1.1 Introduction

Hydrocolloids, also known as gums, are a diverse group of long‐chain and hydrophilic polymers with high molecular weight which are readily dispersive, fully or partially soluble, and prone to swell in water, thus producing colloidal systems of different structures. Therefore, a hydrocolloid is a highly water‐soluble (or water‐dispersible) material that readily dissolves (or disperses) to form highly hydrated entities of colloidal dimensions (1–1000 nm) [1,2]. Hydrocolloids generally produce a dispersion, which is intermediate between a true solution and a suspension, and exhibit the properties of a colloid [3]. Each dissolved polymer molecule of a hydrocolloid ingredient is deemed to interact strongly via hydrogen bonding with its surrounding water molecules as well as with any neighboring hydrocolloid molecules. Due to the tendency of these large hydrophilic macromolecules to overlap and join together into entangled networks and macroscopic gels, most hydrocolloids have the capability to function as viscosity modifiers and thickeners in aqueous media at relatively low concentrations [4]. The presence of many hydroxyl groups in their structures conspicuously increases the affinity for binding water, rendering them hydrophilic. At sufficiently high concentrations, the hydrocolloids become entangled with each other, forming loose networks (gel) that change their rheological properties [5].

The term food hydrocolloid includes all the polysaccharides and proteins that are widely used in a variety of food processing sectors to control and regulate such a colloidal state. Food hydrocolloids are from various natural sources: agar and carrageenan are from seaweeds, guar gum and locust bean gum from plant seeds, pectin from citrus or apple peels, xanthan gum and gellan gum from microorganisms, and chitin and chitosan from animals [1]. Food hydrocolloids exhibit multiple functions in foods, including thickening, gelling, water holding, dispersing, stabilizing, film forming, and foaming, and have been used as a texture modifier in almost every kind of food product. Because of their interesting properties, food hydrocolloids are widely used as food additives to obtain particular functional properties [3]. In fact, food hydrocolloids are important parts of our daily diet in food systems such as yogurt, ice cream, cheese, mayonnaise and salad dressing, dessert jellies, bakery products, and so on [ 2,6]. The food industry especially has been using a large number of hydrocolloids in recent years as ingredients. Although they are often applied at low concentration (less than 1% of the final product), they significantly influence the textural, rheological, and sensory properties of the final products. These substances are best known as powerful thickeners but perform an extraordinary number of other functions essential to food quality. They impart food texture and structure, and they play a role in flavor release, appearance, and shelf stability [7,8]. They are actually not emulsifiers, because they lack the characteristic lipophilic and hydrophilic linkage in the molecular structure [9]. However, they can stabilize emulsions by increasing the viscosity of the continuous phase or by interaction with surface‐active substances. In recent years, food hydrocolloids have been recognized as healthy sources of fiber as well [10].

In general, hydrocolloids are natural‐origin biopolymers, but this does not mean that one cannot produce hydrocolloids through synthetic means. All kinds of hydrocolloids can be obtained from both renewable and non‐renewable resources. For many reasons, preference is being given to the renewable hydrocolloids. Due to the recent trends in the demand for all‐natural products by consumers, the aim is to replace the existing non‐renewable and synthetic hydrocolloids by renewable ones for different applications in industry, so we need to find novel natural hydrocolloids to provide certain unique features for the purpose. In order to introduce the novel hydrocolloids' potential and applicability in industries, it is necessary to explore the emerging natural hydrocolloids with the desired properties. In this chapter, some aspects of the hydrocolloids including hydrocolloid classification and functions are highlighted. In addition, a brief review of the chapters is presented at the end of this chapter.

1.2 World Market of Hydrocolloids

The global hydrocolloids market has been growing tremendously due to the increasing demand for healthy and natural products by health‐conscious consumers. Hydrocolloids are used in different industries, such as oil, food, paper, paint, textiles, and pharmaceuticals. The extensive range of functions exhibited by hydrocolloids in the industry is an important driving force in the market. The main reason for the widespread use of hydrocolloids in industry is their functions as stabilizing, thickening, binding, emulsifying, and gelling agents [11].

The world hydrocolloids market was valued at about 2100 MT (US$5.5 billion) in 2014. The value increased to about US$5.70 billion in 2015. The global market for hydrocolloids is projected to reach $7.9 billion by 2019 [12] and a value of US$8.5 billion by 2022 with a growing compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 5.8% [11]. The base year considered for the study is 2014, and the forecast period is from 2015 to 2020. In 2013, the market was dominated by North America, followed by Europe. The Asia‐Pacific market is projected to grow at the highest CAGR with rapid growth in the food and beverage industries in developing countries, such as India and China. Increasing consumer awareness of health, diet, nutrition, and natural products is driving the market.

The market has been segmented on the basis of types, sources, functions, applications, and regions. The major types of hydrocolloids are gelatin, pectin, xanthan gum, and guar gum. On the basis of the hydrocolloid type, gelatin held the largest share in the food hydrocolloids market as it is widely used as a gelling agent in confectionary, meat, poultry, and dairy products. The market has been divided on the basis of natural sources, such as plant, seaweed, animal, microbial, and synthetic sources. On the basis of function, hydrocolloids have been segmented into thickeners, gelling agents, stabilizers, fat replacers, and coating materials. Dairy products have the largest food hydrocolloid applications. Hydrocolloids are extensively used in dairy and frozen products such as ice creams, milkshakes, and creams to maintain stability and increase the shelf life. The multifunctional characteristics of hydrocolloids, coupled with the growth in demand from the food and beverage industries, drive the hydrocolloids market. The market has also been divided on the basis of geographies, such as North America, Europe, Asia‐Pacific, and Rest of the World (RoW). Key participants in the supply chain of the hydrocolloids market are the manufacturers, end‐use industries, and raw material suppliers. The leading players involved in the hydrocolloids market include Cargill Incorporated (United States), Ingredion Incorporated (United States), E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company (United States), Darling Ingredients Inc. (United States), Kerry Group plc (Ireland), CP Kelco (United States), Ashland Inc. (United States), DuPont (United States), Hawkins Watts (Australia), Royal DSM (the Netherlands), Archer Daniels Midland Co. (United States), Fuerst Day Lawson Limited (United Kingdom), E.I. Dupont De Nemours and Company (United States), Lucid Colloids Ltd. (India), and Danisco A/S company (Denmark). These market players have been focusing on the expansion of new facilities and launching new products [ 11, 12].

According to an IHS Markit report, native (unmodified) and modified starches account for the great majority (95%) of the market by weight; smaller‐volume, higher‐priced materials such as gelatin, guar gum, casein, xanthan gum, gum Arabic, and carrageenan make up the remainder [13]. The world consumption of hydrocolloids, including starches in 2015, is shown in Figure 1.1. As is seen, Asia was responsible for 60% of total hydrocolloid consumption, with China alone accounting for almost half (46%) of the demand. In contrast, the Americas and EMEA (Europe, the Middle East, and Africa) accounted for the bulk of consumption in the (much smaller) non‐starch hydrocolloid market. Together, the Americas and EMEA consumed 60% of non‐starch hydrocolloids.

China will drive future market growth. In 2020, China is expected to account for 70%–75% of the increase over 2015 market volumes. Chinese hydrocolloid consumption is expected to rise by 5.0% per year through 2020, exceeding the world average annual growth rate of just over 3%. All other regions expect slower growth. In North America, Central and South America, EMEA, and Japan, consumption will increase at low rates (0.4%–2.0% per year); in India and Other Asia and Oceania, consumption will grow at a moderate pace (2.4%–3.0% per year). Paper and board production is the largest end use for starches. They serve as binders, sizing, and coating agents in the paper‐making process; starch‐based adhesives are essential to the manufacture of corrugated cardboard, paper bags, and envelopes. Food applications are second in importance for starches, but they represent the single most important end use for many other hydrocolloids. Pectin serves as a gelling agent in jams, jellies, and marmalades; gum Arabic inhibits sugar crystallization in soft drinks; locust bean gum maintains ice cream's creamy texture by controlling ice crystal formation, to give just a few examples. The hydrocolloid market has a reputation for volatility, but this is somewhat undeserved. Raw materials for various hydrocolloids are periodically in short supply as a result of weather or political disruptions, but only guar gum has experienced major fluctuations in supply and demand in recent years. In this case, demand for guar gum surged because of the dramatic expansion of hydraulic fracking activity in the United States. The collapse of crude oil prices at the end of 2014 led to a reduction in drilling activity and lower consumption of guar gum. Additionally, in the food sector, processors have reformulated many products, replacing guar gum with other hydrocolloids. In the energy sector, the use of guar‐free slickwater fluids as cost‐effective alternatives to guar‐thickened fracking fluids is increasing. The overall demand for hydrocolloids will track growth in major end‐use industries, including paper, food, oil and gas production, and pharmaceuticals [13].

1.3 Hydrocolloids Classification

Hydrocolloids could be categorized according to their origins, chemical structure and composition, chemical nature (ionic and non‐ionic), and functional properties. Hydrocolloids, depending on their origin, may be classified as natural, semi‐synthetic, and synthetic. The natural hydrocolloids are hydrophilic biopolymers of plant, animal, and microbial origin. The plant‐derived hydrocolloids are mainly used to stabilize oil‐in‐water emulsions, but the animal‐derived hydrocolloids generally form water in oil emulsions. They are quite likely to cause allergies and are susceptible to microbial growth and rancidity. The semi‐synthetic hydrocolloids are those synthesized by modification of naturally occurring hydrocolloids. Starch and cellulose derivatives such as methylcellulose (MC), carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), microcrystalline cellulose (MCC), acetylated starch (AS), phosphorylated starch (PS), and hydroxypropylated starch (HPS) are the examples of the semi‐synthetic hydrocolloids. The semi‐synthetic hydrocolloids are stronger emulsifiers, are non‐toxic, and less likely to undergo microbial growth. Synthetic hydrocolloids are the ones that are completely synthesized in industries starting with petroleum‐derived base materials. These are basically derived from chemical combinations to give a product having a structure similar to the natural polysaccharides. The acrylate copolymers, carboxyvinyl polymers (Carbopol), polyethylene oxide polymers (Polyox), and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) are examples of synthetic hydrocolloids [ 2, 5,14]. The synthetic hydrocolloids are the strongest emulsifiers, and they do not support microbial growth, but their cost may be prohibitive. The synthetic hydrocolloids are mainly limited to use as oil‐in‐water emulsifiers. Semi‐synthetic hydrocolloids are preferred to the purely synthetic gums. The literature has shown that the synthetic hydrocolloids are far more inefficient and have the following inherent disadvantages:

• High cost
• Toxicity to the body and other animal life
• Environmental pollution during the manufacturing process
• Non‐renewable sources
• Acute and chronic adverse effects on the skin in some cases
• Poor biocompatibility compared to the natural gums

Synthetic hydrocolloids offer certain advantages over their natural counterparts, such as increased potency, resistance to microbial degradation, and solution clarity. Compared to synthetic and semi‐synthetic polymers, the natural hydrocolloids are the most preferred in all the industries due to the following distinct advantages:

• Cost‐effective and inexpensive.
• Readily available, easy to handle, and they are also easier to extract.
• Biodegradable; they are renewable sources which are easily biodegradable.
• Biocompatible.
• Capable of physical and chemical modifications.
• Non‐toxic to the body.
• Sustainable, eco‐friendly, and easily available in nature.
• They have more public acceptance due to their numerous health benefits, and they are also extracted from edible sources.
• In pharmaceutical applications, there is less chance of side effects to patients compared to synthetic hydrocolloids.

On the other hand, the growing demand for ready‐made meals and increasingly public awareness about the importance of fiber in the diet has increased the consumption of various biopolymers in food products. However, the naturally occurring plant hydrocolloids have the disadvantages of being required in large quantities to be effective as emulsifiers (compared to semi‐synthetic or synthetic ones) and are susceptible to microbial growth. With all these advantages and disadvantages, the natural hydrocolloids are gradually replacing synthetic gums in industrial applications.

Another classification of food hydrocolloids is based on their chemical structure. For example, guar gum, tara gum, locust bean gum, and fenugreek gum are galactomannan. Other structure‐based groups are glucan (starch, curdlan, and so on), fructan (inulin), xylan, rhamnan, glucomannan (alginate), arabinoxylan (flaxseed gum), galactan (agar, carrageenan), arabinogalactan (gum Arabic), galacturonan (pectin), glycano‐rhamnogalacturonan, glycano‐glycosaminoglycans, glucosamine polymer (chitin, chitosan), and protein (gelatin).

1.3.1 Natural Hydrocolloids

The natural hydrocolloids may originate from proteins or carbohydrates as they are the two main macromolecules that are naturally available. These two macromolecules are the major foods for human beings and are consumed every day. Human beings mainly derive their food from the plants, as various parts of a plant (seed, stem, root, leave, flower, fruit, etc.) are edible. The classification of hydrocolloids into proteins and carbohydrates is the classification based on their chemistry but in fact, the natural hydrocolloids are categorized based on their origin. As shown in Figure 1.2, the classification of commercially important hydrocolloids is (1) botanical, (2) algae, (3) microbial, and (4) animal sources [ 1,15]. Cellulose (trees origin), gum Arabic, gum karaya, gum ghatti, gum tragacanth (exudate gums), starch, pectin, cellulose (plants source), guar gum, locust bean gum, tara gum, (seed endosperm flour), konjac gum (extracted from tubers), fenugreek seed gum, mustard seed gum, and flaxseed gum (mucilage) are overall grouped under botanical sources. Agar, carrageenan (red seaweeds), and alginate (brown seaweeds) are classified as of algal origin. Microbial sources are included as xanthan gum, curdlan, dextran, gellan gum, and cellulose. Gelatin, caseinate, whey proteins, and chitosan are natural hydrocolloids belonged to the animal group. Nowadays, the demand for hydrocolloids from plants (e.g., plant cell walls, tree exudates, seeds, seaweeds) is greater than those from animals (hyaluronan, chitin, chondroitin sulfate) because of more benefits and a consumer‐friendly image.

Hydrocolloids from seeds are the major source of natural gums. In general, seed gums are derived from ground endosperm of seeds. They are highly viscous at low concentrations [16]. Collection and processing of seed gums include the drying and crushing of harvested pods to separate seeds from pod husk. The seeds are dehulled, and the germ is separated from the endosperm. The pieces of endosperm are then ground to the required particle size to furnish the gum. Further processing involves either chemical modification of the gum or blending with other gums to produce a final product (food additive) with a range of physical and functional properties designed to suit end‐user requirements.

One of the most promising sources of plant hydrocolloids is mucilaginous substances. Mucilage is a heterogeneous branched and hydrophilic polysaccharide which forms a thick and sticky solution when dissolved in water. Mucilage is generally produced in the seeds, buds, and leaves of many plants. In seeds, it is presumed that the mucilage is located in the outer cells that form the seed coat, called mucilaginous cells, and can be easily removed after hydration. The seed coat or testa is composed of three layers: an outer layer, formed by rectangular thin‐walled cells, where presumably the mucilage is localized; a scleroid layer of long and thin cells resembling fibers, and the endocarp, a thin and inner layer. Tamarind seed, mustard seed, chia seed, fenugreek seed, and flaxseed are the well‐known sources of seed mucilage. When this seed is hydrated, the mucilage is exudated, and spiral filaments (mucilage fibers) become apparent. These filaments begin to expand until fully stretched to achieve maximum hydration, and new structures on the seed surface become apparent. These new structures, called columella, have a “volcano‐shaped” conformation and are uniformly distributed on the surface. When the mucilage is fully hydrated, it forms a transparent “capsule” surrounding the seed that adheres to it with great tenacity, and when many seeds are hydrated in water, a highly viscous solution is formed. The mucilage hydrocolloids have attractive functional properties such as stabilizing, thickening, water absorption capacity, emulsifying and foaming properties, and high solubility in cold and hot water and show promise for incorporation into different food formulations.

Plant/tree exudates from various plant species are obtained as a result of tree bark injury. They are normally collected as air‐dried droplets with diameters from 2 to 7 cm. Plant exudates are generally excreted from tree species belonging to families of Burseraceae, Mimosaceae, and Sterculiaceae, which grow in the wild. Almost all the existing gum‐bearing trees grow naturally in the wild under arid, warm or hot, unorganized, and rugged topographic conditions. This type of gum includes gum Arabic, karaya, tragacanth, and cashew gum [17]. Exudates from the stem and branches of a tree are produced as large nodules during a process called gummosis to seal wounds in the bark of the tree. The major commercial processes involved in the production of these plant exudates are collection, sorting, processing, quality control, and end‐user marketing [18]. They are mostly not processed in countries of production but are exported to overseas markets for processing. Gums are produced by exudation from trees resulting from natural damage on the trees by natural agents or individuals and animals on a casual basis [17]. Several techniques are now being used to produce gum artificially to guarantee viability and improvement of the quality of the commercial product. These techniques involve systematically controlled tapping and collection procedures. Exudate gums could be graded physically based on their color, size, and brightness. They could also be graded in terms of solubility, viscosity, bark and foreign matter (BFOM) and total ash content [19]. All this grading could be done when the gum is in its natural as well as powdered forms. The quality of gum is usually assessed by its moisture content, optical rotation, and the level of foreign matter. Gum Arabic, for instance, must have a moisture content between 12% and 14%, optical rotation between −25 and −35, and foreign matter must be less than 3%–5%. Also, the microbiological count for Salmonella, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus must be negative [20].

Seaweed gums are gelatinous products isolated from seaweed, mainly red and brown algae, by hot water or an alkali extraction process followed by drying or isolate precipitation. Industrial gums extracted from seaweeds fall into three categories: alginates (derivatives of alginic acid), agars, and carrageenans. The first is extracted solely from brown seaweeds, while the last two are extracted only from red seaweeds. There are a number of artificial products reputed to be suitable replacements for seaweed gums, but none have the exact gelling and viscosifying properties of seaweed gums, and it is very unlikely that seaweeds will be replaced as the source of these polysaccharides in the near future [21].

Microbial hydrocolloids are extracellular polysaccharides which originate from microorganisms produced from nutritive media. The major types of microbial hydrocolloids include xanthan gum, which accounts for over 90% of the overall microbial hydrocolloids market. Other types of microbial hydrocolloids include pullulan and gellan gums. Xanthan gum is one of the microbial gums permitted for use in foods. It has many interesting properties such as high viscosity at low shear rates and yield stress [21].

Animal hydrocolloids commonly originate from the bones and skins of animals such as swine and cattle. The major types of animal hydrocolloids include gelatin, which accounts for approximately 99% of the overall animal hydrocolloids market. Other animal hydrocolloids include chitin, chitosan, whey proteins, and caseins. Semi‐synthetic hydrocolloids, also known as chemically modified hydrocolloids, include sodium caseinate and derivatives of several other types of animal hydrocolloids.

	Example
Function	Hydrocolloid	Product	Reference
Gelling agent	Agar, alginate, κ‐carrageenan, gelatin, low and high methoxy pectin, hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose (HPMC)	Puddings, desserts, confectionary, jellies, dairy desserts, bakery products, tofu, milk shakes, whipped topping, glazes, cheese, acidified milk, wastewater treatment, immobilization of enzyme, milk drinks, aerogel, emulsion‐filled gels	[25–33]
Emulsifier	Gum arabic, starch nanocrystals	Salad dressing, ketchup, mayonnaise, soft drink emulsion	[34–37]
Thickener	Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), xanthan, guar gum, gum karaya, gum ghatti, locust bean gum, gum tragacanth, tara gum, konjac mannan, carrageenan	Ice cream, yogurt, sauces, jams, pie fillings, soups, gravies, salad dressings, cake batters, noodles, milk drinks	[38–45]
Thickener/emulsifier	Hydroxypropylcellulose (HPC), fenugreek gum, λ‐carrageenan, sugar beet pectin	Processed cheeses, spray‐dried milk powder, yogurt, ketchup tomato sauce, nanoemulsion	[46–49]
Thickener/emulsifier/gelling agent	Methylcellulose (MC)	Baked cakes, drug carriers, calcium phosphate cement	[50–52]
Thickener/gelling agent	Microcrystalline cellulose, starch and modified starches	Fried beef patties, dairy desserts, dissert sauces, snack foods	[53–57]
Emulsion/foam stabilizer	Xanthan, guar gum, propylene glycol alginate, agar	Whipped toppings, whipped cream, ice cream, beer, orange beverage emulsion	[58–61]
Thickening/ forming films agent	Cellulose gum	Lotions, shower gels, toothpaste	[5]
Thickening/ stabilizing/forming gels/films agent	Carrageenan	Lotions, shampoos, shave gels, toothpaste	[5]
Suspending/ stabilizing/forming gels/films agent	Gellan	Sprayable sunscreens, body washes, toothpaste	[5]
Thickening/skin feel/pH buffering agent	Pectin	Lotions, aftershave creams, gels	[5]
Thickening/suspending/stabilizing agent	Xanthan	Lotions, sunscreens, mascara, body washes, toothpastes	[5]
Adhesive	Starch and modified starches, alginate	Glazes, icings, frostings, mucoadhesive paste, wood adhesive	[62,63]
Binding agent	λ‐Carrageenan, gelatin	Pet foods, almond cystatin, aroma compounds	[64,65]
Whipping agent	Starch, soya bean protein	Toppings, marshmallows, gluten‐free breads	[66,67]
Crystallization inhibitor	κ‐Carrageenan, guar	Ice cream, sugar syrups, frozen foods	[68,69]
Clarifying agent	chitosan, gelatin	Beer, wine, fruits, vegetables juice	[70,71]
Clouding agent	Xanthan, pectin	Fruit drinks, beverages	[72,73]
Coating agent	Aloe Vera, chitosan, pectin, gellan, gum arabic	Confectionary, fabricated onion rings, carrots, Fuji apples, fresh fruit	[74–76]
Dietary fiber	Inulin, beta glucan, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose, gum arabic	Cereals, breads, yogurts, gluten‐free rice dough, cake	[77–80]
Film former	Gelatin, pectin, chitosan, agar, κ‐carrageenan, starch	Sausage casings, protective coatings, packaging films	[81–84]
Molding	Starch	Gum drops, jelly candies	[85,86]
Suspending agent	κ‐Carrageenan, gellan	Chocolate milk	[ 5,87]
Swelling agent	Carrageenan	Processed milk products	[30]
Syneresis inhibitor	Carrageenan, gellan, methylcellulose	Cheese, yogurt, frozen foods, peanut butter, tofu, turkey meat sausages, dough, a yogurt‐based Iranian drink, fried seafood	[88–91]
Encapsulating agent	Alginate, agar, κ‐carrageenan, pectin, starch, gelatin	Microencapsulation of flavors, fish oil, essential oil, enzymes D‐limonene and minerals, drug, asphalt mastic, filled gel	[92–98]
Pore‐former	κ‐Carrageenan	membrane	[99]
Compressive and tensile strength enhancer	Carrageenan	Adobe constructions	[100]
Color stability	Carrageenan	Beef steaks	[101]
Fat substitutes	Carrageenan, pectin, starch	Frankfurters, mayonnaise, salad dressing	[102–104]
Predust agents	Hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC)	Battered fish nuggets	[105]

1.4 Functions of Hydrocolloids

Natural hydrocolloids as biological macromolecules are frequently applied in food and pharmaceutical industries due to their excellent functional properties. Hydrocolloids perform various interesting functions in a formulation including thickening and gelling aqueous solutions; stabilizing/emulsifying foams, emulsions, and dispersions; inhibiting ice and sugar crystal formation; controlled release of flavors; flocculation; film formation, plasticization, fat replacement, biological active encapsulation, edible coating formation, carrier, and binding [ 1 22–24]. The most used commercial hydrocolloids in the food industry, as well as their functions, are listed in Table 1.1. It can be seen that these compounds are usually used in food systems depending on their functional properties, for example, as thickener (soups, gravies, salad dressing, and topping), gelling agent (puddings and jellies), emulsifier (ice cream, yogurt, and butter), stabilizer (ice cream, mayonnaise, and sauces), fat replacer (meat and dairy products), clarifying agent (beer and wine), flocculating agent (wine), clouding agent (juice and soft drinks), whipping agent (beer, whipped cream, and cake), coating agent (confectionary and fried foods), suspending agent (chocolate milk), anti‐staling agent (breads and batters), water binding agent (gluten‐free foods), encapsulating agent (powders' flavors), and crystallization inhibitors (ice cream and sugar syrups) [ 1, 2]. From the viewpoint of compatibility, some hydrocolloids may be used in combination for obtaining better properties. Also, some hydrocolloids have a synergistic effect in mixture form with other hydrocolloids (e.g., xanthan gum in combination with galactomannans such as locust bean gum).

The functional characteristics of natural hydrocolloids considerably depend on their physicochemical properties such as molecular weight, chemical composition, the sequence of monosaccharide, conformation, configuration, the position of glycoside linkage, particle size, hydrodynamic volume (intrinsic viscosity), and so on [106,107].

Hydrocolloids can dramatically alter the viscosity of many times their own weight of water due to their interactions with the water molecules through hydrogen bonding. There are two rheological properties which are of major importance in hydrocolloid science and technology: gel (viscoelasticity and texture) and flow (shear thinning and thixotropy) properties. A clear understanding of the rheological behavior of hydrocolloids has emerged over the last 20 years, which has led in turn to the exploitation of commercial hydrocolloids in various industries. The viscosity of a biopolymer solution shows a marked increase at a critical polymer concentration, commonly referred to as the critical concentration (C*). This corresponds to the transition from the “dilute region,” where the polymer molecules are free to move independently in solution without interpenetration, to the “semi‐dilute region,” where molecular crowding occurs which gives rise to the overlapping of polymer coils, thus causing interpenetration. The structural characteristics of hydrocolloids and their interaction with water (solvent) affect the rheology of hydrocolloids, leading to thickening, gelling, and so on. It is generally found that [14]:

• The hydrodynamic size of biopolymer molecules in solution is significantly influenced by its molecular structure. Linear and stiff molecules have a much larger hydrodynamic size than highly branched flexible polymers with the same molecular mass, and thus they give rise to higher viscosity values.
• Hydrocolloids stabilize emulsions primarily by increasing the viscosity of the system. They also act as emulsifiers, wherein the emulsification ability is reported to be mainly due to accompanying protein moieties.
• Hydrocolloids form gels when the intra‐ or intermolecular hydrogen bonding is favored over hydrogen bonding to water.
• The charged polymers or polyelectrolytes exhibit very high viscosity as compared to the non‐ionic polymers of similar molecular mass.

On the whole, it can be concluded that the rheological properties of hydrocolloids form the basis for their wide functions and applications in industries and also that the unique rheological behavior of the hydrocolloids can be attributed to the presence of a large number of hydroxyl groups in their structure, which leads to their H‐bonding interactions in aqueous systems. During the last decades, the search for new sources of natural hydrocolloids and their characterization have been the subject of invaluable studies due to the need for novel and/or improved functional properties. So, in recent years, several important studies have been published on the characterization and functional properties of emerging hydrocolloids for application in various food systems. On the basis of recently published works, some of the emerging natural hydrocolloids and their functions in the food and non‐food systems are addressed in Table 1.2.

1.5 Overview of the Chapters

In this book, recent papers, theses, and research works about some emerging hydrocolloids have been reviewed in detail. The following paragraphs aim to provide a brief overview of the chapters for the readers.

1.6 Conclusion

Hydrocolloids are hydrophilic polymers dispersed in water. Hydrocolloids, on the basis of their origin, are classified as natural, semi‐synthetic, and synthetic. Compared to synthetic and semi‐synthetic polymers, natural hydrocolloids have distinct advantages, such as being non‐toxic, sustainable, eco‐friendly, cost‐effective, readily available, biodegradable, biocompatible, and capable of chemical modification. Hydrocolloids are valuable additives that have many interesting functions in various products despite their low usage level. Natural hydrocolloids, as biological macromolecules, are frequently used in food and pharmaceutical systems as thickening, emulsifying, stabilizing, fat replacing, flavor encapsulating, edible coating, plasticizing, binding, and gelling agents. Over the past few decades, there has been a growing demand for new sources of natural hydrocolloids to provide novel/proper functions in the product matrix as well as low price, and easy accessibility. On the other hand, the demand for natural products is increasing among health‐conscious consumers. Therefore, an extensive range of studies has focused on finding and characterizing emerging hydrocolloids which could serve as potential substitutes for commercial hydrocolloids.

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190. 190 Hosseiniparvar, S.H., Mortazavi, S.A., Razavi, S.M.A. et al. (2009). Flow behavior of basil seed gum solutions mixed with locust bean gum and guar gum. Electronic Journal of Food Processing and Preservation 1 (2): 69–84.
191. 191 Razavi, S.M.A., Bostan, A., and Rezaie, M. (2010). Image processing and physico‐mechanical properties of Basil seed (Ocimum Basilicum). Journal of Food Process Engineering 33 (1): 51–64.
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193. 193 Razmkhah, S., Razavi, S.M.A., Behzad, K., and Mazaheri Tehrani, M. (2010). The effect of pectin, sage seed gum and basil seed gum on physicochemical and sensory characteristics of non fat concentrated yoghurt. Iranian Food Science and Technology Research Journal 6 (1): 27–36.
194. 194 NikNia, S., Razavi, S.M.A., Koocheki, A., and Nayeb Zadeh, K. (2010). The influence of sage seed gum and basil seed gum on the sensory properties and stability of mayonnaise. Electronic Journal of Food Processing and Preservation 2 (2): 61–79.
195. 195 Emadzadeh, B., Razavi, S.M.A., Hashemi, M. et al. (2011). Optimization of fat replacers and sweetener levels to formulate reduced‐ calorie pistachio butter: a response surface methodology. International Journal of Nuts and Related Sciences 2 (4): 37–54.
196. 196 Bahram Parvar, M. and Razavi, S.M.A. (2012). Rheological interactions of selected hydrocolloids‐sugar‐milk‐emulsifier systems. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 47: 854–860.
197. 197 Emadzadeh, B., Razavi, S.M.A., and Nassiri Mahallati, M. (2012). Effects of fat replacers and sweeteners on the time‐dependent rheological characteristics and emulsion stability of low‐calorie pistachio butter. Food and Bioprocess Technology 5 (5): 1581–1591.
198. 198 Razavi, S.M.A., Shamsaee, S., Ataye Salehi, E., and Emadzadeh, B. (2012). Effect of basil seed gum and xanthan gum as fat replacers on the characteristics of reduced fat mayonnaise. Journal of Innovation in Food Science and Technology 4 (3): 101–108.
199. 199 Rafe, A., Razavi, S.M.A., and Khan, S. (2012). Rheological and structural properties of β‐lactoglobulin and basil seed gum mixture: effect of heating rate. Food Research International 49 (1): 32–38.
200. 200 Bahram Parvar, M., Razavi, S.M.A., and Mazaheri Tehrani, M. (2012). Optimising the ice cream formulation using basil seed gum (Ocimum basilicum L.) as a novel stabiliser to deliver improved processing quality. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 47: 2655–2661.
201. 201 Rafe, A., Razavi, S.M.A., and Farhoosh, R. (2013). Rheology and microstructure of basil seed gum and β‐lactoglobulin mixed gels. Food Hydrocolloids 30 (1): 134–142.
202. 202 Emadzadeh, B., Razavi, S.M.A., and Schleining, G. (2013). Dynamic rheological and textural characteristics of low‐calorie pistachio butter. International Journal of Food Properties 16: 512–526.
203. 203 Rafe, A. and Razavi, S.M.A. (2013). Dynamic viscoelastic study on the gelation of basil seed gum. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 48: 556–563.
204. 204 Bahram Parvar, M., Mazaheri Tehrani, M., and Razavi, S.M.A. (2013). Effects of a novel stabilizer blend and presence of κ‐carrageenan on some properties of vanilla ice cream during storage. Food Bioscience 3: 10–18.
205. 205 Bahram Parvar, M., Razavi, S.M.A., Mazaheri Tehrani, M., and Alipour, A. (2013). Optimization of functional properties of three stabilizers and κ‐carrageenan in ice cream and study of their synergism. Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology 15 (4): 757–769.
206. 206 Rafe, A. and Razavi, S.M.A. (2013). The effect of pH and calcium ion on rheological behavior of β‐lactoglobulin‐basil seed gum mixed gels. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 48 (9): 1924–1931.
207. 207 Emadzadeh, B., Razavi, S.M.A., Reznavi, E., and Schleining, G. (2015). Steady shear rheological behavior and thixotropy of low‐calorie pistachio butter. International Journal of Food Properties 18 (1): 137–148.
208. 208 Bahram Parvar, M., Mazaheri Tehrani, M., Razavi, S.M.A., and Koocheki, A. (2015). Application of simplex‐centroid mixture design to optimize stabilizer combinations for ice cream manufacture. Journal of Food Science and Technology 52 (3): 1480–1488.
209. 209 Mohammad Amini, A., Razavi, S.M.A., and Zahedi, Y. (2015). The influence of different plasticisers and fatty acids on functional properties of basil seed gum edible film. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 55 (5): 1137–1143.
210. 210 Rafe, A. and Razavi, S.M.A. (2015). Effect of thermal treatment on chemical structure of β‐lactoglobulin and basil seed gum mixture at different states by ATR‐FTIR spectroscopy. International Journal of Food Properties 18: 2652–2664.
211. 211 Zamani, A., Farhoosh, R., and Razavi, S.M.A. (2015). Effect of basil seed hydrocolloid on the oil uptake and physical properties of potato strips during deep‐fat frying. Iranian Food Science and Technology Research Journal 11 (4): 309–318.
212. 212 Naji‐Tabasi, S., Razavi, S.M.A., Mohebbi, M., and Malaekeh‐Nikouei, B. (2016). New studies on basil (Ocimum bacilicum L.) seed gum: Part I‐Fractionation, physicochemical and surface activity characterization. Food Hydrocolloids 52: 350–358.
213. 213 Javidi, F., Razavi, S.M.A., Behrouzian, F., and Alghooneh, A. (2016). The influence of basil seed gum, guar gum and their blend on the rheological, physical and sensory properties of low fat ice cream. Food Hydrocolloids 52: 625–633.
214. 214 Naji‐Tabasi, S. and Razavi, S.M.A. (2016). New studies on basil (Ocimum bacilicum L.) seed gum: Part II‐Emulsifying and foaming characterization. Carbohydrate Polymers 149 (20): 140–150.
215. 215 Javidi, F., Razavi, S.M.A., Mazaheri Tehrani, M., and Emadzadeh, B. (2016). Effect of guar and basil seed gums on physical properties of low fat and light ice creams. Iranian Food Science and Technology Research Journal 11 (5): 694–706.
216. 216 Mirabolhassani, S.E., Rafe, A., and Razavi, S.M.A. (2016). The influence of temperature, sucrose and lactose on dilute solution properties of basil seed gum. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 93: 623–629.
217. 217 Rafe, A. and Razavi, S.M.A. (2017). Scaling law, fractal analysis and rheological characteristics of physical gels cross‐linked with sodium trimetaphosphate. Food Hydrocolloids 62: 58–65.
218. 218 Naji‐Tabasi, S., Razavi, S.M.A., and Mehditabar, M.H. (2017). Fabrication of basil seed gum nanoparticles as a novel oral delivery system of glutathione. Carbohydrate Polymers 157: 1703–1713.
219. 219 Naji‐Tabasi, S. and Razavi, S.M.A. (2017). New studies on basil (Ocimum bacilicum L.) seed gum: Part III‐Steady and dynamic shear rheology. Food Hydrocolloids 67: 243–250.
220. 220 Shamsaee, S., Razavi, S.M.A., Emadzadeh, B., and Ataye Salehi, E. (2017). The effect of basil seed gum and xanthan on the physical and rheological characteristics of low fat mayonnaise. Iranian Food Science and Technology Research Journal 13 (1): 65–78.
221. 221 Naji‐Tabasi, S. and Razavi, S.M.A. (2017). Functional properties and applications of basil seed gum: an overview. Food Hydrocolloids 73: 313–325.
222. 222 Delfanian, M., Razavi, S.M.A., Haddad Khodaparast, M.H. et al. (2018). Influence of main emulsion components on the physicochemical and functional properties of W/O/W nano‐emulsion: effect of polyphenols, Hi‐Cap, basil seed gum, soy and whey protein isolates. Food Research International 108: 136–143.
223. 223 Javidi, F. and Razavi, S.M.A. (2018). Rheological, physical and sensory characteristics of light ice cream as affected by selected fat replacers. Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization 12 (3): 1872–1884.
224. 224 Karazhiyan, H., Razavi, S.M.A., Phillips, G.O. et al. (2009). Rheological properties of Lepidium sativum seed extract as a function of concentration, temperature and time. Food Hydrocolloids 23 (8): 2062–2068.
225. 225 Karazhiyan, H., Razavi, S.M.A., and Phillips, G.O. (2011). Extraction optimization of hydrocolloid extraction from garden seed (Lepidium sativum) using response surface methodology. Food Hydrocolloids 25: 915–920.
226. 226 Karazhiyan, H., Razavi, S.M.A., Phillips, G.O. et al. (2011). Physicochemical aspects of hydrocolloid extract from the seeds of Lepidium sativum. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 46: 1066–1072.
227. 227 Razavi, S.M.A., Emadzadeh, B., and Zahedi, Y. (2011). Direct and indirect methods to evaluate the yield stress of selected food hydrocolloids. EJEAFChe 10 (11): 3132–3142.
228. 228 Naji, S., Razavi, S.M.A., and Karazhiyan, H. (2012). Effect of thermal treatments on functional properties of cress seed (Lepidium sativum) and xanthan gums: a comparative study. Food Hydrocolloids 28: 75–81.
229. 229 Naji, S., Razavi, S.M.A., Karazhiyan, H., and Koocheki, A. (2012). Influence of thermal treatments on textural characteristics of cress seed (Lepidium sativum) gum gel. EJEAFChe 11 (3): 222–237.
230. 230 Naji, S., Razavi, S.M.A., and Karazhiyan, H. (2012). Effect of thermal and freezing treatments on time‐independent rheological properties of cress seed and xanthan gums. Journal of Innovation in Food Science and Technology 4 (1): 37–45.
231. 231 Naji, S., Razavi, S.M.A., and Karazhiyan, H. (2013). Effect of freezing on functional and textural attributes of cress seed gum and xanthan gum. Food and Bioprocess Technology 6 (5): 1302–1311.
232. 232 Behrouzian, F., Razavi, S.M.A., and Karazhiyan, H. (2013). The effect of pH, salts and sugars on the rheological properties of cress seed (Lepidium sativum) gum. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 48: 2506–2513.
233. 233 Behrouzian, F., Razavi, S.M.A., and Karazhiyan, H. (2014). Intrinsic viscosity of cress (Lepidium sativum) seed gum: effect of salts and sugars. Food Hydrocolloids 35: 100–105.
234. 234 Naji, S. and Razavi, S.M.A. (2014). Functional and textural characteristics of cress seed (Lepidium sativum) gum and xanthan gum: effect of refrigeration condition. Food Bioscience 5: 1–8.
235. 235 Behrouzian, F., Razavi, S.M.A., and Phillips, G.O. (2014). Cress seed (Lepidium sativum) mucilage, an overview. Bioactive Carbohydrates and Dietary Fiber 3: 17–28.
236. 236 Taheri, A. and Razavi, S.M.A. (2015). Fabrication of cress seed gum nanoparticles, an anionic polysaccharide, using desolvation technique: an optimization study. BioNanoScience 5: 104–116.
237. 237 Taheri, A. and Razavi, S.M.A. (2015). The conformational transitions in organic solution on the cress seed nanoparticles production. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 80: 424–430.
238. 238 Razmkhah, S., Mohammadifar, M.A., Razavi, S.M.A., and Tutor Ale, M. (2016). Purification of cress seed (Lepidium sativum) gum: physicochemical characterization and functional properties. Carbohydrate Polymers 141: 166–174.
239. 239 Razmkhah, S., Razavi, S.M.A., Mohammadifar, M.A. et al. (2016). Stepwise extraction of Lepidium sativum seed gum: physicochemical characterization and functional properties. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 88 (7): 553–564.
240. 240 Razmkhah, S., Razavi, S.M.A., and Mohammadifar, M.A. (2016). Purification of cress seed (Lepidium sativum) gum: a comprehensive rheological study. Food Hydrocolloids 61: 358–368.
241. 241 Razmkhah, S., Razavi, S.M.A., Mohammadifar, M.A. et al. (2016). Protein‐free cress seed (Lepidium sativum) gum: physicochemical characterization and rheological properties. Carbohydrate Polymers 153: 14–24.
242. 242 Razmkhah, S., Razavi, S.M.A., and Mohammadifar, M.A. (2017). Dilute solution, flow behavior, thixotropy and viscoelastic characterization of cress seed (Lepidium sativum) gum fractions. Food Hydrocolloids 63: 404–413.
243. 243 Razavi, S.M.A., Bostan, A., and Rahbari, R. (2010). Computer image analysis and physico‐mechanical properties of wild sage seed (Salvia macrosiphon). International Journal of Food Properties 13: 308–316.
244. 244 Bostan, A., Razavi, S.M.A., and Farhoosh, R. (2010). Optimization of hydrocolloid extraction from wild sage seeds (Salvia macrosiphon) using response surface methodology. International Journal of Food Properties 13 (6): 1380–1392.
245. 245 Razavi, S.M.A., Taheri, H., and Quincha, L.A. (2011). Steady shear flow properties of wild sage (Salvia macrosiphon) seed gum as a function of concentration and temperature. Food Hydrocolloids 25 (3): 451–458.
246. 246 Razavi, S.M.A., Bostan, A., NikNia, S., and Razmkhah, S. (2011). Functional properties of hydrocolloid extracted from selected domestic Iranian seeds. Journal of Food Research 21 (3): 379–389.
247. 247 Razavi, S.M.A., Mohammadi Moghaddam, T. et al. (2012). Dilute solution properties of wild sage (Salvia macrosiphon) seed gum. Food Hydrocolloids 29: 205–210.
248. 248 Razavi, S.M.A., Taheri, H., and Sunchez, R. (2013). Viscoelastic characterization of wild sage (Salvia macrosiphon) seed gum. International Journal of Food Properties 16: 1604–1619.
249. 249 Mohammadzadeh, H., Koocheki, A., Kadkhodaee, R., and Razavi, S.M.A. (2013). Physical and flow properties of d‐limonene‐in‐water emulsions stabilized with whey protein concentrate and wild sage (Salvia macrosiphon) seeds gum. Food Research International 53: 312–318.
250. 250 Razavi, S.M.A., Hasan Abadi, M., Radmard Ghadiri, G., and Salehi, E.A. (2013). Rheological interaction of sage seed gum with xanthan in dilute solution. International Food Research Journal 20 (6): 3111–3116.
251. 251 Farahnaky, A., Shanesazzadeh, E., Mesbahi, G., and Majzoobi, M. (2013). Effect of various salts and pH condition on rheological properties of Salvia macrosiphon hydrocolloid solutions. Journal of Food Engineering 116 (4): 782–788.
252. 252 Razavi, S.M.A., Cui, S.W., Guo, Q., and Ding, H. (2014). Some physicochemical properties of sage (Salvia macrosiphon) seed gum. Food Hydrocolloids 25: 453–462.
253. 253 Yousefi, A., Razavi, S.M.A., and Khodabakhsh Aghdam, S. (2014). The influence of temperature, mono‐and divalent cations on dilute solution properties of sage seed gum. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 67 (6): 246–253.
254. 254 Razavi, S.M.A., Mohammad Amini, A., and Zahedi, Y. (2015). Characterisation of a new biodegradable edible film based on sage seed gum: influence of plasticiser type and concentration. Food Hydrocolloids 43: 290–298.
255. 255 Razavi, S.M.A., Alghooneh, A., Behrouzian, F., and Cui, S.W. (2016). Investigation of the interaction between sage seed gum and guar gum: steady and dynamic shear rheology. Food Hydrocolloids 60: 67–76.
256. 256 Yousefi, A.R., Eivazloo, R., and Razavi, S.M.A. (2016). Steady shear flow behavior of sage seed gum affected by various salts and sugars: time‐independent properties. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 91: 1018–1024.
257. 257 Behrouzian, F., Razavi, S.M.A., and Alghooneh, A. (2017). Evaluation of interactions of biopolymers using dynamic rheological measurements: effect of temperature and blend ratios. Journal of Applied Polymer Science 134 (5): 1–13.
258. 258 Alghooneh, A., Razavi, S.M.A., and Behrouzian, F. (2017). Rheological characterization of hydrocolloids interaction: a case study on sage seed gum‐xanthan blends. Food Hydrocolloids 66: 206–215.
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