Please note that index links point to page beginnings from the print edition. Locations are approximate in e-readers, and you may need to page down one or more times after clicking a link to get to the indexed material.
Page numbers followed by f and t refer to figures and tables, respectively.
battery holders for, 18f–20f, 20
capacity of, 21
AAA cell batteries, 75–76
AC coupled output, from non-inverting gain amplifier, 185, 185f
AC coupling capacitors, for inverting gain amplifiers, 193–194, 194f
AC coupling methods, for triggering pulses, 325–327
AC output impedance, voltage follower, 170
AC signal conditions, SX-636 Pioneer power amplifier, 236–237
AC signal gain:
AM radio circuit, 375
common emitter amplifier with series emitter resistor, 151
difference amplifier, 219
inverting gain amplifier, 192–193
non-inverting gain amplifier, 183–184
one-transistor amplifier, 124–129
self-biasing amplifier, 140–144, 143f
voltage follower, 164
AC voltage sources, LEDs with, 86–87
Active band pass filter circuit, 250–254
Aluminum capacitors, 3
AM radio, electrolytic capacitors, 370–375, 370f
Amplification factor, 215, 216
Amplifiers and amplifier circuits:
amplifier defined, 117
bridge amplifier, 345
cascading amplifiers, 285
common base amplifiers, 215–217
common emitter amplifier, 148–155, 215–217
difference amplifier, 214–221
discrete, 117–159
feedback amplifiers, 217–219, 373–375
high-input resistance amplifier, 284–285
IF filter-amplifier, 268, 269f
inverting gain amplifiers, 192–201
non-inverting gain amplifiers, 182–191
one-transistor amplifier, 120–135
push pull audio amplifier, 396–403, 397f–400f, 402f
self-biasing amplifier circuits, 135–147
switching Class D amplifier, 338–341, 339f
TLC272 amplifier, 173–175, 175f
trans-resistance amplifiers, 257–266
troubleshooting, 1
unity gain amplifier, 169, 170f
(See also Operational amplifiers (op amps); Power amplifiers; Pre-amplifiers [preamps])
Amplitude gain, 117
Amplitude range, one-transistor amplifier, 130–133
Analog integrated circuits, 161–211
active band pass filter circuit, 250–254
categories of problems, 241
high-gain op amp circuit for speaker amplifier, 247–249
operational amplifiers, 161–201
photodiode circuits, 254–257
preamp circuit for amplifying electric guitar pickups, 242–247
re-designing, 242–254
trans-resistance amplifiers, 257–266
troubleshooting, 241–266
voltage regulators, 201–211
Analog meters:
testing diodes with, 58–60, 59f
Analog oscilloscopes, 416, 418, 418f
Analog signal generator kit, 422, 422f
Analog switch mixers, 270–276, 273f
Anode (see Connection terminals)
Anode to cathode voltage, diode, 54–55, 55f
Antennas and antenna coils, 274, 428
Arleigh six-transistor radio, 397, 399f, 400–401, 400f
Astable mode of 555 circuit (see Oscillator mode of 555 circuit)
Audio circuits, 213–240
difference amplifier, 214–221
Dynaco PAT-5 preamp, 221–231
incorrect electrolytic capacitor use in, 370–375, 370f
incorrect use of electrolytic capacitor, 370–375
LM386 audio power amplifier, 354–356
preamp and power amp relationship, 213–214
SX-636 Pioneer power amplifier, 231–240
Audio transformers, suppliers, 428
Axial lead capacitors, 33, 34, 34f
Bandwidth, oscilloscope, 416
Base resistance, one-transistor amplifier, 129
Base terminal of transistor:
long leads from, 114–115
open junction from, 92, 95, 95f
Base voltage, with reversed LED terminals, 110–112
Base-emitter voltage, 97
Batteries, 17–21
expected capacity, 21
for one-transistor amplifier, 121, 121f
operating voltage, 19–20
output voltage, 19t
safety considerations, 21
types, 17–18
Battery chargers, 21
Battery connectors, 19–20, 20f
Battery holders, 18–19, 18f, 19f
BC prefix, transistor, 90
Biasing voltage:
common emitter amplifier with series emitter resistor, 158–159
protecting op amps from, 184–185
voltage follower, 166
Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs), 89–115
CMOS chips vs., 319–320
improving current source circuits, 101–107
insufficient headroom voltage for, 112–114
with long base leads, 114–115
providing constant current source with, 96–101
reversed component connections with, 107–112
schematic symbols of, 95–96, 96f
terminals of, 89–92
testing, 92–94
BJTs (see Bipolar junction transistors)
current source circuit, 105
schematic diagram, 80f
Bootstrap capacitor, 236
for light transceiver system, 356f
for light-sensing circuit, 350, 350f
solderless, 7–14
suppliers of, 427
Bridge amplifier, 345
Brightness, photodiode, 255
C cell batteries, 76
Capacitance, 27–30
diode, 63
loading, crystals with, 307–308
oscillation due to, 261–262
rescaling, for preamps, 244–245
Capacitors, 27–36
adding, to prevent oscillation, 375
bootstrap, 236
built-in, ceramic resonator circuits with, 310
capacitance value of, 27–30, 29f–31f
and crystal frequency, 312, 312t
in discrete amplifiers, 153–154
erroneously marked, 35
for inexpensive lab, 422
measuring capacitance of, 30–31, 31f, 35–36
of one-transistor amplifier, 120–121, 120f
polarized vs. non-polarized, 30–33, 32f, 33f, 35, 35f
for preamps, 243–244
radial and axial lead, 33–35, 34f
schematic symbols, 27, 28f, 29f, 33f
suppliers of, 427–429
variable, 428–429
(See also Electrolytic capacitors)
Cascading applifiers, in sample-and-hold RF mixer circuit, 285
Cathode (see Connection terminals)
Cathode to anode voltage, diode, 54–55, 55f
Ceramic capacitors, 28, 30, 31f, 36f, 211
Ceramic resonators, 304f, 308–316
CMOS (complementary metal oxide silicon) chips, 319–320
Cold solder connections, 3, 4f
Collector current:
base-emitter voltage and, 97
collector voltage and, 136
in common emitter amplifier with series emitter resistor, 150
for one-transistor amplifier, 121–123, 122f
in self-biasing amplifier, 137–138
in thermal-sensing circuit, 365–366
Collector terminal of transistor:
current gain for reversed lead, 94, 94f
Collector voltage, collector current and, 136
Collector-base voltage, 112–114, 112f
Collector-to-emitter resistance, in power amplifiers, 237
Colpitts crystal oscillator, 382, 383f
Common base amplifiers, difference amplifier from, 215–217
Common emitter amplifier:
difference amplifier from, 215–217
with series emitter resistor, 148–155
Common ground, breadboard, 10–11
Common lead, 407
Common mode input range, op amp, 179–181
Complementary metal oxide silicon (CMOS) chips, 319–320
Connection flags, schematics with too many, 388–392, 388f–390f, 392f
Connection terminals (anode and cathode):
reversing, for Zener diode, 67–69
Continuity tester, 11
Continuous power buses, 11, 11f, 13, 14f
Conversion gain, 276
Copper clad breadboards, 14–15, 15f
Coupled output, non-inverting gain amplifier, 185, 185f
Crystal oscillators, 304–309
HC-49 crystals, 308–309
high-frequency, 308–309
with loading capacitance specifications, 307–308
low-frequency, 308
with missing ground connection, 378–381, 379f
overtone crystals, 316–318
in simple mixer SDR front-end circuits, 270, 271f
standard, 308
suppliers of, 428
Current:
DC base current of one-transistor amplifier, 121–123, 122f
drive, for LED, 71–72
excessive, in thermal-sensing circuit, 366–368, 366f, 367f
limiting of, for power supply, 411
(See also Collector current; Forward current [maximum conduction]; LED current; Maximum current)
Current gain:
collector current and, 98
Current hogging, 88
Current source circuits:
with DC voltage applied to base of transistor, 96–101
headroom voltage limitations in, 112–114
improving, 101–107
Current-limiting resistors, 366–369, 367f, 378
Cut-off frequency, capacitor, 154
Cylindrical crystals, 304f, 308–309
D cell batteries, 76
Data sheets, manufacturer’s, 407
DC base current, one-transistor amplifier, 121–123, 122f
DC biasing conditions:
Dynaco PAT-5 preamp, 227–229, 228t
four-phase commutating mixer circuit, 293
improving, for band pass filter, 251–254, 251f
SX-636 Pioneer power amplifier, 234–236
DC current, for one-transistor amplifier, 121–124
DC power supply, improving circuit design for, 375–378, 376f
DC restoration circuit, 325–327, 326f
DC voltage:
in AM radio circuit, 373–375
applying, to base of transistor, 96–101
instrumentation amplifier, 296
inverting gain amplifier, 196
non-inverting gain amplifier, 185
one-transistor amplifier, 122f, 124
and output voltage swing, 156
self-biasing amplifier, 135–139
DC-to-DC converter circuits, 408–409
Decoupling capacitors, for LM386 audio power amplifier, 354–355, 355f
Difference amplifier, 214–221
from common emitter and base amplifiers, 215–217
emitter follower circuit, 219–221, 220f
feedback amplifier from, 217–219
Digital counter/divider chips, 292
Digital storage oscilloscopes (DSOs), 416–420, 417f
Digital voltmeters (DVMs):
capacitance measurements with, 30, 31f, 35–36, 36f
choosing, 348
diode and rectifier testing with, 56–58, 56f, 57f
in 555 pulse generator troubleshooting, 324
in inverting op amp circuit troubleshooting, 198–200
in light-sensing circuit troubleshooting, 351
low resistance measurements with, 44–47, 45f, 46f
in non-inverting op amp circuit troubleshooting, 189–191
photodiode testing with, 256–257, 257f
resistance measurements with, 40–44, 42f–44f
resistance of leads for, 44, 45f
selecting, 21–26
transistor testing with, 92–94
for troubleshooting, 406–407
with zero calibration mode, 46–47
Diodes, 49–70
forward conduction and reverse voltage non-conduction of, 54–55
general rules, 69–70
for inexpensive lab, 422
testing, with volt meters, 56–60
for thermal-sensing circuit, 366, 367f
types and characteristics, 49–54
(See also Light-emitting diodes [LEDs]; Photodiodes and photodiode circuits; Zener diodes)
DIP (dual inline packages), op amp, 163, 164f
Direct Digital Synthesis (DSS) technology, 414, 415f
Discrete amplifier circuits, 117–159
common emitter amplifier with series emitter resistor, 148–155
one-transistor amplifier, 118–135
self-biasing amplifier, 135–147
transistor specifications, 117–118
Display resolution, oscilloscope, 417–420
Distortion:
in common emitter amplifier with series emitter resistor, 154–155
in high-gain op amp circuit, 247–249, 247f
in one-transistor amplifier, 130–133, 131f–133f, 132t
in self-biased amplifier, 146, 147f
Dr. Meter HY3005-3, 413
Drive current, LED, 71–72
Drop-out voltage:
low–drop-out voltage regulators, 206–208, 210–211
for voltage regulators, 203–204
DSOs (digital storage oscilloscopes), 416–420, 417f
DT832 DVM, 22
Dual inline packages (DIP), op amp, 163, 164f
Dual linear power supply, 413
DVMs (see Digital voltmeters)
Dynaco PAT-5 preamp, 221–231
AC analysis, 229–230
DC bias point estimates, 227–229
low-level preamp section, 221, 222f, 224, 226f, 227–230
power supply–voltage regulator section, 221–225, 222f, 223f
troubleshooting, 224–225, 230–231
Dynamic microphones, preamps for, 3 59–361, 360f
Electret condenser microphones (ECMs), preamps for, 360f, 361
Electric guitar, amplifying pickups in, 242–247
Electrolytic capacitors:
for components kit, 348
incorrect use of, 370–375
power dissipation in, 371, 372
radial and axial lead, 33–35, 33f, 34f
replacing, 2–3
reverse biasing of, 370–372
Electronic components:
kits of, 347–349
reversed connections between transistors and, 107–112
specifications/limitations of, 2
suppliers of, 427–428
verifying values of, 2
(See also specific types)
Electronics tools suppliers, 427
Emitter bypass capacitor, 149, 149f
Emitter current:
in common emitter amplifier with series emitter resistor, 150
tail current for power amplifier, 234
Emitter followers:
for DC power supply, 376–378, 377f
of difference amplifier, 219–221, 220f
in light transceiver system, 356, 357f
Emitter series resistors, in current source circuits, 101–104, 101f
Emitter terminal of transistor:
current gain for reversed lead, 94, 94f
Excessive current, in thermal-sensing circuit, 366–368, 366f, 367f
External biasing resistor, 372–373
Feedback amplifiers:
from difference amplifier, 217–219
electrolytic capacitors in, 373–375
Feedback current source circuit, op amp, 180–181, 181f
Feedback filter capacitor, in crystal circuits, 313, 313f
Feedback loop, of four-phase commutating mixer circuit, 302–303
Ferrite beads, 382–386, 383f–385f
Field effect transistors (FETs), 182–183, 284, 427
Film capacitors, 28
555 circuits, 319–346
AC coupling methods to trigger pulses, 325–327
driving motors via pulse-width modulation with, 328–345
in high-voltage converter, 332–337
oscillator/astable mode, 329–337, 346
pulse generator/monostable mode, 321–346
with strange output signals on oscilloscope, 328–329
timer chips, 319–321, 328–329, 346
Five-band resistors, 38, 39f, 40
Fixed 10X probes, 420
Fixed value inductors, 427
Flashlights, LED, 71, 72, 75–76, 76f
Forward active region, transistor, 105
Forward current (maximum conduction):
Shottky diode, 61t
standard diode and rectifier, 49, 51t–52t
Forward voltage:
measuring, for standard diodes, 56–60, 57f, 59f
of Shottky vs. standard diodes, 61–62, 61f, 62f
4-channel oscilloscopes, 416, 417f
Four-band resistors, 37–38, 37f, 39f
Four-phase commutating mixer circuit, 288–293
basic configuration, 288–289
DC bias conditions, 293
with feedback loop for op amp, 302–303
instrumentation amplifiers for, 296–302
operation, 289–290
systems approach to, 304
testing, with RF or function generator, 293–296
troubleshooting, 290, 292, 293f
Frequency divider, 555 oscillator with, 330, 331f
Full-wave rectifier circuit, analog meter, 393, 394f
Function generator, testing commutating mixer with, 293–296
Gated oscillating waveform, for 555 pulse generator circuit, 328–329, 328f
General Electric P-716A transistor radio, 397, 397f, 398f, 401, 402f
General Tools and Instrument TS04 DVM, 23, 23f
Glitch kickback, 275
paralleled with red LED, 84–85, 84f, 85f
schematic diagram, 78f
turn-on voltage, 77f, 77t, 81–83, 82f
variations in color, 81–83
Ground connection:
common emitter amplifier, 156–157
missing, crystal oscillator with, 378–381
power supply, 411
Half-wave rectifiers:
for voltage regulation, 202–203, 202f, 203f
Ham radio circuits, 267–318
ceramic resonators, 308–316
crystal oscillators, 304–309
diode detectors for crystal radios, 62
four-phase commutating mixer circuit, 288–293
parts suppliers, 428–429
sample-and-hold RF mixer circuit, 279–288
software defined radio circuits, 267–278
Hantek oscilloscopes, 416, 417, 417f, 419f, 420, 420f, 423f
HC-49/S and HC-49/U crystals, 308–309
Headroom voltage, for bipolar junction transistors, 112–114
High frequency ceramic resonators, 309
High-frequency circuits:
diodes for, 63
High-frequency cylindrical crystals, 308–309
High-gain op amp circuit, for speaker amplifier, 247–249
High-input resistance amplifier, 284–285
High-voltage converter, 332–337, 335f, 336f
Hold capacitors:
buffering or amplifying voltage across, 285f
connecting, to inverting gain amplifiers, 285–288, 286f
parasitic oscillations caused by, 287–288, 287f
peak hold capacitors with LEDs, 86f, 87
pulse response and capacitance values of, 281–282
Hysteresis effect, 368
I phase signal, 268
ICs (see Integrated circuits)
IF filter-amplifier, 268, 269f
IF (intermediate frequency) signals, low-pass filters for, 268–270
IF transformers, 428
Impedance:
signal generator, 415
voltage follower, 170
INA163 instrumentation op amp, 267f, 296
In-circuit testing, of diodes, 60
Independent sectors, breadboard, 11, 12f
Inductance capacitance meter, 348
Input amplitude range, one-transistor amplifier, 130–133
Input bias resistors, 182–183
Input coupling capacitors, 184–185, 185f
Input leads, reversed, trans-resistance amplifier with, 265–266
Input resistance:
common emitter amplifier with series emitter resistor, 150–152
inverting gain amplifier, 193
low, inverting gain op amp circuits with, 285–288
one-transistor amplifier, 124–128
self-biasing amplifier, 139–144
Input signal range, operational amplifier, 179–181
Input terminal, op amp, 302–303, 302f
Input voltage, 555 pulse generator, 323, 323t
Input waveform, 555 pulse generator, 321, 322f, 328, 329f
Instek GW GPC-3020, 413
Instrumentation amplifiers, 296–302
Integrated circuits (ICs):
pinout differences, 2
(See also Analog integrated circuits; 555 circuits)
Intermediate frequency (IF) signals, low-pass filters for, 268–270
Inverting gain amplifiers, 192–201
about, 200–201
AC analysis, 193–196
connecting hold capacitors to, 285–288, 286f
DC analysis, 196f–198f, 198–198
function, 192
troubleshooting, 198–200
Inverting voltage follower, 265, 265f
ISL28218 op amp, 179
JFET suppliers, 427
JPS-6600 signal generator, 414, 415f
Jumper wire connectors, breadboard, 8f, 9
“K” (on capacitors), 29
KeySight oscilloscopes, 416f, 417, 417f, 420
KeySight UI232A DVM, 46–47, 46f
Large-signal diodes and rectifiers, 51–52, 51t–52t
Large-value hold capacitors, 282–284, 283t
LDO (low–drop-out) voltage regulators, 206–208, 210–211
LDRs (see Light-dependent resistors)
Leader LPS-152, 413
Leads:
bipolar junction transistor, 114–115
reversing, when testing diodes, 56, 57f, 59–60
trans-resistance amplifier, 265–266
LED constant current source drive circuit:
common emitter amplifier with series emitter resistor from, 148–150, 148f
one-transistor amplifier from, 118–120, 119f
LED current:
and current gain for transistors, 99–100, 100f, 101f
in current source circuits, 101–104, 101f, 106–107
LEDs (see Light-emitting diodes)
Light output, LED, 71–75
Light transceiver system, 356–361
microphone pre-amplifiers, 359–361, 360f
receiver circuit, 356–358, 356f, 357f
transmitter circuit, 356–358, 356f, 357f
Light-dependent resistors (LDRs):
in light-sensing circuit, 349–351, 349f
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs), 71–88
key points, 88
light output, 71–75
in light transceiver system, 356–357
in light-sensing circuit, 349–354
minimum turn-on voltages, 75–81
paralleled, with different turn-on voltages, 83–85
protecting, from reverse voltage damage, 86–87
reversed connections for, 107–108, 107f, 110–112, 110f, 111f
in thermal-sensing circuit, 365, 368
transistor current source for, 99–100, 99f
troubleshooting 555 oscillator with, 329f, 330, 346
as voltage reference, 105–107, 106f
(See also specific colors)
Light-sensing circuit, 349–354
adding resistor to, 352–353
light-dependent resistor, 349–351, 349f, 353–354
schematic, 351f
transistors, 350–351
troubleshooting, 351
Linear Integrated Systems, 427
Linear power supplies, 411–413, 412f, 414f
Line-level preamps, 214
Lithium batteries, 21
LM358 op amp, 175–178, 176f–178f
LM386 op amp:
in audio power amplifier, 354–356, 354f
characteristics, 174–175
in light transceiver system, 356–361, 356f
LM555 integrated circuit, 320–321, 320f (See also 555 circuits)
LM741 op amp, 162–163, 162f, 179
LM1458 photodiode preamp, 260–261, 260f
LM2940 series low–drop-out voltage regulators:
characteristics, 206, 207, 207f
mishaps with, 210–211
LM2990 series low–drop-out voltage regulators:
characteristics, 206, 207, 207f
mishaps with, 210–211
Load resistance value, preamp, 231
Loading capacitance, crystals with, 307–308
Logic circuits:
crystal oscillator for driving, 310–311, 310f
with shunt regulator circuits, 69
Logic inversion, signal, 340–341
Low frequency ceramic resonators, 309
Low leakage electrolytic capacitors, 372
Low self-discharge batteries, 17–18, 21
Low–drop-out (LDO) voltage regulators, 206–208, 210–211
Low-frequency cylindrical crystals, 308
Low-noise transistors, 427
Low-pass filter amplifier, mixer circuit with, 270–276
Low-pass filters, SDR circuits with, 268–270
Lumens (unit), 255
Luminous intensity, LED, 71–75
Matching network approach, 304
Maximum current:
collector current of transistors, 97, 117
output current for operational amplifiers, 174–178
Maximum output voltage swing:
common emitter amplifier with series emitter resistor, 155–158
one-transistor amplifier, 133–134
optimum bias point for, 158–159
Maximum voltage:
collector-to-emitter voltage of transistors, 117
of op amp power supply, 171–172, 171t
MC3403P photodiode preamp, 260–261, 260f
Memory points, oscilloscope, 417–420
Metal case transistors, 91–92, 91f
Micronta analog VOM, 59–60, 59f
Microphone pre-amplifiers, 213, 359–361, 360f
Minimum voltage:
for op amp power supply, 172–173, 172t
turn-on voltage for LEDs, 75–81
Mixer circuits:
with analog switch mixers, 270–276
four-phase commutating mixer circuit, 288–293
with RF band-pass filter, analog switch mixers, and low-pass filter amplifier, 270–276, 273f
sample-and-hold RF mixer circuit, 279–288
Monostable mode of 555 circuits (see Pulse generator mode of 555 circuit)
Motors, pulse-width modulation to drive, 328–345
NE555 integrated circuits (see 555 circuits)
Negative cycle duration, for triggering pulse output signals, 325
Negative feedback, self-biasing amplifier, 135–136
Negative lead, capacitor, 33, 33f, 34f
Negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermosistor, 363
Negative voltage regulators, 204, 204f, 208–210
Nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries, 17
Nickel metal hydride (NiMh) batteries, 17, 18, 21
9-volt battery holders, 20, 20f
Noise reduction:
on power supply bus, 403–405, 403f–405f
in preamps, 245–247
Non-inverting gain amplifiers, 182–191
about, 200–201
AC analysis, 183–186
DC analysis, 186–189, 187f, 188f
troubleshooting, 189–191
Non-polarized capacitors, 30
Non-retriggerable one-shot (see pulse generator mode of 555 circuit)
NPN transistors, 93, 95–97, 96f
NTC (negative temperature coefficient) thermosistor, 363
Ohm (unit), 37
Ohm meter:
breadboard continuity testing with, 11
confirming ground connection with, 380, 381
digital voltmeter as, 21
resistance measurements with, 37, 40
for troubleshooting, 406
One-transistor amplifier, 120–135
AC signal gain, 124–129
base resistance, 129
DC analysis of capacitors, 120–121
DC current and voltage calculations, 121–124
input amplitude range, 130–133
from LED constant current source drive circuit, 118–120
output voltage swing, 133–134
troubleshooting, 135
One-transistor crystal oscillator, 310–311, 310f
OPA2134 op amp, 276
Open base to emitter junction, transistor, 92, 95, 95f
Open loop gain, difference amplifier, 219
Operating voltage, battery connectors and, 19–20, 20f
Operational amplifiers (op amps), 161–201
characteristics and uses, 161–162
four-phase commutating mixer circuit with feedback loop for, 302–303
high-gain op amp circuit for speaker amplifier, 247–249
input signal range, 179–181
inverting gain amplifiers, 192–201
maximum output current, 174–178
maximum power supply voltage, 171–172
meter circuits and, 396
minimum power supply voltage, 172–173
non-inverting gain amplifiers, 182–191, 200–201
output voltage range, 179
packages and pin outs, 162–164
replacing, in trans-resistance amplifiers, 257–261
voltage followers, 164–171
voltage regulation for, 173–174
(See also specific types)
Optimal biasing voltage, for common emitter amplifier with series emitter resistor, 158–159
Oscillation:
parasitic (see Parasitic oscillation)
in trans-resistance amplifiers, 261–262
Oscillator coils, 428
Oscillator (astable) mode of 555 circuit, 321
driving speakers with, 332
as high-voltage converter, 332–337
Oscillators, crystal (see Crystal oscillators)
Oscilloscopes:
for circuit with missing ground connection, 378, 380, 380f, 381f
digital storage, 416–420, 417f
discrete amplifier troubleshooting with, 153
display resolution and number of memory points, 417–420
inverting op amp circuit troubleshooting with, 198–200
non-inverting op amp circuit troubleshooting with, 189–191
preamp troubleshooting with, 230–231
SDR circuit troubleshooting with, 277–278
strange output signals from 555 timer chips on, 328–329
(See also specific manufacturers)
Output resistance:
calculating, 144–147
common emitter amplifier with series emitter resistor, 152
inverting gain amplifier, 193
self-biasing amplifier, 143–147
signal generator, 415
Output voltage:
555 pulse generator circuit, 323, 323t
by battery type and cell number, 19t
operational amplifiers, 179
Output voltage swing:
one-transistor amplifier, 133–134
in self-biasing amplifier, 138–139, 138f
(See also Maximum output voltage swing)
Output waveform, pulse generator mode of 555 circuit, 321, 322f, 328, 329f
Overtone crystals, 316–318, 317f
Parallel wiring:
of diodes, 69
Parasitic oscillation:
adding capacitors to prevent, 375
ferrite beads to prevent, 382–386, 383f–385f
hold capacitors as cause of, 287–288, 287f
in preamps, 231
series base resistors to prevent, 114–115, 115f, 384, 384f, 386f
in transistor LED circuits, 114–115, 115f
PAT-5 preamp (see Dynaco PAT-5 preamp)
Peak hold capacitors, with LEDs, 86f, 87
Peak reverse voltage (PRV):
standard diode and rectifier, 49, 51, 51t–52t
Perforated breadboards, 15, 15f
Phase inversions, fixing trans-resistance amplifiers with, 263–265
Phonograph pick up cartridges, preamps in, 214
Phosphors, of LEDs, 74–75, 74f, 75f
Photodiodes and photodiode circuits, 254f
in light transceiver system, 357f, 358, 359f
reverse connections to trans-resistance amplifiers, 262–263
suppliers, 427
trans-resistance amplifiers in, 257–266, 258f
troubleshooting, 254–257
Pickups, electric guitar, 242–247
Pioneer power amplifier (see SX-636 Pioneer power amplifier)
Plastic package transistors, 90–92, 90f, 91f
PNP transistors, 93, 95–96, 96f
Point contact transistors, 89
Polarity:
semiconductor, 49
Polarized capacitors, 32, 32f, 33f
Positive feedback, in trans-resistance amplifiers, 263
Positive lead, capacitor, 33, 33f, 34f
Positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermosistor, 363
Positive voltage regulators, 204, 204f, 208–210
Potentiometer, of thermal-sensing circuit, 363, 363f
Power amplifiers:
LM386 audio power amplifier, 354–356
relationship of preamp and, 213–214
SX-636 Pioneer power amplifier, 231–240
Power buses (breadboard), 8, 8f
breaks in power bus lines, 10–13, 10f–12f
confirming continuity of, 13–14
Power dissipation:
with incorrect use of electrolytic capacitor, 371, 372
in thermal-sensing circuit, 366–368, 366f, 367f
of transistor, 117–118
Power supplies:
DC, improving circuit design for, 375–378, 376f
Dynaco PAT-5 preamp, 221–225, 222f, 223f
inexpensive, 422
LM386 audio power amplifier, 355
one-transistor amplifier, 135
op amp, 173–174
reducing noise from, 245–247, 403–405, 403f–405f
Power supply rejection, emitter follower, 220–221
Power supply voltage, op amp, 171–173, 172t
Power transistors, 90, 90f, 92
Pre-amplifiers (preamps):
for amplifying electric guitar pickups, 242–247
Dynaco PAT-5 preamp, 221–231
microphone, 213, 359–361, 360f
relationship of power amp and, 213–214
Probe compensation tool, 421, 421f
Probes, oscilloscope, 420–421, 421f
Protection diodes for LEDs, 87, 87f
PRV (see Peak reverse voltage)
PTC (positive temperature coefficient) thermosistor, 363
Pull-down or pull-up resistors, in op amps, 177–178, 177f, 178f
Pulse generator (monostable) mode of 555 circuit:
AC coupling methods to trigger pulses, 325–327
characteristics and value ranges, 321–323
driving motors via pulse-width modulation with, 328–345
schematic, 325f
Pulse response, hold capacitor, 281–282, 281f
Pulse-width modulation, 321, 328–345
Push pull audio amplifier, 396–403, 397f–400f, 402f
Q phase signal, 268
Radial lead capacitors, 33, 33f
Radio band, span of tuning across, 283–284
Radio-frequency circuits, diodes for, 63
Radios:
AM, electrolytic capacitors of, 370–375, 370f
Arleigh six-transistor radio, 397, 399f, 400–401, 400f
General Electric P-716A radio, 397, 397f, 398f, 401, 402f
software defined radio circuits, 267–278
transistor, 396–403, 397f–400f, 402f
(See also Ham radio circuits)
Rail to rail op amps, 173, 179
RC4136 op amp, 252
Receiver circuit, light transceiver system, 356–358, 356f, 357f
Rechargeable batteries, 17, 18, 21
Rectifiers:
testing, with volt meters, 56–60
types and characteristics, 49–54
(See also Half-wave rectifiers)
in current source circuit, 105–106, 106f
forward current, 78
paralleled with green LED, 84–85, 84f, 85f
turn-on voltage, 77f, 77t, 79, 79f, 80t
Relays, 555 chips with, 320
Resistance:
555 pulse generator circuit, 322–323, 323t
base, for one-transistor amplifier, 129
collector-to-emitter, in power amplifiers, 237
load, in preamps, 231
low, 44–47
rescaling, for preamps, 244–245
source, in sample-and-hold RF circuit, 279
for voltage divider circuit, 103–104
in Zener diode current source circuits, 104–105
(See also Input resistance; Output resistance)
Resistor(s), 37–47
in analog meter circuits, 394f, 395
for components kit, 347
current-limiting, 366–369, 367f, 378
external biasing, 372–373
function, 27
input bias, 182–183
light-dependent, 349–351, 349f, 353–354, 353f
for light-sensing circuits, 352–353
with low resistance values, 44–47
measuring resistance values, 40–47
paralleled LEDs with a single, 83–85, 84f, 85f
pull-down or pull-up, 177–178, 177f, 178f
reading color codes, 37–40, 37f, 39f, 40f
series emitter resistor circuit, 148–155
series input resistor, 143–144, 143f
for thermal-sensing circuits, 366, 367f
Zener diodes in series with, 66–68, 66f
(See also Series base resistors)
Resonators, ceramic, 304f, 308–316
Reverse bias mode:
electrolytic capacitor in, 370–372
LEDs connected in, 107–108, 107f
in light transceiver system, 358
Reverse voltage:
for diodes, 54–55
protecting LEDs from, 86–88
RF band-pass filter:
mixer circuit with, 270–276, 273f
RF input signal, 275–276, 275f, 276f
RF mixers:
square-wave, 272
switch mode, 278
(See also Sample-and-hold RF mixer circuit)
RIAA phono equalization curve, 229–230
Rigol oscilloscopes, 416f, 418–420, 418f–420f
Ripple noise, power supply, 412, 413f
RMS voltages, 213
Sample-and-hold RF mixer circuit, 279–288
cascading amplifiers in, 285
high input resistance amplifier, 284–285
inverting gain op amps with low input resistance, 285–288
with large-value hold capacitor, 282–284
modeling and characteristics of, 279–281
pulse response and capacitance values of hold capacitor, 281–282
Saturation, transistor, 105, 113, 114, 152–153
Schematics:
complicated, deciphering, 388–392, 388f–390f, 392f
(See also specific components)
Schmitt Trigger input, 338
Schottky diodes, 60–63
other diodes vs., 61–63, 61f–63f
Science kits, suppliers of, 429
SDR circuits (see Software defined radio circuits)
Self-biasing amplifier circuits, 135–147
AC analysis of, 139–144
DC analysis of, 136–139
negative feedback to build, 135–136
output resistance for, 144–147
Semiconductors, 49, 51 (See also specific types, e.g. diodes)
Separated power buses, 10–11, 10f
Series base resistors:
in bipolar junction transistors, 97–100, 97f, 99f, 100f
in one-transistor amplifiers, 131–132
preventing parasitic oscillation with, 114–115, 115f, 384, 384f, 386f
Series emitter resistor circuit, common emitter amplifier with, 148–155
Series input resistor, AC signal gain and, 143–144, 143f
Series resistor-capacitor snubbing network, 354–356
Series resonant crystals, 308
Service manuals, 387–388
7800 and 7900 series voltage regulators, 208–210
Short body small signal diodes, 52, 52t
Short-circuits:
collector to emitter junction of transistor, 92, 95
power bus continuity and, 13
Shunt regulator circuits, 68–69, 68f
Siglent SDG2042 signal generator, 415, 415f
Signal detection, with superhet radio, 268
Signal gain (see AC signal gain)
Signal generators:
555 pulse generator troubleshooting with, 324
analog signal generator kit, 422, 422f
inverting op amp circuit troubleshooting with, 198–200
non-inverting op amp circuit troubleshooting with, 189–191
preamp troubleshooting with, 230–231
Silicon diodes, 60–62, 61f, 62f
Single power supply inverting gain amplifier, 195–196, 195f
Single power supply non-inverting gain amplifier, 185–186, 186f
Single-gate inverter crystal oscillator, 313–316, 315f
Single-inverter gate oscillator, 305f, 306
Single-supply two-transistor amplifier, 216
Small signal diodes:
characteristics, 50f, 51–52, 51t, 52t
Small-signal transistors, 90, 90f
Software defined radio (SDR) circuits, 267–278
with low-pass filters for IF signals, 268–270
mixer circuit with RF band-pass filter, analog switch mixers, and low-pass filter amplifier, 270–276, 273f
superhet radio, 267–268
troubleshooting, 277–278
Solder connections:
in circuit-building process, 2
equipment/supplies required for, 348–349, 427
in troubleshooting process, 1
Solderless breadboards, 7–14
breaks in power bus lines on, 10–13
confirming power bus continuity, 13–14
high- vs. low-quality, 8–10, 9f
Source resistance, in sample-and-hold RF circuit, 279
Source resistance generator, 278
Speaker buzzer, thermal-sensing circuit, 369–370, 370f
Speakers:
driving, with 555 oscillator circuit, 332, 333f
high-gain op amp circuit for, 247–249
power output, 373–374
troubleshooting 555 oscillator with, 329f, 330, 346
SPICE program, 229
Square-wave RF mixers, 272
Super capacitors, 33
Switch mixers, analog, 270–276, 273f
Switch mode RF mixer, 278
Switchable 1X–10X probes, 420, 421, 421f
Switching Class D amplifier, 338–341, 339f
Switching (switch mode) power supplies:
SX-636 Pioneer power amplifier, 231–240
AC signal conditions, 236–237
DC biasing conditions, 234–236
troubleshooting, 237–240
Tape form:
Tektronix oscilloscopes, 416, 418f
Temperature, resistance vs., 364t, 365
Terminals, bipolar junction transistor, 89–92
Test equipment, 411–423
inexpensive, 422–423
kits, 347–349
minimal, for troubleshooting, 393–406
oscilloscopes, 415–421
power supplies, 411–414
signal generators, 414–415
in troubleshooting process, 1
Thermal-sensing circuit, 361–370
adding current-limiting resistors, 366–369, 367f
adding diodes and resistors, 366, 367f
design problems, 356–366
speaker buzzer polarity, 369–370, 370f
thermosistor of, 361–365, 362f, 364f
Thermosistor, 361–365, 362f, 364f
Thevenin series inductance, 317
Three-terminal ceramic resonator, 305f, 306–307
Timer chips:
bipolar transistor vs. CMOS chips, 319–320
modes and pin outs, 320–321, 320f
output signals on oscilloscope from, 328–329
troubleshooting, 346
TLC272 amplifier, 173–175, 175f, 179
TLC555 integrated circuit, 320–321, 320f
TO-18 transistors, 91, 91f, 93f
TO-92 transistors, 90, 90f, 109
TO-92 voltage regulators, 204, 204f, 205, 206f
TO-220 transistors, 90, 90f, 91f
TO-220 voltage regulators, 204, 204f, 205, 206f
Total gain, in difference amplifier, 219
Transformers:
in analog meter circuits, 394f, 395
Transistor amplifiers (see discrete amplifier circuits)
Transistor radios:
Arleigh six-transistor radio, 397, 399f, 400–401, 400f
General Electric P-716A, 397, 397f, 398f, 401, 402f
push pull audio amplifier in, 396–403, 397f–400f, 402f
Transistors:
biasing, 96–100, 97f, 99f, 100f
for common emitter amplifier with series emitter resistor, 148–155
for components kit, 347
field effect, 182–183, 284, 427
of light-sensing circuit, 350–351
low-noise, 427
one-transistor crystal oscillator, 310–311, 310f
plastic package, 90–92, 90f, 91f
point contact, 89
replacing, for power amplifier, 239–240
reversed connections for, 108–109, 108f
single-supply two-transistor amplifier, 216
specifications, for discrete amplifier circuits, 117–118
two-transistor common emitter amplifier, 373f, 374
(See also Bipolar junction transistors [BJTs]; One-transistor amplifier; specific models)
Transmitter circuit, light transceiver system, 356–358, 356f, 357f
Transmitting antenna, 330
Trans-resistance amplifiers, 257–266, 258f
oscillation due to capacitance in, 261–262
phase inversions to fix, 263–265
with photodiodes connected in reverse, 262–263
replacing op amps in, 257–261
with reversed input leads, 265–266
Triple linear power supply, 413, 414f
Triplett 310 analog ohm meter, 58, 60
Troubleshooting (general), 1
example circuits, 403
minimal test equipment for, 393–406
requirements for, 406–409
schematics and service manuals for, 387–388
True RMS measurement system, DVM, 24
Tuning span, across radio band, 283–284
Turn-on voltages:
transistor, 97
2-channel oscilloscopes, 416, 416f
2N3904 NPN transistor, 117–118
Two-gate oscillator circuit, 305f, 306
Two-transistor common emitter amplifier, 373f, 374
U2A and U2B op amps, 162f, 163
U3A, U3B, U3C, and U3D op amps, 162f, 163
Unity gain compensated op amps, 200–201
Variable capacitors, suppliers of, 428–429
Variable frequency oscillator (VFO), 296
Vector breadboard, 15
Volt meter, 406
testing diodes and rectifiers with, 56–60
troubleshooting preamp with, 225
(See also Digital voltmeters [DVMs])
Voltage:
base, with reversed LED terminals, 110–112
base-emitter, 97
biasing, 158–159, 166, 184–185
cathode to anode voltage, 54–55, 55f
collector, 136
drop-out, 203–204, 206–208, 210–211
headroom, 112–114
maximum, 32, 35, 117, 171–172, 171t
RMS, 213
(See also DC voltage; Forward voltage; Peak reverse voltage [PRV])
Voltage divider circuits:
AC coupling a signal to trigger a pulse with, 325–327, 326f
in current source circuits, 102–103
Voltage divider circuits (continued):
for one-transistor amplifier, 130–131
power source for voltage follower from, 169, 171f
Voltage doubler circuit, 395–396, 395f
Voltage followers:
operational amplifiers, 164–171, 165f
Voltage regulation:
for DC power supply, 378
for operational amplifiers, 173–174
Voltage regulators, 201–211
drop-out voltage for, 203–204
of Dynaco PAT-5 preamp, 221–225, 222f, 223f
low–drop-out, 206–208, 210–211
packages and schematics, 204–205
pin out sequence, 204–206
7800 and 7900 series, 208–210
standard fixed voltage, 202–203
troubleshooting with, 211
Voltage sources, AC, LEDs with, 86–87
Voltage swing (see Output voltage swing)
Volt-ohm-milliamp meter (see Digital voltmeters (DVMs))
Washed out signal voltages, mixers with, 290
Watches, crystals for, 308
Wavelengths, turn-on voltages of LEDs and, 75–83
White LEDs:
physical characteristics, 72, 73f
schematic diagram, 80f
yellow phosphor of, 74–75, 74f, 75f
Wiring:
checking connections, 1
schematic diagram, 78f
Z setting, signal generator, 415
Zener diodes, 63–69
in current source circuits, 104–105, 104f
in preamps, 224
reversed connections for, 109–110, 110f
schematic symbol, 53, 53f, 65f
uses, 66–68
Zero bias mode, photodiode, 255f, 256
Zero calibration mode, DVM, 46–47
44.199.212.254