CHAPTER 17

Production Practices

“If something has gone wrong, a director who panics and shouts merely spreads the panic to all those on the intercom and will create an air of uncertainty. Speaking with a calm voice, even if you are inwardly in turmoil, will help to solve the problems quickly and efficiently.”

Simon Staffurth, Director, Britain’s Got Talent

Action line/axis of action line/eye line: The imaginary line along the direction of the action in the scene. Cameras should shoot from only one side of this line.

Crash start: Takes us straight into the program, which appears to have begun already: An automobile screams to a stop outside a store, a figure throws a bomb that explodes, an alarm bell shrills, a police siren wails—the show has begun and titles roll over the chasing vehicles.

Cutaway shot: These shots are used to cover edits when any sequence is shortened or lengthened. Generally, it is a shot of something outside of the current frame.

Filmic space: Filmic space intercuts action that is concurrent at different places: As a soldier dies…his son is born back home.

Filmic time: Omits intermediate action, condensing time and sharpening the pace. We cut from the automobile stopping to the driver entering an apartment.

Pace: The rate of emotional progression. A slow pace suggests dignity, solemnity, contemplation, and deep emotion; a fast pace conveys energy, excitement, confusion, brashness, and so on.

Teaser: Showing dramatic, provocative, intriguing highlights from the production, before the opening titles. The goal is to convince the audience to stay for the entire production.

 

Television production companies all over the world follow surprisingly similar practices. This is partially due to the nature of the medium and partially due to the result of sharing knowledge and experience.

PRODUCTION PRESSURES

Organizing and coordinating the production often leaves most directors little time to meditate on the medium’s aesthetics. Rehearsal time is usually limited. The camera and sound crews are meeting the director’s brainchild for the first time and need to understand the vision. If the treatment is elaborate, there is greater opportunity for problems that require immediate decisions. If the production is shot out of sequence, it becomes that much more difficult to ensure that each segment is coherent and will provide good continuity when edited together. In this type of situation, it is often tempting to just experiment instead of follow the normally accepted production process…there has be a balance.

SHOOTING STYLES

There are a number of different approaches to shooting, ranging from unscripted to fully scripted.

In unscripted shooting, the camera tends to record available events, perhaps working from a rough outline (shooting plan). Material is selected during postproduction and compiled into a program format with added commentary. This technique is often used when shooting documentaries and news stories.

Fully scripted productions, on the other hand, are first broken down into their individual shots or scenes, and then the techniques involved for each shot or group of shots are assessed. The staged action is then methodically shot out of story sequence (according to a shooting schedule/plan) for maximum economy and efficiency. For example, if the storyline requires a series of intercut shots between the heroine at the cliff top and the hero below, all the sequences involved are shot at one camera setup, then the camera is moved to the other angle for the next shots.

This out-of-sequence shooting prevents having to constantly move the camera back and forth. It saves time (which is money) with fewer camera setups, lighting, and audio, and uses actors more economically.

SINGLE-CAMERA TECHNIQUES

Single-camera shooting is the traditional method of filmmaking. Two or more cameras are used only for situations in which repeat action would be impracticable or costly, or simultaneous angles are required, such as when derailing a train.

Shooting out of sequence often requires the actors to repeat their action for each change in camera viewpoint or shot length, which can introduce continuity problems. Action, gestures, expressions, costume, lighting, and so on must be consistent (this is continuity) within the various intercut shots and relate to the story development, although they may have been filmed at different times.

Single-Camera Setups

After a sequence of shots is carefully edited, the continuity can appear so natural that viewers will not think about the fact that it was originally shot as a disjointed series of individual setups.

In a typical sequence, we may find ourselves close to a man as he walks—yet an instant later see him from a distant viewpoint. The camera is often “left behind” as he moves away—yet is at his destination as he arrives (Figure 17.1). The overall effect here is smooth-flowing and provides a variety of angles. To do the obvious and shoot this entire sequence as continuous action would have required several cameras, spread over a significant distance—an approach that might not be practical anyway. Usually, it would not provide the same effect.

FIGURE 17.1
Single-camera shooting: in order to achieve smooth-flowing action with one camera, a series of camera setups are often necessary.

Shooting Uncontrolled Action

When using a single camera to shoot broad action over which you have no control, you have the option of:

 Remaining at a fixed viewpoint and relying on the zoom lens to provide a variety of shots

 Moving the camera to a series of different vantage points, changing the angle and shot size to capture the main features of the occasion

Clearly, if you are shooting a public event such as a parade with a single camera, the first option would be very limiting. However, if you move around or stop shooting, you will probably lose coverage of some of the action, unless you can time your moves to fit in with a lull in the proceedings (Figure 17.2).

In order to simplify the editing process, it is important to shoot plenty of general material that can be used as cutaway shots. Cutaways tend to be of two types: active and passive. The active cutaway includes subjects that can be edited into the program only at a specific moment, such as shots of a town clock showing that the parade is about to start or the crowd’s responses to a specific event. Passive cutaways can be used at almost any time, and might include reflections, flags, sun through branches, and so on.

With news events, you make the most of whatever opportunities are available. You may be able to plan exactly what you are going to do, checking out the route and your angles in advance. You may even be able to influence the events a little, arranging for the beauty queen in the procession to turn and smile in the direction of the camera as she passes. But, generally, you will have little control over the entire situation and there are usually no repeats.

FIGURE 17.2
When shooting with a single camera at a public event, such as this parade, the camera operator needs to decide whether to stay in one place and get whatever comes his way, or move around to different angles to obtain better shots, but possibly miss some of the action.

Shooting Controlled Action

When shooting situations that you can control, such as interviews, drama sequences, and the like, the situation is very different from shooting uncontrolled action. Now you can arrange the action, the camera setups, and sometimes the lighting and staging (background and props) to fit each individual shot.

If you want to repeat the same action so that you have long shots, medium shots, and closeup shots of it to ultimately cut together, it can be planned out in advance. Instead of having to select from whatever is happening at the location, you have the option to change things to improve the storyline. This could include having the person lean over the bridge to improve the composition, waiting for the sun to come out, or pausing while a loud aircraft passes overhead.

You generally take the shots in the most convenient, rational order. You can then edit them together afterwards to fit the storyline sequence. If, for instance, you have a series of shots of people on either side of a river, it is obviously more sensible, and efficient, to shoot all of the action on one side and then move to the other, rather than moving back and forth, shooting in the script’s running order.

When shooting out of order, you have to take care that there are no obvious discrepancies that spoil the continuity between the shots when they are cut together. If in our example there happened to be bright sunshine when shooting on one bank of the river but pouring rain when shooting on the other, the intercut shots would look pretty unconvincing (Figure 17.3).

Segmented Shooting

Shooting controlled action with a single camera normally requires the director to break down the action into a series of brief camera setups or action segments. If part of the action adds nothing to the situation, it may be deliberately omitted altogether. At other times, the action may be emphasized. Let’s imagine some options with a simple situation:

Someone is walking along the street.

 If we are only really interested in what the person does when he or she reaches a destination, the walk can be omitted completely.

 Perhaps we want to emphasize that the person has hurt a leg, and every step is taken in agony. In that case, we might follow him or her closely—the heavy footsteps, the hesitant walking stick, and the uneven sidewalk—in a series of shots taken from different angles.

 Suppose the story’s aim is to intrigue us. We wonder what is going to happen…is he or she going to be attacked by a thief? In this situation, we would probably shoot the sequence quite differently. The entire walk might be filmed on a stationary camera, using a continuous panning shot. We show the person walking past the camera into the distance—and out of the shot. We hold the empty frame…and their pursuer moves into the foreground of the shot.

Clearly, how the action is broken up will depend on the dramatic purpose of the image sequence.

As an exercise, record a long action sequence from a motion picture or documentary. It might be showing someone rock climbing, sailing a boat, or in a car chase. Analyze the shots that make up this action sequence. Time them. Think carefully about the variety of angles.

In a car chase, you might find that at one moment, the camera is in the car beside the driver; in the next, we see a frontal shot of the car showing the driver alone in the car. Cut, and we are behind the driver’s shoulder looking through the windshield; and now we are looking down from a high building as the car maneuvers a corner. It moves away into the distance and—cut—we see it coming up toward the camera.

When watching this treatment, we never question the rapidly changing angles, or why the camera is suddenly located on a helicopter. When shooting in the desert, we see the car vanish into the distance—without wondering whether it is going to come back to pick up the camera operator!

FIGURE 17.3
If the editor wanted to cut between these two shots, continuity would be a problem. Note that the man’s shoes are a different color in each shot.

Many types of action, in reality, can take too long and become somewhat boring to watch. Shoot them continuously, and the audience’s interest will wander. Instead, break sustained action into continually varying angles, and you can create a lively pace and maintain the viewer’s interest.

One specific function of editing is that we can create an illusion of continuity between shots or situations where in fact none exists. Editing enables us to develop action sequences that in reality we could not shoot.

Imagine a scene showing a bird on a branch; a close shot as it dives into the stream; an underwater shot of fish; a fish is caught by the bird; the bird sits beside the river eating its catch. These are probably shots of different birds, and of different fish, shot at different times. The separate shots are edited together to form a complete effective action sequence.

We have looked at these examples in some detail, because they epitomize the thinking and the techniques that underlie single-camera shooting. As you will learn in the next section, they are noticeably different from multicamera treatments.

FIGURE 17.4
Two-camera treatment: shots are divided between two cameras. Cam 1 concentrates on long shots and Cam 2 takes close-ups that provide detailed information.

MULTICAMERA TECHNIQUES

Using two or more cameras gives you additional flexibility to handle any situation. Without missing any of the action, or needing action repeated, you can cut between different shots of the same subject, alter the camera’s angle, and move to another area of the set (Figure 17.4).

You can instantly change the significance of a shot. You can provide new information, alter emphasis, point out new detail, show reactions, shift the audience’s attention, compare relationships, and introduce visual variety. And all while the action continues.

Using several cameras, you can arrange to have one covering the action and another ready to catch the audience’s reactions (Figure 17.5). But if you are shooting with a single camera, you are unlikely to turn away from the main event to see whether someone in the crowd is responding. You are more likely to shoot some reaction shots later (probably relating to an entirely different action), and edit them in for effect during postproduction.

Visual Variety

Static shots easily become boring. So audience interest can be encouraged by introducing movement and change—although, if overdone, the images can become distracting to watch. Rapid cutting demands continual viewer concentration, which is not easily sustained. Continual action and camera movement can wear out the audience. As always, the aim is a well-balanced blend with variations in pace, tempo, and emphasis.

Successful visual variety can be achieved in a number of ways, as described in the following subsections.

FIGURE 17.5
Shooting with multiple cameras allows the director to show a variety of angles, assisting in maintaining the audience’s attention. (Photos by Josh Taber and Paul Dupree)

PERFORMER MOVEMENT

Most visual variety stems from action within the scene, as people alter positions and regroup. Quite often, more meaningful changes are achieved by talent movement than by camera moves or editing.

In a close-up shot, the talent dominates. As he or she moves away from the camera, the audience becomes more aware of their relationship to the surroundings. In long shots, these surroundings may dominate. So by changing the length of the shot, you change emphasis and create visual variation.

CHANGES BY GROUPING

Where people are seated (panels, talk shows), you can achieve visual variety by isolation, selectively shooting individuals, two-shots, and subgroups (Figure 17.6).

SHOOTING STATIC SUBJECTS

Visual variety can be introduced into your treatment of nonmoving subjects (statuary, pottery, paintings, flowers) by the way you shoot and light them. Variety can be created with viewpoint-altering camera movements: selectively panning over the subject, interrelating its various parts; changing the lighting to isolate or emphasize sections or alter the subject’s appearance; or handling smaller objects, turning them to show the different features.

FIGURE 17.6
Shooting groups: static groups can be broken into a series of smaller individual shots. For single-camera shooting, this involves repositioning the camera (or repeated action). With multicamera shooting, the director can cut between the various angles.

VARIETY BY DÉCOR

The presentation of certain subjects may be restricted (piano playing, singers). They can be relatively static and meaningful shot variations can be limited. You can prevent sameness between productions by introducing variations in the décor. This can happen with background or scenic changes or by lighting. The pictures can look significantly different, even if the shots and angles follow a recognizable format (Figure 17.7).

Crossing the Axis of Action Line

Camera viewpoints can easily confuse the audience’s sense of direction and their impression of spatial relationships if care is not taken when selecting camera positions. For example, during a basketball game, if cameras are placed on both sides of the court, it is confusing to see a player running toward the left side of the screen and then, when the director cuts to the camera on the other side of the court, seeing the same player running toward the right side of the court if he hasn’t actually changed direction.

FIGURE 17.7
The décor, background, or lighting can add variety to a production.

FIGURE 17.8
The red line represents the axis of action at a sporting event. All “live” cameras must stay on one side of that line. The yellow area represents where the cameras can be placed on one side of the field of play. Sometimes additional cameras are placed on the other side for slow-motion replay, but not live.

FIGURE 17.9
The line of action: Shots can be cut between cameras located on the same side of the imaginary line of action: between 1 and 2, or 3 and 4. Cutting between cameras on opposite sides of this line could cause a jump cut (1 and 3, 1 and 4, 2 and 3, 2 and 4). (Photos by Josh Taber)

To avoid this, draw an imaginary line along the direction of the action (action line, axis of action, eye line, or center line). Then be careful that cameras shoot from only one side of this line—generally, it is not crossed. It is possible to dolly across the line, or shoot along it, or change its direction by regrouping people, but cutting between cameras on both sides of this imaginary line produces a reverse cut or jump cut (Figures 9.34, 17.8, and 17.9).

Organizing the Angles

It is important for directors to create an organized approach to covering the story. Obviously, you could just place the cameras around a location and use the images that happen to be captured. However, even if the cameras captured some great images, there may be little relationship between the images, there would probably be some nearly identical shots and some useless shots, and the coverage would be erratic. Shots must be appropriately chosen according to a coordinated plan, and only the director is in a position to do this (Figure 17.10).

Using this technique, you begin by analyzing where the action will take place (where people move, what they do there, and so on) and arrange strategic camera angles that are able to capture the needed images. Each camera position provides a series of shot opportunities; you select from these available shots as needed (Figures 17.11, 17.12, and Table 17.1).

At sports events, large concerts, and other large-scale events, this is the only practical approach. Cameras are often widely dispersed, camera movement is often restricted, and the director often has to rely on camera operators to use their initiative to find appropriate shots. The director’s knowledge of actual shot opportunities is mostly derived from what the cameras reveal and on-the-spot assistants (usually called spotters). The director guides selection, adjusts shot sizes, suggests desirable shots, and chooses from the available material.

FIGURE 17.10
Directors create an organized approach to covering the story, selecting camera positions that provide angles that are effective in showing the subject.

You can use a similar strategy in studio production for certain types of shows with a regular format. For example, you can assign specific shots to each camera:

Camera 1: Long shots and extreme long shots

Camera 2: Primarily close-up shots

Camera 3: Medium shots and close-ups

This approach is especially useful for unscripted “live” productions. However, it is also valuable for talent so that they know which camera to look at for close-ups at any time during the production.

Program Opening

Establishing shots, usually a long or extreme long shot, introduce the scene and the action, setting the mood and influencing the audience’s frame of mind toward what you have to say and show. There are many different types of openings.

THE FORMAL START

A “Good evening” or “Hello” introduces the show and moves into the content. Whether the presenter appears casual, reverent, indifferent, or enthusiastic can create an ambience directly influencing the audience’s attitude.

THE TEASER

We are shown dramatic, provocative, intriguing highlights from the production before the opening titles. The goal is to convince the audience to stay for the entire production.

FIGURE 17.11
Each camera position provides a limited number of shot opportunities on a news set. The director selects from the available shots as required. Note that the second camera moves from the main set to the chroma-key set. (Photos courtesy of KOMU-TV, WLEX, and Josh Taber)

THE CRASH START

We are taken straight into the program, which appears to have begun already. An automobile screams to a stop outside a store, a figure throws a bomb that explodes, an alarm bell shrills, a police siren wails—the show has begun and titles roll over the chasing vehicles.

THE CHARACTER INTRODUCTION

A montage of symbols or shots of the hero in various predicaments provides an introduction to the characters that we are to meet.

THE EAVESDROPPING START

The camera peers through a house window, sees a group of people sitting around a table talking quietly, and moves in to join them.

THE SLOW BUILDUP

The camera pans slowly round, arousing curiosity or suspense until we reach a climax point (the bloodstained knife!). It is essential to avoid diminishing interest or anticlimax.

FIGURE 17.12
In a formal interview, there are relatively few effective shots, although more than are available on a news set.

THE ATMOSPHERE INTRODUCTION

A series of strongly associative symbols establish the place, period, mood, or personality. On a shelf: a brass telescope, a ship in a bottle, and a well-worn uniform cap—the old sea captain is introduced long before we see him.

Focusing Audience Attention

Directors can hold the audience’s attention by taking care with how they arrange and present subjects.

Audience concentration easily lapses, so you need to continually direct and redirect their attention to hold interest along specific lines. Such redirection implies change. But excess or uncontrolled change can lead to confusion or irritation. Pictorial change must be clearly motivated, to allow the viewer to readjust easily to each new situation.

Some of the most common ways of focusing the audience’s attention on a specific area are (see Table 17.2):

Brightness: Eyes are always drawn to the brightest areas on the screen. This could include lighting, set design, or costumes (Figure 17.15).

FIGURE 17.15
Attention can be drawn by lighting or even clothing. Eyes are always drawn to the brightest area of the screen. (Photos by Lee Peters and David Clement)

FIGURE 17.16
Eyes are always drawn to the sharpest parts of the image.

Focus: Eyes are attracted to the sharpest areas of the image (Figure 17.16).

Motion: Movement can attract attention, such as having a person stand up within a seated group or moving the camera around the subject (Figure 17.17).

Dominant figure: Placing the dominant person or subject in a position that makes them stand out (Figure 17.18).

Shifting Visual Interest

It is just as necessary to be able to shift the viewer’s attention to another aspect of the picture as it is to localize their attention originally. You can do this by readjusting any of the influences that we use to originally direct their attention. Here are a few of the alternatives:

 Transfer the original emphasis (contrast, isolation, etc.) to the new subject.

 Use linking action; first person looks to camera right—cut to new subject on screen right.

 Weaken the original subjects by reducing their size within the picture or alter the camera height when shooting.

 Adjust the focus, pulling it from the old subject to the new.

 Change the sound source; a new person speaks instead.

FIGURE 17.17
Movement can draw attention. This includes talent movement as well as camera movement (such as a moving dolly as shown here).

Creating Tension

Tension in a dramatic situation derives partly from the dialogue, storyline, and interaction between characters, but it can also be considerably influenced by the way in which the subject is presented:

 Using progressively more powerful shots (cutting to closer and closer shots; lower viewpoints, gradual canting).

 Using suspenseful music and effects.

 Presenting ambiguous information—is the nocturnal shadow a bush…or a prowler?

 Presenting insufficient information—the audience sees the figure in the doorway—is it the bad guy (Figure 17.19)?

 The audience knows something a character does not—the victim runs to escape, but we know the route is blocked.

 A character is suddenly confronted with an insurmountable problem—the stairway collapses upon reaching it.

The borderline between creating tension and creating a ludicrous situation can be narrow. An intended climax too easily becomes an anticlimax. So you have to take care not to emphasize the trivial, or unintentionally to permit an emotional let-down after an emotional peak.

Pace

We might define pace as the rate of emotional progression. A slow pace suggests dignity, solemnity, contemplation, and deep emotion; a fast pace conveys energy, excitement, confusion, and brashness.

A well-balanced show continually readjusts its pace. A constant rapid tempo is exhausting; a slow sustained one becomes dull. Pace comes from an accumulation of factors:

The script: Scene length, speech durations, phrasing, word lengths; sharp witty exchanges produce a faster pace than lengthy monologue

The delivery: Fast, high-pitched, interrupted sounds provide a rapid pace compared with slow, low-pitched ones

Production treatment: The rate of camera movement, switching, performer movements

The eye can maintain a quicker pace than the ear. The eye can assess, classify, and evaluate almost immediately, but the ear has to piece together consecutive sounds to interpret their overall meaning.

FIGURE 17.18
By placing a person or an object in a dominant position, viewers know where to look.

Although a fast visual pace is readily assimilated, it is usually at the expense of less attention to the accompanying sound—unless visual changes are so rapid that the viewer ignores the information and just listens! When emphasis is to be on the sound, visual pace generally needs to be relaxed.

FIGURE 17.19
Tension is often created by presenting insufficient information. The audience sees the man watching from a shadowy area and wonders: bad guy or good guy?

Timing

There are two different kinds of timing in television. One kind deals with a clock or stopwatch. This type of timing refers to keeping a television program on schedule—when to play commercials, how long a story can be on the news, and so on. Because television is run on a very specific time schedule, the clock is an important piece of production equipment.

The second type of timing is artistic timing. Artistic timing is choosing the right moment and duration for an action—exactly when to cut, the speed of a transition, the pause duration between a comment and a response.

Inept timing may mistakenly communicate the wrong emphasis and can disrupt continuity.

VISUAL CLARITY

If an image is to effectively communicate its message quickly and unambiguously, the audience must be able to see relevant details easily and clearly. The goal is to avoid confusion, ambiguity, obscured information, restricted visibility, distractions, and similar visual confusion (Table 17.3).

Viewing Angle

A poor viewing angle can make even the commonest subjects look unfamiliar. Occasionally, this may be done deliberately. However, the goal is to provide a clear, unambiguous presentation, even if, for instance, it becomes necessary for a demonstrator to handle or place items in an unaccustomed way to improve shot clarity.

Distractions

Poor lighting treatment can distract and confuse the audience, hide the subject’s contours, and cast misleading or unmotivated shadows (especially from unseen people). It can also unnecessarily create hot spots, lens flares, and specular reflections.

Strong tonal contrasts can distract, as can strongly marked detail. When someone stands in front of a very busy background, the audience may begin to look at the background instead of the subject (Figure 17.20).

FIGURE 17.20
Background contrast is often difficult to deal with. Although strong tonal contrasts can be too distracting, similar tones can often prove distracting as well.

Slightly defocused details, particularly lettering that we cannot read easily, can sidetrack the audience’s attention. Directors should also be careful about including strongly colored defocused objects in the background. These objects should be excluded from shots whenever possible because they become distractions.

Confusing and Frustrating Subject Treatment

How often, when watching regular television productions, do you experience total frustration or antagonism at the way the show is being handled? It is important for directors to be very sensitive to these situations. Here is a list of frequent annoyances:

 Someone points to a detail—but it is too small or fuzzy for the audience to see.

 Titling or graphics are shown—but too briefly for us to read or examine.

 The interviewer who asks questions (quoting from notes)—but is not really listening to the guest’s replies.

 The interviewer who asks the guest questions that require only “Yes” or “No” replies.

 A too-brief glimpse of a subject—followed by a shot of the commentator talking about it instead.

 The shot that leaves us wondering what we are supposed to be looking at or where we are now.

 Too much information, such as statistics, is covered, resulting in the audience being overwhelmed.

The Visual Problem

Directors often have to deal with subjects in their programs for which directly appropriate visuals are not obvious. These may include:

 Abstract subjects—philosophical, spiritual, social concepts

 Imaginary events—hypothetical, fantasy

 Historical events—before photography, or unphotographed events

 Events that will be occurring in the future

 Shooting is not possible—prohibited or subject inaccessible

 Shooting is impracticable—too dangerous, meaningful shots impossible

 Appropriate visuals are too costly—would involve distant travel, copyright problems

FIGURE 17.21
Often stock footage can be used when discussing abstract ideas. For example, this stock airport could be shown when discussing future growth of the airport.

POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

When directors cannot show the actual subject being discussed, they often have to provide suitable alternative images—a kind of visual padding or screen filler (also known as wallpaper shots).

The most economical solution, and the least compelling, is to have a commentator tell us about what we cannot see, as he or she stands at the now-empty location (historical battlefield, site of the crime, or outside the conference hall). Inserts in the form of photographs, video clips, paintings, or drawings (typically used for courtroom reports) can all provide illustrative material. Occasionally, a dramatic re-enactment may work.

When discussing future events, stills or stock library shots of a previous occasion may be used to suggest the atmosphere or to show what the event may look like (celebration days, processions; see Figure 17.21). A substitute subject (not the animal that escaped but one just like it) may also be used, letting the audience know that they are not seeing the actual subject.

Occasionally, the camera can even show the absence of the subject: the frame of the stolen painting or where the castle once stood.

Associated subjects are frequently used. We visit the poet’s birthplace, often using stock tourist location shots. However, they may not be strictly applicable (wrong period), or irrelevant (not architecture, but social conditions influenced his poetry). But apart from family album snapshots or newspaper cuttings, nothing else may be available!

When using library (stock) shots or stills, there is always the danger that available shots will become overly familiar through repeated use. This issue is particularly likely with historic material, or unexpected tragedy (assassination, air crash).

Some forms of visual padding suit a variety of occasions. The same waving wheat field can epitomize food crops, daily bread, prosperity, agriculture, the war on insect pests, and so on.

Abstracts can be pressed into service at almost any time. Atmospheric shots of rippling water, shadows, light reflections, into-the-sun flares, and defocused images are all used regularly (Figure 17.22).

The Illusion of Time

Motion-picture editing has long accustomed us to the concepts of filmic space and time:

 Filmic space intercuts action that is concurrent at different places: As a soldier dies, his son is born back home.

 Filmic time omits intermediate action, condensing time and sharpening the pace: We cut from the automobile stopping to the driver entering an apartment.

When all the intervening action has no plot relevance, the viewer can often get frustrated with a slow pace just to state the obvious.

FIGURE 17.22
Abstract subjects can be difficult to visualize. This type of photo is often used by people attempting to visualize the concept of “heaven.”

Time Lapses

There are a number of techniques that can be used to indicate the passage of time. Explanatory titles are direct and unambiguous, but other and subtler techniques are generally preferable. For short time lapses:

 Slow fade-out, new scene slowly fades in.

 Cutting away from a scene, we assume that time has elapsed when returning to it.

 A time indicator (clock, sundial, burning candle) shows passage of time.

 Lighting changes with passing time (a sunlit room gradually darkens).

 Dissolve or wipe between before/after shots of a meal, fireplace, and similar images.

 Transition between sounds with time association—nocturnal frogs and owls to earlymorning roosters and birdsong.

 Defocus shot, cut, dissolve, or wipe to another defocused shot and then refocus.

For longer time lapses:

 A calendar changes pages or changes date.

 Seasonal changes—from winter snow to spring flowers.

 Changes in personal appearance—beard growth, aging, fashion changes.

 New to old—dissolving from a fresh newspaper to a yellow, crumpled, discarded version.

Flashbacks

A familiar device, the flashback turns back time to see events before the present action as a reminder or an explanation, or for comparison purposes. Typical methods include reversing the previously discussed time-lapse techniques (such as the old becoming new again), a special effect wipe, a defocus, or even a brief flash cut-in (½–2 seconds long) can convey recognition or moments of memory recall.

Cutaway Shots (Insert Shots)

By cutting from the main action to a secondary activity or associated subjects (such as spectator reactions), you can:

 Remove unwanted, unsuccessful, dull, or excess material.

 Suggest a time lapse to compress or expand time.

 Show additional explanatory information (detail shots).

 Reveal the action’s environment.

 Show who a person is speaking to; how another person is responding (reaction shots).

 Show what the speaker is seeing, talking about, or thinking about.

 Create tension to give dramatic emphasis.

 Make comment on a situation (cutting from a diner to a pig at trough).

Interviews can be shot using a continuous multicamera setup or as a one-camera treatment. A separate series of cutaway shots (cutaways, nod shots) are often recorded afterwards, in which the interviewer and interviewee are seen in singles or over-the-shoulder shots, smiling, nodding, reacting, or looking interested. When edited in (to disguise cuts, continuity breaks, or to add visual variety), the added shots appear quite natural. Without these cutaways, any continuously held shot would jump frames when edited (although dissolves may improve the disruption).

Reaction Shots/Partials/Cut-In Shots

By skillfully concealing information, you can prime the audience’s imagination and arouse their curiosity. Instead of showing the event, you can demonstrate its effect:

 Reaction shot: The door opens—but we see the victim’s horror-stricken face, not the intruder.

 Partial shot: A switchblade opens, is moved out of frame; we hear the victim’s cry, then silence.

 Cut-in shot: We watch the victim’s cat drinking milk to sounds of a fight and a body falling; the victim’s hand comes into frame, upsetting the milk dish.

This technique can provide maximum impact with minimum facilities, conveying information by implication rather than direct statement. It aims to intrigue and tantalize.

The Recorded Insert

Occasionally, during a studio production, we may cut away from studio cameras’ pictures to show prerecorded material. There are several reasons why we might want to do this:

 To illustrate a lecture, demonstration, or talk, such as footage of a trip down the Amazon.

 To imply that the studio setting is in a specific location, showing stock shots of the outside of a building or cityscapes.

 To authenticate a setting. We see a small boarded room in the studio. A stock shot of a ship is inserted so that we accept that this is a ship’s cabin.

 To show environments that could not be recreated effectively in the studio, like a typhoon.

 To extend action. You can have a person walk through a door in the studio set (an apartment) and then out into the street (prerecorded).

 Once-only action. Prerecording is essential when action might prove unsuccessful in the studio (for example, involving animals) or take too much time during the recording period (an elaborate makeup change), or is too dangerous (fire) or unrepeatable (an explosion) or very critical (an accurately thrown knife).

 Visual effects. To produce time-lapse effects, reversed action, transformations, and the like.

 Animation sequences. These may be cartoon or animated still-life.

 To include performers otherwise unavailable—filming persons who could not attend the taping session, such as overseas guests.

Stock Shots (Library Shots)

These are short-film, still, or video sequences of illustrative material held in an organization’s archives or rented from specialist libraries. Stock shots are inserted into a program where it would be impracticable or uneconomic to shoot new material. These short clips cover a very wide field, including news events, location shots, manufacturing processes, natural history, personalities, and stunts. They are widely used to illustrate talks, demonstrations, and newscasts and to provide atmospheric and environmental shots for drama (see Figure 17.21).

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. How do you determine whether to shoot with a single camera or multiple cameras?

2. Describe a continuity error and explain how it could occur.

3. What are the advantages and disadvantages to multicamera production?

4. Why do cameras need to stay on one side of the axis of action?

5. What are some of the issues that you need to think about as you arrange a shot?

6. How do you focus the audience’s attention on a specific subject on the screen?

7. How does pacing affect a production?

INTERVIEW WITH A PROFESSIONAL: DAVID NIXON

Briefly define your job: I am a producer/director for my own production company, which means I am the salesman, the account executive, the creative, I hire and fire, I put together the shoots, I direct the talent, I supervise the edit, and in the end I am the bill collector! As a producer/director you have to do it all. It’s not just about the glamorous stuff of directing on set. Usually, I have to go out and sell the job or raise the funds to make it, hire a a writer to write the script, then put together the crew, the talent, the schedule and direct the shoot, either supervise the edit or edit myself, deal with the client’s demands, and make sure I get paid so I can survive to “fight another day”!

What do you like about your job? I love that I’m creating something out of nothing…an idea in someone’s head that’s never been seen before. It’s incredible to see the idea come to life and then see the smile on the client’s face. It’s never the same. It’s different every day and every job. That’s refreshing! And if you can inspire someone, or touch someone’s heart, or bring a tear to an eye, you’ve really done something. What we do is incredibly powerful. People empathize with what they see on the screen, and we have the power to change hearts and minds. That’s incredible!

What are the types of challenges that you face in your position? It’s really difficult to take words on a page and end up with something on the screen that is remotely the same or even better. It’s easy to see it in your head…but translating that to the camera is very difficult. It’s never easy. The technology has limitations, the locations have limitations, the talent have limitations, the weather plays havoc with you, the audio is always difficult to get “clean,” the edit always takes longer…but when everything is aligned, and you work out all the bugs…it’s magic!!!
As a director, the biggest challenge is creating a tone on set that allows the technicians to give you the best that they can, and the actors to be as real as they can. You’re kind of like the coach of the football team. You can’t carry the ball, but you have to inspire the talented ones to…and if you can get them to stretch beyond the usual, and give you something extraordinary, you’ll have magic on camera. Don’t ever compromise…specially when the technology or the situation becomes difficult. Never give up…never accept mediocrity! You never know that the next take might be spectacular!

How do you prepare for a production? Prepro is KING! Always spend three times more time preparing than shooting. It will come back to you in spades. If you haven’t thought through everything before you get on set, you’ll be behind the eight ball. Don’t be in a hurry to get on set and start shooting. If you don’t have an iron-clad plan, then all hell will break loose! There’s always problems that arise on the shoot that you hadn’t anticipated, so make sure you have all your ducks in a row before you shoot. Scout the location with your key personnel, think through every shot, discuss the project with every member of the team beforehand…including the editors, the music composers, the animators, etc., not just those that will be on set. You never know what great ideas they might come up with. If you can get really good people around you…people that are smarter than you…they will make you look good. Leave your ego at the door. You shouldn’t be the loudest voice in the room. Listen to good counsel. Every member of your team is better than you at their specific expertise, such as camera or sound or lighting, so let them do their job and make the project better than you see in your head. The sum of the parts is greater than the whole!

What suggestions or advice do you have for someone interested in a position like yours? Learn your craft! Practice your craft! You should have working knowledge of every aspect of the production…camera, acting, sound, lighting, editing, music, graphics, etc. You don’t have to be good at all those things, just well versed enough that you can talk their language, know when they’re getting good stuff (or not), be able to direct them well and efficiently, and inspire them to give you their best. And the most important thing is that you should know when you’ve “got it”! The most frustrating thing for technicians and actors is a director who does take after take trying different things and not knowing whether he’s “got it” or not. You need to have such an intimate knowledge of your craft and the project that you know when you’ve “got it” on set and you know when you’ve “got it” in the edit. And when it turns out better than in your head, you’ve really “got it”!

FIGURE 17.23
David Nixon, President, DNP Studios

David Nixon is the President of DNP Studios in Orlando, Florida. His clients have included SeaWorld Parks, Nickelodeon, Subway Restaurants, Nestlé, Walt Disney World, and The Ritz-Carlton Hotel & Resorts.