is used. This transmitter converts a dynamic or condenser microphone to wireless, transmitting the signal back to a receiver. (Photo courtesy of Audio-Technica)

Wireless microphones generally work on a radio frequency (RF) and many are frequency-programmable, allowing the audio personnel to select the best frequency for a specific location. Care must be taken to make sure that legal frequencies are being used.

There can be a number of challenges when working with wireless microphones:

 These mics work off of batteries. The battery life is roughly 4 to 6 hours. When working in freezing temperatures, battery life is usually cut in half. New batteries should be placed in the mic before each new session. Do not leave it to chance, assuming that there is enough capacity left from the last time (Figure 14.30).

 If two or more wireless microphones are being used in an area, they must be set on different RF channels to avoid interference.

 When working near large metal structures, there can be difficulties with RF dead spots, fading, distortion, or interference. Diversity of reception—using multiple antennas—can improve this situation, but it is still cause for some concern.

Hidden Mics

When other methods of sound pickup are difficult, a hidden microphone may be the best solution to the problem. Mics can be concealed among a bunch of flowers on a table, behind props, in a piece of furniture, and so on.

However, hidden mics do have limitations. Although the mic can be hidden, the cable must not be seen and/or the transmitter must be out of sight. Sound quality may also be affected by nearby reflecting or absorbing surfaces. Because the microphone covers a fixed localized area, the talent has to be relied on to play to the mic and not speak off-mic.

FIGURE 14.30
It is important to ensure that the batteries in the transmitter, and possibly the receiver, are at full capacity at the beginning of a program. The transmitters are usually clipped to the back of the talent. (Photo courtesy of Sennheiser)

CONTROLLING DYNAMICS

Dynamic Range

Everyday sounds can cover a considerable volume range. Fortunately, our ears are able to readjust to an astonishing extent to cope with these variations. But audio systems do not have this ability. If audio signals are larger than the system can accept, they will overload it and become badly distorted. If, on the other hand, sounds are too weak, they get lost in general background noise. In order to reproduce audio clearly, with fidelity, it must be kept within the system’s limits.

A lot of sounds pose no problems at all. They don’t get particularly soft or loud; that is, they do not have a wide dynamic range. When recording sounds of this type, there is little need to alter the gain (amplification) of the system once it has been set to an appropriate “average” position.

It can be very difficult to capture the wide audio range of audio between a whisper to an ear-shattering blast. Because the blast will exceed the system’s handling capacity, the audio person must compensate in some way. The most obvious thing to do is to turn down the system’s audio gain so that the loud parts never reach the upper limit. But then the quiet passages may be so faint that they are inaudible. So somehow or other, most of the time, the audio levels need to be controlled.

Automatic Control for Audio

Cameras generally allow the operator to set the camera’s audio manually or automatically. To avoid loud sounds overloading the audio system and causing distortion, most audio and video recording equipment includes automatic gain control. When the sound signal exceeds a certain level, the auto gain control automatically reduces the audio input.

A completely automatic gain system amplifies all incoming sounds to a specific preset level. It “irons out” sound dynamics by preventing over- or under-amplification. Quiet sounds are increased in volume and loud sounds are held back. There are no adjustments to make and the camera operator must accept the results.

This can be an effective way of coping with occasional over-loud noises, but if the sounds happen to be so loud that they are continually “hitting the limiter,” the results can be very distracting from an unpleasant strangled effect as sound peaks are “pulled back” to moments when quiet background sounds are over-amplified and surge in persistently whenever there is a pause.

Some auto gain systems do have manual adjustments. The idea is to ensure that the gain control is set high enough to amplify the quietest passages without running into over-amplification of the loudest sounds. The auto gain control circuitry limits sound peaks only as an occasional safety measure, and depends on the gain adjustment. It is generally best to manually control the audio.

Manual Control

Manual control means that you continuously monitor the program while watching an audio level meter (Figure 14.31). The audio person is responsible for readjusting the audio system’s gain (amplification) whenever necessary to obtain a quality audio signal. That does not mean that the dynamics should be “ironed” out by making all the quiet sections loud, and holding back all the loud passages. “Riding the gain” in this way can ruin the sound of the program. Instead, when sounds are going to be weak, anticipate by gradually increasing the gain, and conversely, slowly move the gain back before loud passages. Then the listeners will be unaware that changes are being made to accommodate the audio system’s limitations.

FIGURE 14.31
It is the audio person’s responsibility to readjust the audio system’s gain (amplification) whenever necessary to obtain a quality audio signal. (Photo courtesy of Sennheiser)

How quiet the softest sound is allowed to be will depend on the purpose of the program. If, for example, the recording will be used in noisy surroundings, or shown in the open air, it may be best to keep the gain up to prevent the quietest sounds from falling below 215 or 220 dB. If a piano performance is being shot to be heard in a controlled location indoors, take care not to over-control the music’s dynamics, and use the system’s full volume range.

Unlike automatic control circuits, audio personnel are able to anticipate and make artistic judgments, which can make the final audio far superior than it would be otherwise. The drawback to manual control is that the audio personnel need to be vigilant all the time, ready to make any necessary readjustments. If they are not careful, the resulting audio may be less satisfactory than the auto circuits would have produced.

There are several types of volume indicators, but the commonest on video equipment take the form of visual displays using bar graphs or some type of VU meter (explained shortly).

A bar graph (Figure 14.32) has a strip made up of tiny segments. This varies in length with the audio signal’s strength. Calibrations vary, but it might have a decibel scale from 250 to 110 dB, with an upper working limit of about 12 dB. Adjust the audio gain control so that the sound peaks reach this upper mark. Twin bar graphs are used to monitor the left and right channels. The sound generally distorts if the audio signal goes into the red area of the bar graph.

FIGURE 14.32
VU meters and bar graphs are used to monitor the audio signal.

The VU meter (Figure 14.32) is a widely used volume indicator. It has two scales: a “volume unit” scale marked in decibels, and another showing “percentage modulation.” Although accurate for steady tones, the VU meter gives deceptively low readings for brief loud sounds or transients such as percussion.

The maximum signal coincides with 100 percent modulation at 0 dB. Above that, in the red area, sounds will distort, although occasional peaks are acceptable. The normal range used is 220 to 0 dB, typically peaking between 22 to 0 dB.

In summary, if the camera operator needs the audio system to look after itself, because he or she is preoccupied with shooting the scene, or is coping with very unpredictable sounds, then the automatic gain control has its merits—it will prevent loud sounds from overloading the system. However, if an assistant is available who can monitor the sound as it is being recorded, and adjust the gain for optimum results, then this has significant artistic advantages.

There are special electronic devices called “limiters” or “compressors” that automatically adjust the dynamic range of the audio signal, but these are found only in more sophisticated systems.

Monitoring the Audio

Monitoring sound for a video program involves:

 Watching: checking the volume indicator and watching a video monitor to make sure that the microphone does not pop into the shot inadvertently. Watching the video monitor also allows you to anticipate what microphone will be needed next.

 Listening: checking sound quality and balance on high-grade earphones or a loudspeaker to detect any unwanted background noises.

Ideally, the audio level can be adjusted during a rehearsal. However, if a performance is going to be recorded without a rehearsal, such as in an interview, ask the talent to speak a few lines so that the audio level can be accurately adjusted. It is best if the talent can chat with the host in a normal voice for a few minutes or he or she can read from a script or book long enough to adjust the level. Do not have him or her count or say “test.” Both of these can give inaccurate readings, as they do not necessarily reflect normal speaking levels.

It is important to monitor the sound also to get an impression of the dynamic range while watching the volume level. If the results are not satisfactory, the talent may need to be asked to speak a little louder or more quietly, or to reposition the mic.

When shooting a program alone, it is a little more complicated to control the audio manually. Most professional cameras include an audio meter in the eyepiece of the camera, which allows the camera operator to monitor the audio signal. In recent years, camera manufacturers have improved the ability for camera operators to adjust the audio on-the-fly. Usually, if the level is set in advance, it is not difficult to capture good audio levels. However, in difficult situations, the automatic gain control can be used. It is also essential to monitor the audio with an earpiece or the small built-in speaker on the side of some cameras.

The Audio Mixer

An audio mixer is needed whenever there are a number of sound sources to select, blend together, and control (such as a couple of microphones, CD, VCR audio output, and so on). The output of this unit is fed to the recorder (Figures 14.33 and 14.34).

On the front panel of the audio mixer are a series of knobs or sliders. Each of these “pots” (potentiometers) or faders (Figure 14.35) can adjust its channel’s volume from full audio to fade-out (silence). In some designs, the channel can be switched on or off on cue with a “mute” button. When sources are plugged into the patch panel (connector strip), generally on the back of the switcher, the audio person can select the appropriate channel.

On a large audio mixing panel, there may be group faders (group masters, submasters). Each of these group faders controls the combined outputs of several channels, and it may have its own group volume indicator. For instance, one group fader can be used for all the mics on the audience (Figures 14.36 and 14.37).

Finally, there is a master fader that controls the overall audio strength being sent to line (such as on the recorder). This can be used to fade the complete mix in or out. A master volume indicator shows the combined strength of the mixed audio.

Larger audio mixers include a cue circuit (also called audition) that enables audio personnel to listen “privately” on earphones or a loudspeaker to the output of any individual channel, even when its pot is faded out. That way the source, such as a CD, can be set up at exactly the right spot, ready to be started on cue, without this being overheard on the air.

FIGURE 14.33
The portable audio mixer is used in the field to mix up to three mics; the overall output is controlled by a master fader. A VU meter provides the volume indicator. Some mixers include a limiter to prevent audio overload. (Photo courtesy of Shure Incorporated)

FIGURE 14.34
Some field mixers include a hard drive that can store the audio program directly on the mixer.

FIGURE 14.35
Faders (potentiometers) on a large audio mixer.

FIGURE 14.36
A large surround-sound audio mixer for television productions.

FIGURE 14.37
Some television audio mixers prefer to mix live events, such as a concert, awards show, or similar performance, from inside the performance hall. (Photo courtesy of Dennis Baxter)

Using the Audio Mixer

Located at the audio mixer (board, desk, audio control console), the audio control engineer (sound mixer, sound supervisor) selects and blends the various program sound sources. His or her attention is divided variously between:

 Selecting and controlling the outputs of various audio sources (microphones, discs, hard drives, etc.)

 Keeping the volume indicators within system limits by adjusting appropriate channel faders (amplifier gains)

 Following the program audio and pictures and the director’s intercom

 Checking the audio quality on high-grade loudspeakers

 Watching the video monitors that show the program and preview shots, to check sound perspective, and warn against microphones or shadows coming into the shot

 Guiding (and cueing) operators on mic booms, audio disc, and recording playback

 Possibly operating audio recording equipment

 Liaison with other production team members

Audio mixing can be as simple as fading up a microphone or two and controlling the sound levels, or it can be a complex process involving edge-of-seat decisions depending on the type of production. For example:

 A “live” show usually involves rapid decisions. When a production is being recorded scene-by-scene, not live, there is time to set up complicated audio treatments. Anything that goes wrong can usually be corrected and improved.

 If there are a number of sound sources that need to be cued in at precisely the right moment, it can be stressful, This type of program poses a very different situation than a less-complicated program such as an interview.

These are just a few of the issues that decide how complex the audio mix needs to be. Let’s look at typical operations in some detail:

 Sound sources should be faded in just before they begin (to the appropriate fader level), and faded out when finished.

 Source channels should not be left “open” (live) when not in use. Apart from accidentally recording overheard remarks (“Was that all right?”) and other unwanted sounds, it may pick up someone who is on another mic.

 It is important that the right source is selected and faded up/down at the right moment. Individual or group faders can be used. Here is an example:

Imagine a scene for a drama production is being shot. The audience sees the interior of a home, where the radio (actually from an iPod located near the mixer) plays quietly. An actor is talking (on live mic-1) to another person (on live mic-2) who is not shown in the shot. A nearby telephone rings (a fade-up using a special effects CD of a phone ringing). The actor turns down the radio (we fade down the iPod) and picks up the phone (we stop the special effects CD). Continuous background noises of a storm (from another special effects CD) can be heard at a low level throughout the scene. All these fades must be completed on individual channel faders. The different audio sources must be operated by the person at the mixer or by an assistant.

 When combining several sound sources, all of them should not be faded up to their full level. They should be blended for a specific overall effect. For example, if a single microphone were used to pick up the sound of a music group, chances are that the one microphone would pick up certain instruments much better than others. Loud instruments would dominate and quiet ones would be lost. The overall balance would be poor. Instead, use several microphones, devoted to different parts of the group. Then the volume of the weaker instruments, such as a flute, could be increased and the volume of the louder ones, such as drums, can be decreased. With care, the result would sound perfectly natural and have a clearer overall balance.

 Sometimes the relative volume of a sound will need to be adjusted in order to create an illusion of distance. If the sound of a telephone ringing is loud, we assume it is nearby; if it is faint, it must be some distance away.

 Sounds may need to be deliberately amplified. For example, you can readjust the fader controlling the crowd noise to make it louder at an exciting moment and give it a more dramatic impact.

 Bottom line, the final audio mix needs to fit the mood of the overall production.

Natural Sound

Most video productions are made up of a series of shots, taken in whatever order is most convenient, and edited together later to form the final program. This approach has both advantages and drawbacks. As far as the program sound is concerned, there are several complications.

First of all, although the various shots in a sequence have been taken at different times, it is important that their quality and volume match when they are edited together. Otherwise, there will be sudden jumps whenever the shot changes. If, for instance, a shot is taken of a person walking down a hallway, using a close mic, and then a side view of the same action using a more distant mic, the difference in the sound, when cutting from one shot to the other, could be quite noticeable. The overall effect would draw attention to the editing.

When editing together a sequence of images shot at different times, the background sounds may not match. In the time it takes for shooting one shot, repositioning the camera, adjusting the light, and then retaking the shot, the background noises often have significantly changed. Because the crew members are busy doing their jobs, they may not notice that the background sounds are quite different. Sounds that we become accustomed to while shooting the scene, such as overhead aircraft, farm equipment, hammering, or typing, have a nasty habit of instantly disappearing and reappearing when the shots are edited together.

Anticipation

Anticipation comes with experience. When things go wrong, hopefully you will learn from it and be better prepared next time. There are a number of ways to anticipate audio challenges.

PREPARATION

 Check through the script or preplanning paperwork and then pull together the appropriate equipment so that every audio situation in the production can be covered.

 Prerecorded audio inserts should be checked before the show. Make sure that they are appropriate. Is the duration too long or too short? Is the quality satisfactory? Will an insert require equalization? Is it damaged in any way (for example, surface scratches on a disc)? Is the insert material arranged in the order in which it is to be used?

 Check all of the equipment to make sure that it is working correctly. Don’t rely on the fact that “it was OK yesterday.” If additional plug-in equipment is being used, such as a portable audio mixer, have someone fade up each source (microphones or CD) to ensure that each one is working.

 Go to each microphone in turn, scratch its housing (an easy way to test the microphone), and state its location to make sure that the microphone is working and plugged into the correct input (this is “Boom A”).

FIGURE 14.39
This lavalier clip is designed to hold two microphones, providing a backup microphone in case one of them fails.

 Have a backup microphone ready in case the main microphone fails. If it is a one-time-only occasion and a lavalier mic is being used, it may be advisable to add a second “dual redundancy” lavalier mic, too (Figure 14.39).

 Is the microphone cable long enough to allow the boom pole to move around freely?

Of course, these suggestions are all a matter of common sense, but it is surprising how often the obvious and the familiar get overlooked. These are just reminders of what should become a regular routine.

ANTICIPATING SOUND EDITING

When shooting a scene, it is important to overcome the challenges of sound editing by anticipating the types of problems that will occur:

Continuity. Try to ensure that the quality and level of successive shots in the same scene match as much as possible.

Natural/atmosphere sounds. Record some general natural sound (atmosphere) and typical background sounds (wild track) in case they are needed during postproduction.

Questions. When shooting an interview, concentrating on the guest, the questions of the interviewer may not be audible. Make sure that the host has his or her own microphone or go back and have them ask the same questions after the interview so that they are recorded.

Filtered Sound

Significant changes can be made to the quality of sound by introducing an audio filter into the system. This can be adjusted to increase or decrease the chosen part of the audio spectrum, to exaggerate or suppress the higher notes or the bass or middle register, depending on the type of filter system used and how it is adjusted.

The simplest “tone control” progressively reduces higher notes during reproduction. A more flexible type of audio filter is called an equalizer. This filter can boost or reduce any segment(s) of the audio spectrum by changing the slider pots.

Here are typical ways in which filtering can enhance the subjective effect of the sound:

 Cutting low bass can reduce rumble or hum; improve speech clarity; lessen the boomy or hollow sound of some small rooms; and weaken background noise from ventilation, passing traffic, and so on. Overdone, the result sounds thin and lacking body.

 Cutting higher notes can make hiss, whistles, tape noise, sibilant speech, and other high-pitched sounds less prominent. However, if you cut them too much, the sound will lack clarity and intelligibility.

 If the bass and top notes are cut, the sound will have a much more “open-air” quality—a useful cheat when shooting an exterior scene in a studio.

 By slightly increasing bass, the impression of size and grandeur of a large interior can be increased.

 The clarity and “presence” of many sounds can be improved by making them appear closer, by boosting the middle part of the audio spectrum (such as 2–6 kHz).

 Filtering can make the quality of sound recorded in different places more similar (such as shots of someone inside and outside a building). It can help to match the sound quality of different microphones.

Reverberation

As mentioned earlier, most of the everyday sounds we hear are a mixture of direct sound from the source itself, together with “colored” versions reflected from nearby surfaces. The quality of that reflected sound is affected by the nature of those surfaces. Some surfaces will absorb the higher notes (curtains, cushions, carpeting). This reflected sound may even be muffled. Conversely, where surroundings reflect higher notes more readily, these hard reflections will add harshness (also called “edginess”) to the final sound.

Where there are few sound-absorbing materials around, there will be noticeable reverberation as sound rebounds from the walls, ceiling, and floor. If the time intervals between these reflections are considerably different, a distinct echo will be heard.

This is a reminder that the room tone will depend on its size, shape, carpeting, drapes, easy chairs, and other furnishings. Where there are no reflections—as in open spaces away from buildings or other hard surfaces—the resulting sound will seem dead. The only way we can simulate dead surroundings within a building is to use carefully positioned sound-absorbing materials. On the other hand, if there is too much reverberation, the result is a confused mixture of sound that reduces its clarity.

In practice, the appeal of many sounds can be enhanced by adding a certain amount of real or simulated reverberation to them. Today, the most commonly used method of adding some “liveness” is to use a reverberation unit that digitally stores the sound and is selectively reread over and over to give the impression of reflected sounds.

BUILDING THE SOUNDTRACK

Most television programs contain not only speech but also music and sound effects. These vary with the type of program. A talk show is likely to have music only at the start and end of the production, to give it a “packaged” feel; a dramatic presentation may be strewn with a variety of carefully selected atmospheric sound effects and musical passages (bridges, mood music, etc.).

Some sounds are prominently in the foreground, and others are carefully controlled to provide an appropriate background to the action. Some may creep in, and are barely audible, yet add an atmospheric quality to a scene (such as the quiet tick-tock of a grandfather clock). Others may be deafening, even drowning out the dialogue.

Some sound effects are continuous, and others rely on split-second cueing to exactly match live action.

Types of Program Sound

When a production is running smoothly, it’s easy to overlook the complexities that lie behind it. This is particularly true of the sound component of television. The person controlling the program sound often has to work simultaneously with a diversity of sound sources. Some of these are live and therefore liable to vary unpredictably; others may have been pre-recorded specifically for the production, or selected from stock libraries.

Contributory sounds can include:

 Dialogue: Direct pickup of the voices of people in the picture

 Off-camera voices: This could include an unseen bystander, oa radio playing in the background, or a public announcement in a train station

 Voiceover (VO): The voice of a commentator or announcer (with introductory or explanatory information)

 Sound effects: Sound coinciding with action in the picture

 Background or environmental effects: General atmospheric sounds, such as the wind, ocean, or traffic

 Foreground music: Someone playing an instrument in the shot

 Background music: Atmospheric mood music (usually recorded)

 Special effects sounds: Sounds that enhance the scene

Program Music

The role of music in television programs is so established that we don’t need to dwell on it here. Musical themes often remain in the memory long after the program itself has faded from the mind.

Music can have various purposes. For example:

 Identifying: Music associated with a specific show, person, and/or country

 Atmospheric: Melodies intended to induce a certain mood, such as excitement

 Associative: Music reminiscent of, for example, the American West or the Orient

 Imitative: Music that directly imitates, such as a bird song; music with a rhythm or melody copying the subject’s features, for example, the jog-trot accompaniment to a horse and wagon

 Environmental: Music heard at a specific place, such as a ballroom

Sound Effects

Sound effects add depth and realism to a video production. They significantly affect the audience’s experience. Interestingly, if a production is shot in a real location, yet is missing the everyday sounds that occur there, the audience will perceive that it is a contrived location. However, if the same scene is shot in a well-designed television studio setting, but accompanied by the appropriate sound effects, the audience can easily be convinced that it was shot on location. The barely heard sounds of a clock ticking, wind whistling through trees, bird song, passing traffic, the barking of a distant dog (or whatever other noises are appropriate) can bring the scene to life.

Sound effects can come from a number of sources:

The original sounds recorded during a scene: For example, a person’s own footsteps accompanying the picture, which may be filtered, have reverberation added, and so on.

Reused original sounds: An example would include the sounds of wind, traffic, or children at play, recorded during a scene, then copied and mixed with that same scene’s soundtrack to reinforce the overall effect.

Foley: Creating sounds in a studio that can replace the original sounds. For example, introducing sounds of your own footsteps for the original ones, keeping in time with those in the picture.

Sound effects library: Effects from a commercial audio effects library on CD, DVD, or downloaded offline.

Digital processing or sound sampling: Computer software offers a plethora of options for creating, manipulating, and sounds. Connected to a keyboard, these effects can be repeated and changed in an endless variety of ways.

Anticipating Sound Editing

When shooting on location, you can make eventual editing and audio sweetening a lot easier if you habitually follow certain practices:

Level continuity: Aim to keep the level and quality of successive shots in the same scene reasonably similar. Particularly in location interiors, you may find that longer shots have lower sound levels and strong reverberation, while closer shots are louder and relatively dead acoustically.

Wild track: It is good practice to make supplementary recordings of general “atmosphere” (background noise) from time to time. This is often referred to as NAT (natural) sound. Even in the studio, there is always a low-level background sound of air conditioning/ventilation (room tone). On location, this atmosphere may include wind in trees, passing traffic, and so on. When editing the program there will be occasions where the soundtrack has been cut, or a sequence is muted, and these cover sounds can be introduced to avoid distracting lapses into silence and to give a feeling of continuity to the edited shots.

When recording on location, keep an alert ear for any potential sound effects that arise when you are not actually shooting, yet might be integrated into the final soundtrack. Even unwelcome intrusive noises, such as a passing fire truck, might prove useful in your sound library for another occasion.

Extra audio recording is useful, too, when shooting interviews on location. Typically, the camera and microphone concentrate on the guest, and separate shots of the interviewer are cut in during editing.

Audio Sweetening

The process of working on the program sound after the production is called audio sweetening (or a dubbing session or track laying). Although it can be a lot cheaper to record a show live to tape and have a complete production ready for use at the end of the session, audio sweetening is both necessary and preferable where extensive video editing is involved.

Audio sweetening can be carried out at various levels:

Additional material: Adding extra material to the finished edited program (playing title music, special effect sounds, adding a commentary, etc.).

Corrections: Improving the sound within a scene. You might, for example, readjust varying levels between speakers’ voices. Careful filtering could reduce hum, rumble, ventilation noise, and other issues.

Enhancement: Modifying sound quality to improve realism or to achieve a dramatic effect (adding reverberation or changing its equalization). Adjusting the relative strengths of effects and music tracks to suit the dialogue and action.

Continuity: Ensuring that the sound levels, balance, and so on, are consistent from one shot to the next when various shots are edited together.

Bridging: Adding bridging effects or music that will run between shots. An overlay track can be played throughout an entire sequence to ensure that the same background sound levels continue without level jumps or changes in quality. It may be kept down behind dialogue and made more prominent during action.

Overdubbing: Replacing unsatisfactory sections of the soundtrack that were spoiled, for instance, by passing aircraft or other extraneous noise.

As you can see, there are very practical reasons to rework the soundtrack after production. Now that television makes increasing use of short takes and sophisticated video editing, it has become a regular part of the production process on complex shows.

Copyright

Whenever material prepared and created by other people is used—a piece of music, a sound recording, video recording, film, a picture in a book, a photograph, and so on—the producer/director is required to pay a fee to the copyright holders or an appropriate organization operating on their behalf for copyright clearance.

Copyright law is complex and varies between different countries, but basically, it protects the originators from having their work copied without permission. You cannot, for example, prepare a video program with music dubbed from a commercial recording, with inserts from television programs, magazine photographs, advertisements, and other sources without the permission of the respective copyright owners. The owners will probably require the payment of use fees and these fees will depend on the purpose and use of the program. Some of the exceptions to this policy occur when the program is only to be seen within the home or used in a class assignment that will not be seen by the public. In most cases, the copyright can be traced through the source of the material needed for the production (the publisher of a book or photograph).

Agreements take various forms and may be limited in scope. A license and/or a fee may need to be paid for using the material. For music and sound effects, directors are usually required to pay a royalty fee per use; it may be possible to buy unlimited rights.

The largest organizations concerned with performance rights for music (copyright clearance for use of recorded music or to perform music) include ASCAP (American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers), SESAC (Society of European Stage Authors and Composers), and BMI (Broadcast Music, Inc.). When clearing copyright for music, both the record company and the music publishers may need to be involved.

Music in public domain is not subject to copyright, but any arrangement or performance may be covered by copyright. Music and lyrics published in 1922 or earlier are in the public domain in the United States. Anyone can use a public domain song in a production—no one can “own” a public domain song. Sound recordings, however, are protected separately from musical compositions. If you need to use an existing sound recording—even a recording of a public domain song—you usually have to record it yourself or license the recording.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. How are acoustic reflections (or echoes) reduced?

2. How is the speaker setup different between stereo and surround sound (5.1)? How many speakers are involved?

3. What are three microphone characteristics, and how do each of these affect the audio recording process?

4. How is a super-cardioid microphone used for television production?

5. Review the different types of microphones and specify the type that you would use to obtain a quality recording of a piano. Explain your choice.

6. What are some of the different situations where a type of lavalier mic can be used?

7. What are the advantages of a wireless mic?

8. How is a soundtrack designed (built)?

9. When do you need to be concerned about copyright?

INTERVIEW WITH A PROFESSIONAL: BRYANT FALK

Briefly define your job: I handle all aspects of audio for productions. From writing and recording voiceover to music and sound design.

What do you like about your job? I like the variety. Last week I was handling a corporate video piece and this week I’m dealing with a documentary.

What are the types of challenges that you face in your position? Surprisingly one issue these days is technology. Because it is moving so fast there is constantly something on the market that I need to be aware of. Also the formats are constantly changing. It’s important to stay on top of all the audio formats available.

How do you prepare for a production? I try to get as much information on the project as possible. It’s more difficult than you think. The director is so busy with other parts of the project he or she barely has time to talk. Also the “flux factor,” at least that’s what I like to call it. It’s the continual changes that are occurring while the production is in motion. From, say, deleting a scene and then putting it back in to adding a voiceover that never existed before, etc. Next I immediately start an SFX folder and begin collecting audio. If it’s a horror project, I hunt down creaky doors and record them. I may go to a friends house and sit in the backyard to record the crickets. I like to use as much fresh sound as possible. I try to only use sound effects libraries when I’m in a pinch. If I’m given a script I will look through all the scene locations and begin to collect the SFX.

What suggestions or advice do you have for someone interested in a position like yours? If you really want to get into audio production make sure to understand all the other aspects of production as well. For example be as knowledgeable as possible about the editor’s software, this will make it easier to give them what they need. Also intern with people that are doing what you like to do so you get a first-hand glimpse as to what you are in for.

FIGURE 14.40
Bryant Falk, Audio Mixer Engineer

Bryant Falk has been a producer and audio engineer for video projects for clients such as MTV, Coca-Cola, and Sports Illustrated. He is the owner of Abacus Audio, located in New York City.