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Index

Please note that index links point to page beginnings from the print edition. Locations are approximate in e-readers, and you may need to page down one or more times after clicking a link to get to the indexed material.

Page numbers followed by f and t refer to figures and tables, respectively.

AA cell batteries, 17, 18

battery holders for, 18f–20f, 20

capacity of, 21

AAA cell batteries, 75–76

AC coupled output, from non-inverting gain amplifier, 185, 185f

AC coupling capacitors, for inverting gain amplifiers, 193–194, 194f

AC coupling methods, for triggering pulses, 325–327

AC output impedance, voltage follower, 170

AC signal conditions, SX-636 Pioneer power amplifier, 236–237

AC signal gain:

AM radio circuit, 375

and capacitors, 125, 126f

common emitter amplifier with series emitter resistor, 151

difference amplifier, 219

inverting gain amplifier, 192–193

non-inverting gain amplifier, 183–184

one-transistor amplifier, 124–129

and power supplies, 125, 126f

self-biasing amplifier, 140–144, 143f

voltage follower, 164

AC voltage sources, LEDs with, 86–87

Active band pass filter circuit, 250–254

Alkaline batteries, 17, 21

Aluminum capacitors, 3

AM radio, electrolytic capacitors, 370–375, 370f

Amplification factor, 215, 216

Amplifiers and amplifier circuits:

amplifier defined, 117

bridge amplifier, 345

cascading amplifiers, 285

common base amplifiers, 215–217

common emitter amplifier, 148–155, 215–217

difference amplifier, 214–221

discrete, 117–159

feedback amplifiers, 217–219, 373–375

high-input resistance amplifier, 284–285

IF filter-amplifier, 268, 269f

inverting gain amplifiers, 192–201

non-inverting gain amplifiers, 182–191

one-transistor amplifier, 120–135

push pull audio amplifier, 396–403, 397f–400f, 402f

self-biasing amplifier circuits, 135–147

switching Class D amplifier, 338–341, 339f

TLC272 amplifier, 173–175, 175f

trans-resistance amplifiers, 257–266

troubleshooting, 1

unity gain amplifier, 169, 170f

(See also Operational amplifiers (op amps); Power amplifiers; Pre-amplifiers [preamps])

Amplitude gain, 117

Amplitude range, one-transistor amplifier, 130–133

Analog integrated circuits, 161–211

active band pass filter circuit, 250–254

categories of problems, 241

high-gain op amp circuit for speaker amplifier, 247–249

operational amplifiers, 161–201

photodiode circuits, 254–257

preamp circuit for amplifying electric guitar pickups, 242–247

re-designing, 242–254

trans-resistance amplifiers, 257–266

troubleshooting, 241–266

voltage regulators, 201–211

Analog meters:

driving, 393–396, 393f–395f

testing diodes with, 58–60, 59f

Analog oscilloscopes, 416, 418, 418f

Analog signal generator kit, 422, 422f

Analog switch mixers, 270–276, 273f

Anode (see Connection terminals)

Anode to cathode voltage, diode, 54–55, 55f

Antennas and antenna coils, 274, 428

Antiparallel wiring, 87, 87f

Arleigh six-transistor radio, 397, 399f, 400–401, 400f

Astable mode of 555 circuit (see Oscillator mode of 555 circuit)

Audio circuits, 213–240

difference amplifier, 214–221

Dynaco PAT-5 preamp, 221–231

incorrect electrolytic capacitor use in, 370–375, 370f

incorrect use of electrolytic capacitor, 370–375

LM386 audio power amplifier, 354–356

preamp and power amp relationship, 213–214

SX-636 Pioneer power amplifier, 231–240

Audio transformers, suppliers, 428

Auto-ranging DVMs, 22–23, 23f

Axial lead capacitors, 33, 34, 34f

Bandwidth, oscilloscope, 416

Base resistance, one-transistor amplifier, 129

Base terminal of transistor:

identifying, 89, 90f, 91f, 92

long leads from, 114–115

open junction from, 92, 95, 95f

Base voltage, with reversed LED terminals, 110–112

Base-emitter voltage, 97

Batteries, 17–21

expected capacity, 21

for one-transistor amplifier, 121, 121f

operating voltage, 19–20

output voltage, 19t

safety considerations, 21

types, 17–18

Battery capacity, 17–18, 21

Battery chargers, 21

Battery connectors, 19–20, 20f

Battery holders, 18–19, 18f, 19f

BC prefix, transistor, 90

Biasing voltage:

common emitter amplifier with series emitter resistor, 158–159

protecting op amps from, 184–185

voltage follower, 166

Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs), 89–115

CMOS chips vs., 319–320

damaged, 92, 94–95

improving current source circuits, 101–107

insufficient headroom voltage for, 112–114

with long base leads, 114–115

providing constant current source with, 96–101

reversed component connections with, 107–112

schematic symbols of, 95–96, 96f

terminals of, 89–92

testing, 92–94

BJTs (see Bipolar junction transistors)

Blue LEDs, 72, 73f

current source circuit, 105

schematic diagram, 80f

turn-on voltage, 79, 79f, 80t

Bootstrap capacitor, 236

Breadboards, 7–15, 408

copper clad, 14–15, 15f

for light transceiver system, 356f

for light-sensing circuit, 350, 350f

perforated, 15, 15f

solderless, 7–14

suppliers of, 427

Bridge amplifier, 345

Brightness, photodiode, 255

C cell batteries, 76

Capacitance, 27–30

diode, 63

hold capacitor, 281–282, 281f

loading, crystals with, 307–308

measuring, 30–31, 31f, 35–36

oscillation due to, 261–262

rescaling, for preamps, 244–245

and size, 30, 30f–31f

tolerance, 28–29, 29f

Capacitance meter, 35–36, 36f

Capacitors, 27–36

AC coupling, 193–194, 194f

and AC signal gain, 125, 126f

adding, to prevent oscillation, 375

bootstrap, 236

built-in, ceramic resonator circuits with, 310

capacitance value of, 27–30, 29f–31f

for components kit, 347, 348

and crystal frequency, 312, 312t

decoupling, 354–355, 355f

in discrete amplifiers, 153–154

emitter bypass, 149, 149f

erroneously marked, 35

feedback filter, 313, 313f

hold, 86f, 87, 281–288

for inexpensive lab, 422

input coupling, 184–185, 185f

measuring capacitance of, 30–31, 31f, 35–36

of one-transistor amplifier, 120–121, 120f

polarized vs. non-polarized, 30–33, 32f, 33f, 35, 35f

for preamps, 243–244

radial and axial lead, 33–35, 34f

schematic symbols, 27, 28f, 29f, 33f

suppliers of, 427–429

variable, 428–429

(See also Electrolytic capacitors)

Carbon zinc batteries, 17, 21

Cascading applifiers, in sample-and-hold RF mixer circuit, 285

Cathode (see Connection terminals)

Cathode to anode voltage, diode, 54–55, 55f

Cen-Tech DVM, 24, 25f, 26

Ceramic capacitors, 28, 30, 31f, 36f, 211

Ceramic resonators, 304f, 308–316

CMOS (complementary metal oxide silicon) chips, 319–320

Coaxial cable, 421, 421f

Cold solder connections, 3, 4f

Collector current:

base-emitter voltage and, 97

collector voltage and, 136

in common emitter amplifier with series emitter resistor, 150

current gain and, 98, 128

for one-transistor amplifier, 121–123, 122f

in self-biasing amplifier, 137–138

in thermal-sensing circuit, 365–366

Collector terminal of transistor:

current gain for reversed lead, 94, 94f

identifying, 89, 90f, 91f, 92

shorted junction from, 92, 95

Collector voltage, collector current and, 136

Collector-base voltage, 112–114, 112f

Collector-to-emitter resistance, in power amplifiers, 237

Colpitts crystal oscillator, 382, 383f

Common base amplifiers, difference amplifier from, 215–217

Common emitter amplifier:

difference amplifier from, 215–217

with series emitter resistor, 148–155

two-transistor, 373f, 374

Common ground, breadboard, 10–11

Common lead, 407

Common mode input range, op amp, 179–181

Complementary metal oxide silicon (CMOS) chips, 319–320

Connection flags, schematics with too many, 388–392, 388f–390f, 392f

Connection terminals (anode and cathode):

diode, 49, 50f, 52f, 53f

LED, 72–73, 72f, 73f, 81f

rectifier, 49, 50f

reversing, for Zener diode, 67–69

Continuity tester, 11

Continuous power buses, 11, 11f, 13, 14f

Conversion gain, 276

Copper clad breadboards, 14–15, 15f

Coupled output, non-inverting gain amplifier, 185, 185f

Crystal oscillators, 304–309

Colpitts, 382, 383f

HC-49 crystals, 308–309

high-frequency, 308–309

with loading capacitance specifications, 307–308

low-frequency, 308

with missing ground connection, 378–381, 379f

overtone crystals, 316–318

in simple mixer SDR front-end circuits, 270, 271f

standard, 308

suppliers of, 428

Current:

DC base current of one-transistor amplifier, 121–123, 122f

drive, for LED, 71–72

emitter, 150, 234

excessive, in thermal-sensing circuit, 366–368, 366f, 367f

limiting of, for power supply, 411

(See also Collector current; Forward current [maximum conduction]; LED current; Maximum current)

Current gain:

collector current and, 98

LED, 99–100, 100f, 101f

transistor, 92–94, 93f, 94f

Current hogging, 88

Current source circuits:

with DC voltage applied to base of transistor, 96–101

headroom voltage limitations in, 112–114

improving, 101–107

Current-limiting resistors, 366–369, 367f, 378

Cut-off frequency, capacitor, 154

Cylindrical crystals, 304f, 308–309

D cell batteries, 76

Data sheets, manufacturer’s, 407

DC base current, one-transistor amplifier, 121–123, 122f

DC biasing conditions:

Dynaco PAT-5 preamp, 227–229, 228t

four-phase commutating mixer circuit, 293

improving, for band pass filter, 251–254, 251f

SX-636 Pioneer power amplifier, 234–236

DC current, for one-transistor amplifier, 121–124

DC power supply, improving circuit design for, 375–378, 376f

DC restoration circuit, 325–327, 326f

DC voltage:

in AM radio circuit, 373–375

applying, to base of transistor, 96–101

instrumentation amplifier, 296

inverting gain amplifier, 196

non-inverting gain amplifier, 185

one-transistor amplifier, 122f, 124

and output voltage swing, 156

self-biasing amplifier, 135–139

DC-to-DC converter circuits, 408–409

Decoupling capacitors, for LM386 audio power amplifier, 354–355, 355f

Difference amplifier, 214–221

from common emitter and base amplifiers, 215–217

emitter follower circuit, 219–221, 220f

feedback amplifier from, 217–219

Digital counter/divider chips, 292

Digital storage oscilloscopes (DSOs), 416–420, 417f

Digital voltmeters (DVMs):

auto-ranging, 22–23, 23f

capacitance measurements with, 30, 31f, 35–36, 36f

choosing, 348

diode and rectifier testing with, 56–58, 56f, 57f

in 555 pulse generator troubleshooting, 324

in inverting op amp circuit troubleshooting, 198–200

in light-sensing circuit troubleshooting, 351

low resistance measurements with, 44–47, 45f, 46f

in non-inverting op amp circuit troubleshooting, 189–191

photodiode testing with, 256–257, 257f

resistance measurements with, 40–44, 42f–44f

resistance of leads for, 44, 45f

selecting, 21–26

transistor testing with, 92–94

for troubleshooting, 406–407

with zero calibration mode, 46–47

Diodes, 49–70

forward conduction and reverse voltage non-conduction of, 54–55

general rules, 69–70

for inexpensive lab, 422

large-signal, 51–52, 51t–52t

protection, 87, 87f

Schottky, 53, 54, 60–63

suppliers of, 427, 428

testing, with volt meters, 56–60

for thermal-sensing circuit, 366, 367f

types and characteristics, 49–54

(See also Light-emitting diodes [LEDs]; Photodiodes and photodiode circuits; Zener diodes)

DIP (dual inline packages), op amp, 163, 164f

Direct Digital Synthesis (DSS) technology, 414, 415f

Discrete amplifier circuits, 117–159

common emitter amplifier with series emitter resistor, 148–155

one-transistor amplifier, 118–135

self-biasing amplifier, 135–147

transistor specifications, 117–118

Display resolution, oscilloscope, 417–420

Distortion:

in common emitter amplifier with series emitter resistor, 154–155

in high-gain op amp circuit, 247–249, 247f

in one-transistor amplifier, 130–133, 131f–133f, 132t

in self-biased amplifier, 146, 147f

Dr. Meter HY3005-3, 413

Drive current, LED, 71–72

Drop-out voltage:

low–drop-out voltage regulators, 206–208, 210–211

for voltage regulators, 203–204

DSOs (digital storage oscilloscopes), 416–420, 417f

DT832 DVM, 22

DT9205B DVM, 24, 24f, 25f

Dual inline packages (DIP), op amp, 163, 164f

Dual linear power supply, 413

Dual op amps, 300, 301f

Duty cycle, 281, 346

DVMs (see Digital voltmeters)

Dynaco PAT-5 preamp, 221–231

AC analysis, 229–230

DC bias point estimates, 227–229

low-level preamp section, 221, 222f, 224, 226f, 227–230

power supply–voltage regulator section, 221–225, 222f, 223f

troubleshooting, 224–225, 230–231

Dynamic microphones, preamps for, 3 59–361, 360f

Electret condenser microphones (ECMs), preamps for, 360f, 361

Electric guitar, amplifying pickups in, 242–247

Electrolytic capacitors:

for components kit, 348

good vs. bad, 3, 3f

incorrect use of, 370–375

non-polarized, 32, 35, 35f

power dissipation in, 371, 372

radial and axial lead, 33–35, 33f, 34f

replacing, 2–3

reverse biasing of, 370–372

in voltage follower, 166, 169

Electronic components:

kits of, 347–349

reversed connections between transistors and, 107–112

specifications/limitations of, 2

suppliers of, 427–428

for troubleshooting, 1, 407

verifying values of, 2

(See also specific types)

Electronics tools suppliers, 427

Emitter bypass capacitor, 149, 149f

Emitter current:

in common emitter amplifier with series emitter resistor, 150

tail current for power amplifier, 234

Emitter followers:

for DC power supply, 376–378, 377f

of difference amplifier, 219–221, 220f

in light transceiver system, 356, 357f

Emitter series resistors, in current source circuits, 101–104, 101f

Emitter terminal of transistor:

current gain for reversed lead, 94, 94f

identifying, 89, 90f, 91f, 92

open junction to, 92, 95, 95f

shorted junction to, 92, 95

Excessive current, in thermal-sensing circuit, 366–368, 366f, 367f

Extech DVM, 22, 22f

Extech MN26 DVM, 23, 23f, 26

External biasing resistor, 372–373

Farad (unit), 27, 28, 30, 33

Feedback amplifiers:

from difference amplifier, 217–219

electrolytic capacitors in, 373–375

Feedback current source circuit, op amp, 180–181, 181f

Feedback filter capacitor, in crystal circuits, 313, 313f

Feedback loop, of four-phase commutating mixer circuit, 302–303

Ferrite beads, 382–386, 383f–385f

Field effect transistors (FETs), 182–183, 284, 427

Film capacitors, 28

555 circuits, 319–346

AC coupling methods to trigger pulses, 325–327

driving motors via pulse-width modulation with, 328–345

in high-voltage converter, 332–337

oscillator/astable mode, 329–337, 346

pulse generator/monostable mode, 321–346

with strange output signals on oscilloscope, 328–329

timer chips, 319–321, 328–329, 346

Five-band resistors, 38, 39f, 40

Fixed 10X probes, 420

Fixed value inductors, 427

Flashlights, LED, 71, 72, 75–76, 76f

Fluke 174 DVM, 24, 25f

Forward active region, transistor, 105

Forward current (maximum conduction):

LED, 78, 80–81, 86

Shottky diode, 61t

standard diode and rectifier, 49, 51t–52t

Forward voltage:

effects of, 54–55, 55f

measuring, for standard diodes, 56–60, 57f, 59f

of Shottky vs. standard diodes, 61–62, 61f, 62f

4-channel oscilloscopes, 416, 417f

Four-band resistors, 37–38, 37f, 39f

Four-phase commutating mixer circuit, 288–293

basic configuration, 288–289

DC bias conditions, 293

with feedback loop for op amp, 302–303

improving, 290, 291f

instrumentation amplifiers for, 296–302

operation, 289–290

systems approach to, 304

testing, with RF or function generator, 293–296

troubleshooting, 290, 292, 293f

Frequency, crystal, 312, 312t

Frequency divider, 555 oscillator with, 330, 331f

Full-wave rectifier circuit, analog meter, 393, 394f

Function generator, testing commutating mixer with, 293–296

Gated oscillating waveform, for 555 pulse generator circuit, 328–329, 328f

General Electric P-716A transistor radio, 397, 397f, 398f, 401, 402f

General Tools and Instrument TS04 DVM, 23, 23f

Germanium diodes, 62, 63f

Glass body diodes, 52–53, 53f

Glitch kickback, 275

Green LEDs, 72, 72f

paralleled with red LED, 84–85, 84f, 85f

schematic diagram, 78f

turn-on voltage, 77f, 77t, 81–83, 82f

variations in color, 81–83

Ground connection:

common emitter amplifier, 156–157

missing, crystal oscillator with, 378–381

power supply, 411

Half-wave rectifiers:

in analog meters, 393, 394f

with LEDs, 86, 86f

for voltage regulation, 202–203, 202f, 203f

Ham radio circuits, 267–318

ceramic resonators, 308–316

crystal oscillators, 304–309

diode detectors for crystal radios, 62

four-phase commutating mixer circuit, 288–293

parts suppliers, 428–429

sample-and-hold RF mixer circuit, 279–288

software defined radio circuits, 267–278

Hantek oscilloscopes, 416, 417, 417f, 419f, 420, 420f, 423f

HC-49/S and HC-49/U crystals, 308–309

Headroom voltage, for bipolar junction transistors, 112–114

Heat sinks, 90, 91f

High frequency ceramic resonators, 309

High-frequency circuits:

breadboards for, 14, 14f

diodes for, 63

High-frequency cylindrical crystals, 308–309

High-gain op amp circuit, for speaker amplifier, 247–249

High-input resistance amplifier, 284–285

High-voltage converter, 332–337, 335f, 336f

Hold capacitors:

buffering or amplifying voltage across, 285f

connecting, to inverting gain amplifiers, 285–288, 286f

large-value, 282–284, 283t

parasitic oscillations caused by, 287–288, 287f

peak hold capacitors with LEDs, 86f, 87

pulse response and capacitance values of, 281–282

Hysteresis effect, 368

I phase signal, 268

ICs (see Integrated circuits)

IF filter-amplifier, 268, 269f

IF (intermediate frequency) signals, low-pass filters for, 268–270

IF transformers, 428

Impedance:

signal generator, 415

voltage follower, 170

INA163 instrumentation op amp, 267f, 296

In-circuit testing, of diodes, 60

Independent sectors, breadboard, 11, 12f

Indicator lamps, LED, 71, 72

Inductance capacitance meter, 348

Inductors, 348, 427, 428

Input amplitude range, one-transistor amplifier, 130–133

Input bias resistors, 182–183

Input coupling capacitors, 184–185, 185f

Input leads, reversed, trans-resistance amplifier with, 265–266

Input resistance:

common emitter amplifier with series emitter resistor, 150–152

inverting gain amplifier, 193

low, inverting gain op amp circuits with, 285–288

one-transistor amplifier, 124–128

self-biasing amplifier, 139–144

voltage follower, 166, 169

Input signal range, operational amplifier, 179–181

Input terminal, op amp, 302–303, 302f

Input voltage, 555 pulse generator, 323, 323t

Input waveform, 555 pulse generator, 321, 322f, 328, 329f

Instek GW GPC-3020, 413

Instrumentation amplifiers, 296–302

Integrated circuits (ICs):

pinout differences, 2

socket types, 405–406, 406f

suppliers, 427, 428

(See also Analog integrated circuits; 555 circuits)

Intermediate frequency (IF) signals, low-pass filters for, 268–270

Inverting gain amplifiers, 192–201

about, 200–201

AC analysis, 193–196

connecting hold capacitors to, 285–288, 286f

DC analysis, 196f–198f, 198–198

function, 192

troubleshooting, 198–200

Inverting voltage follower, 265, 265f

ISL28218 op amp, 179

JFET suppliers, 427

JPS-6600 signal generator, 414, 415f

Jumper wire connectors, breadboard, 8f, 9

“K” (on capacitors), 29

KeySight oscilloscopes, 416f, 417, 417f, 420

KeySight UI232 DVM, 24, 25f

KeySight UI232A DVM, 46–47, 46f

Large-signal diodes and rectifiers, 51–52, 51t–52t

Large-value hold capacitors, 282–284, 283t

LDO (low–drop-out) voltage regulators, 206–208, 210–211

LDRs (see Light-dependent resistors)

Leader LPS-152, 413

Leads:

battery holders with, 19, 19f

bipolar junction transistor, 114–115

capacitor, 33–35, 33f, 34f

reversing, when testing diodes, 56, 57f, 59–60

trans-resistance amplifier, 265–266

LED constant current source drive circuit:

common emitter amplifier with series emitter resistor from, 148–150, 148f

one-transistor amplifier from, 118–120, 119f

LED current:

and current gain for transistors, 99–100, 100f, 101f

in current source circuits, 101–104, 101f, 106–107

forward, 78, 80–81, 86

LEDs (see Light-emitting diodes)

Lexon DVM, 22–24, 22f

Light output, LED, 71–75

Light sensors, 341, 342f

Light transceiver system, 356–361

microphone pre-amplifiers, 359–361, 360f

photodiode, 358, 359f

receiver circuit, 356–358, 356f, 357f

transmitter circuit, 356–358, 356f, 357f

Light-dependent resistors (LDRs):

in light-sensing circuit, 349–351, 349f

variations in, 353–354, 353f

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs), 71–88

key points, 88

light output, 71–75

in light transceiver system, 356–357

in light-sensing circuit, 349–354

minimum turn-on voltages, 75–81

paralleled, with different turn-on voltages, 83–85

protecting, from reverse voltage damage, 86–87

reversed connections for, 107–108, 107f, 110–112, 110f, 111f

suppliers, 427, 428

in thermal-sensing circuit, 365, 368

transistor current source for, 99–100, 99f

troubleshooting 555 oscillator with, 329f, 330, 346

as voltage reference, 105–107, 106f

(See also specific colors)

Light-sensing circuit, 349–354

adding resistor to, 352–353

circuit board, 350, 350f

light-dependent resistor, 349–351, 349f, 353–354

schematic, 351f

transistors, 350–351

troubleshooting, 351

Linear Integrated Systems, 427

Linear power supplies, 411–413, 412f, 414f

Line-level preamps, 214

Lithium batteries, 21

LM358 op amp, 175–178, 176f–178f

LM386 op amp:

in audio power amplifier, 354–356, 354f

characteristics, 174–175

in light transceiver system, 356–361, 356f

LM386N-1 op amp, 354, 355

LM386N-4 op amp, 354, 355

LM555 integrated circuit, 320–321, 320f (See also 555 circuits)

LM741 op amp, 162–163, 162f, 179

LM1458 photodiode preamp, 260–261, 260f

LM2940 series low–drop-out voltage regulators:

characteristics, 206, 207, 207f

mishaps with, 210–211

LM2990 series low–drop-out voltage regulators:

characteristics, 206, 207, 207f

mishaps with, 210–211

Load resistance value, preamp, 231

Loading capacitance, crystals with, 307–308

Logic circuits:

breadboards for, 15, 15f

crystal oscillator for driving, 310–311, 310f

with shunt regulator circuits, 69

Logic inversion, signal, 340–341

Low frequency ceramic resonators, 309

Low leakage electrolytic capacitors, 372

Low self-discharge batteries, 17–18, 21

Low–drop-out (LDO) voltage regulators, 206–208, 210–211

Low-frequency cylindrical crystals, 308

Low-noise transistors, 427

Low-pass filter amplifier, mixer circuit with, 270–276

Low-pass filters, SDR circuits with, 268–270

Lumens (unit), 255

Luminous intensity, LED, 71–75

Manganese batteries, 17, 21

Manual-range DVMs, 22–24, 24f

Matching network approach, 304

Maximum current:

collector current of transistors, 97, 117

output current for operational amplifiers, 174–178

Zener diode, 64–65, 64t

Maximum output voltage swing:

common emitter amplifier with series emitter resistor, 155–158

one-transistor amplifier, 133–134

optimum bias point for, 158–159

Maximum voltage:

for capacitors, 32, 35

collector-to-emitter voltage of transistors, 117

of op amp power supply, 171–172, 171t

MC3403P photodiode preamp, 260–261, 260f

Memory points, oscilloscope, 417–420

Metal case transistors, 91–92, 91f

Micronta analog VOM, 59–60, 59f

Microphone pre-amplifiers, 213, 359–361, 360f

Minimum voltage:

for op amp power supply, 172–173, 172t

turn-on voltage for LEDs, 75–81

Mixer circuits:

with analog switch mixers, 270–276

four-phase commutating mixer circuit, 288–293

with RF band-pass filter, analog switch mixers, and low-pass filter amplifier, 270–276, 273f

sample-and-hold RF mixer circuit, 279–288

Monostable mode of 555 circuits (see Pulse generator mode of 555 circuit)

Motors, pulse-width modulation to drive, 328–345

NE555 integrated circuits (see 555 circuits)

Negative cycle duration, for triggering pulse output signals, 325

Negative feedback, self-biasing amplifier, 135–136

Negative lead, capacitor, 33, 33f, 34f

Negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermosistor, 363

Negative voltage regulators, 204, 204f, 208–210

Nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries, 17

Nickel metal hydride (NiMh) batteries, 17, 18, 21

9-volt battery holders, 20, 20f

NJM4556 op amp, 175, 176f

Noise reduction:

on power supply bus, 403–405, 403f–405f

in preamps, 245–247

Non-inverting gain amplifiers, 182–191

about, 200–201

AC analysis, 183–186

DC analysis, 186–189, 187f, 188f

for preamps, 246–247, 246f

troubleshooting, 189–191

Non-polarized capacitors, 30

electrolytic, 32, 35, 35f

schematic symbol, 28f, 33f

Non-retriggerable one-shot (see pulse generator mode of 555 circuit)

NPN transistors, 93, 95–97, 96f

NTC (negative temperature coefficient) thermosistor, 363

Ohm (unit), 37

Ohm meter:

breadboard continuity testing with, 11

confirming ground connection with, 380, 381

digital voltmeter as, 21

diode testing with, 58, 58f

resistance measurements with, 37, 40

for troubleshooting, 406

One-transistor amplifier, 120–135

AC signal gain, 124–129

base resistance, 129

DC analysis of capacitors, 120–121

DC current and voltage calculations, 121–124

input amplitude range, 130–133

from LED constant current source drive circuit, 118–120

limitations, 129, 130f

output voltage swing, 133–134

troubleshooting, 135

One-transistor crystal oscillator, 310–311, 310f

OPA2134 op amp, 276

Open base to emitter junction, transistor, 92, 95, 95f

Open loop gain, difference amplifier, 219

Operating voltage, battery connectors and, 19–20, 20f

Operational amplifiers (op amps), 161–201

characteristics and uses, 161–162

four-phase commutating mixer circuit with feedback loop for, 302–303

high-gain op amp circuit for speaker amplifier, 247–249

input signal range, 179–181

inverting gain amplifiers, 192–201

maximum output current, 174–178

maximum power supply voltage, 171–172

meter circuits and, 396

minimum power supply voltage, 172–173

non-inverting gain amplifiers, 182–191, 200–201

output voltage range, 179

packages and pin outs, 162–164

rail to rail, 173, 179

replacing, in trans-resistance amplifiers, 257–261

voltage followers, 164–171

voltage regulation for, 173–174

(See also specific types)

Optimal biasing voltage, for common emitter amplifier with series emitter resistor, 158–159

Oscillation:

parasitic (see Parasitic oscillation)

in trans-resistance amplifiers, 261–262

Oscillator coils, 428

Oscillator (astable) mode of 555 circuit, 321

driving speakers with, 332

as high-voltage converter, 332–337

troubleshooting, 329–331, 346

Oscillators, crystal (see Crystal oscillators)

Oscilloscopes:

analog, 416, 418, 418f

choosing, 348, 415–417

for circuit with missing ground connection, 378, 380, 380f, 381f

digital storage, 416–420, 417f

discrete amplifier troubleshooting with, 153

display resolution and number of memory points, 417–420

4-channel, 416, 417f

inexpensive, 422, 423f

inverting op amp circuit troubleshooting with, 198–200

non-inverting op amp circuit troubleshooting with, 189–191

preamp troubleshooting with, 230–231

probes, 420–421, 421f

SDR circuit troubleshooting with, 277–278

strange output signals from 555 timer chips on, 328–329

2-channel, 416, 416f

USB, 422, 423f

(See also specific manufacturers)

Output resistance:

calculating, 144–147

common emitter amplifier with series emitter resistor, 152

inverting gain amplifier, 193

self-biasing amplifier, 143–147

signal generator, 415

Output voltage:

555 pulse generator circuit, 323, 323t

by battery type and cell number, 19t

operational amplifiers, 179

Output voltage swing:

one-transistor amplifier, 133–134

in self-biasing amplifier, 138–139, 138f

(See also Maximum output voltage swing)

Output waveform, pulse generator mode of 555 circuit, 321, 322f, 328, 329f

Overtone crystals, 316–318, 317f

Parallel wiring:

of diodes, 69

of LEDs, 83–85, 88

Parasitic oscillation:

adding capacitors to prevent, 375

ferrite beads to prevent, 382–386, 383f–385f

hold capacitors as cause of, 287–288, 287f

in preamps, 231

series base resistors to prevent, 114–115, 115f, 384, 384f, 386f

in transistor LED circuits, 114–115, 115f

PAT-5 preamp (see Dynaco PAT-5 preamp)

Peak hold capacitors, with LEDs, 86f, 87

Peak reverse voltage (PRV):

Shottky diode, 60, 61t

standard diode and rectifier, 49, 51, 51t–52t

Zener diode, 64, 64t

Perforated breadboards, 15, 15f

Phase inversions, fixing trans-resistance amplifiers with, 263–265

Phonograph pick up cartridges, preamps in, 214

Phosphors, of LEDs, 74–75, 74f, 75f

Photodiodes and photodiode circuits, 254f

in light transceiver system, 357f, 358, 359f

reverse connections to trans-resistance amplifiers, 262–263

suppliers, 427

trans-resistance amplifiers in, 257–266, 258f

troubleshooting, 254–257

Pi filter, 404, 404f

Pickups, electric guitar, 242–247

Pioneer power amplifier (see SX-636 Pioneer power amplifier)

Plastic package transistors, 90–92, 90f, 91f

PNP transistors, 93, 95–96, 96f

Point contact transistors, 89

Polarity:

capacitor, 33–35, 33f–35f

resistors and, 37, 49

semiconductor, 49

Polarized capacitors, 32, 32f, 33f

Positive feedback, in trans-resistance amplifiers, 263

Positive lead, capacitor, 33, 33f, 34f

Positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermosistor, 363

Positive voltage regulators, 204, 204f, 208–210

Potentiometer, of thermal-sensing circuit, 363, 363f

Power amplifiers:

LM386 audio power amplifier, 354–356

relationship of preamp and, 213–214

SX-636 Pioneer power amplifier, 231–240

Power buses (breadboard), 8, 8f

breaks in power bus lines, 10–13, 10f–12f

confirming continuity of, 13–14

connecting, 11, 12f, 13f

Power dissipation:

with incorrect use of electrolytic capacitor, 371, 372

in thermal-sensing circuit, 366–368, 366f, 367f

of transistor, 117–118

Power supplies:

and AC signal gain, 125, 126f

checking, 1, 21, 407

choosing, 348, 411–414

DC, improving circuit design for, 375–378, 376f

Dynaco PAT-5 preamp, 221–225, 222f, 223f

inexpensive, 422

linear, 411–413, 412f, 414f

LM386 audio power amplifier, 355

one-transistor amplifier, 135

op amp, 173–174

reducing noise from, 245–247, 403–405, 403f–405f

Power supply rejection, emitter follower, 220221

Power supply voltage, op amp, 171–173, 172t

Power transistors, 90, 90f, 92

Pre-amplifiers (preamps):

for amplifying electric guitar pickups, 242–247

Dynaco PAT-5 preamp, 221–231

microphone, 213, 359–361, 360f

relationship of power amp and, 213–214

Precision resistors, 40, 41f

Primary cells, 17, 21

Probe compensation tool, 421, 421f

Probes, oscilloscope, 420–421, 421f

Protection diodes for LEDs, 87, 87f

PRV (see Peak reverse voltage)

PTC (positive temperature coefficient) thermosistor, 363

Pull-down or pull-up resistors, in op amps, 177–178, 177f, 178f

Pulse generator (monostable) mode of 555 circuit:

AC coupling methods to trigger pulses, 325–327

characteristics and value ranges, 321–323

driving motors via pulse-width modulation with, 328–345

schematic, 325f

troubleshooting, 324, 346

Pulse response, hold capacitor, 281–282, 281f

Pulse-width modulation, 321, 328–345

Push pull audio amplifier, 396–403, 397f–400f, 402f

Q phase signal, 268

Radial lead capacitors, 33, 33f

Radio band, span of tuning across, 283–284

Radio-frequency circuits, diodes for, 63

Radios:

AM, electrolytic capacitors of, 370–375, 370f

Arleigh six-transistor radio, 397, 399f, 400–401, 400f

General Electric P-716A radio, 397, 397f, 398f, 401, 402f

software defined radio circuits, 267–278

superhet, 267–268, 268f

transistor, 396–403, 397f–400f, 402f

(See also Ham radio circuits)

Rail to rail op amps, 173, 179

RC4136 op amp, 252

Receiver circuit, light transceiver system, 356–358, 356f, 357f

Rechargeable batteries, 17, 18, 21

Rectifiers:

full-wave, 393, 394f

large-signal, 51–52, 51t–52t

with LEDs, 86, 86f, 87

testing, with volt meters, 56–60

types and characteristics, 49–54

(See also Half-wave rectifiers)

Red LEDs, 72, 72f, 73f

in current source circuit, 105–106, 106f

forward current, 78

paralleled with green LED, 84–85, 84f, 85f

schematic diagram, 78f, 80f

turn-on voltage, 77f, 77t, 79, 79f, 80t

Relays, 555 chips with, 320

Resistance:

555 pulse generator circuit, 322–323, 323t

base, for one-transistor amplifier, 129

collector-to-emitter, in power amplifiers, 237

load, in preamps, 231

low, 44–47

measuring, 40–47, 42f–44f

rescaling, for preamps, 244–245

source, in sample-and-hold RF circuit, 279

temperature vs., 364t, 365

tolerance, 37, 37f, 38, 40

for voltage divider circuit, 103–104

in Zener diode current source circuits, 104–105

(See also Input resistance; Output resistance)

Resistor(s), 37–47

in analog meter circuits, 394f, 395

for components kit, 347

current-limiting, 366–369, 367f, 378

emitter series, 101–104, 101f

external biasing, 372–373

function, 27

input bias, 182–183

light-dependent, 349–351, 349f, 353–354, 353f

for light-sensing circuits, 352–353

with low resistance values, 44–47

measuring resistance values, 40–47

paralleled LEDs with a single, 83–85, 84f, 85f

polarity and, 37, 49

precision, 40, 41f

pull-down or pull-up, 177–178, 177f, 178f

reading color codes, 37–40, 37f, 39f, 40f

schematic symbols, 37f, 39f

series, LEDs with, 83, 83f

series emitter resistor circuit, 148–155

series input resistor, 143–144, 143f

suppliers of, 427, 428

for thermal-sensing circuits, 366, 367f

thermosistors and, 362f, 364f

Zener diodes in series with, 66–68, 66f

(See also Series base resistors)

Resonators, ceramic, 304f, 308–316

Reverse bias mode:

electrolytic capacitor in, 370–372

LEDs connected in, 107–108, 107f

in light transceiver system, 358

photodiode in, 255f, 256

Reverse voltage:

for diodes, 54–55

protecting LEDs from, 86–88

RF band-pass filter:

mixer circuit with, 270–276, 273f

for superhet radio, 268, 269

RF input signal, 275–276, 275f, 276f

RF mixers:

square-wave, 272

switch mode, 278

Tayloe, 268, 268f

(See also Sample-and-hold RF mixer circuit)

RF transistors, 293–296, 428

RIAA phono equalization curve, 229–230

Rigol oscilloscopes, 416f, 418–420, 418f–420f

Ripple noise, power supply, 412, 413f

RMS voltages, 213

Sample-and-hold RF mixer circuit, 279–288

cascading amplifiers in, 285

high input resistance amplifier, 284–285

inverting gain op amps with low input resistance, 285–288

with large-value hold capacitor, 282–284

modeling and characteristics of, 279–281

pulse response and capacitance values of hold capacitor, 281–282

Saturation, transistor, 105, 113, 114, 152–153

Schematics:

complicated, deciphering, 388–392, 388f–390f, 392f

finding, 387–388, 403

(See also specific components)

Schmitt Trigger input, 338

Schottky diodes, 60–63

function, 54, 60

other diodes vs., 61–63, 61f–63f

schematic symbol, 53, 53f

Science kits, suppliers of, 429

SDR circuits (see Software defined radio circuits)

Self-biasing amplifier circuits, 135–147

AC analysis of, 139–144

DC analysis of, 136–139

negative feedback to build, 135–136

output resistance for, 144–147

Semiconductors, 49, 51 (See also specific types, e.g. diodes)

Separated power buses, 10–11, 10f

Series base resistors:

in bipolar junction transistors, 97–100, 97f, 99f, 100f

in one-transistor amplifiers, 131–132

preventing parasitic oscillation with, 114–115, 115f, 384, 384f, 386f

Series emitter resistor circuit, common emitter amplifier with, 148–155

Series input resistor, AC signal gain and, 143–144, 143f

Series resistor-capacitor snubbing network, 354–356

Series resonant crystals, 308

Service manuals, 387–388

7800 and 7900 series voltage regulators, 208–210

Short body small signal diodes, 52, 52t

Short-circuits:

collector to emitter junction of transistor, 92, 95

power bus continuity and, 13

Shunt regulator circuits, 68–69, 68f

Siglent SDG2042 signal generator, 415, 415f

Signal detection, with superhet radio, 268

Signal gain (see AC signal gain)

Signal generators:

555 pulse generator troubleshooting with, 324

analog signal generator kit, 422, 422f

choosing, 348, 414–415

inverting op amp circuit troubleshooting with, 198–200

non-inverting op amp circuit troubleshooting with, 189–191

preamp troubleshooting with, 230–231

Silicon diodes, 60–62, 61f, 62f

Single power supply inverting gain amplifier, 195–196, 195f

Single power supply non-inverting gain amplifier, 185–186, 186f

Single-gate inverter crystal oscillator, 313–316, 315f

Single-inverter gate oscillator, 305f, 306

Single-supply two-transistor amplifier, 216

Small signal diodes:

characteristics, 50f, 51–52, 51t, 52t

Shottky diodes vs., 62, 62f

Small-signal transistors, 90, 90f

Software defined radio (SDR) circuits, 267–278

with low-pass filters for IF signals, 268–270

mixer circuit with RF band-pass filter, analog switch mixers, and low-pass filter amplifier, 270–276, 273f

superhet radio, 267–268

troubleshooting, 277–278

Solder connections:

in circuit-building process, 2

cold, 3, 4f

equipment/supplies required for, 348–349, 427

in troubleshooting process, 1

Solderless breadboards, 7–14

breaks in power bus lines on, 10–13

components, 7–8, 8f

confirming power bus continuity, 13–14

high- vs. low-quality, 8–10, 9f

Source resistance, in sample-and-hold RF circuit, 279

Source resistance generator, 278

Speaker buzzer, thermal-sensing circuit, 369–370, 370f

Speakers:

driving, with 555 oscillator circuit, 332, 333f

high-gain op amp circuit for, 247–249

power output, 373–374

troubleshooting 555 oscillator with, 329f, 330, 346

SPICE program, 229

Square-wave RF mixers, 272

Super capacitors, 33

Superhet radio, 267–268, 268f

Switch mixers, analog, 270–276, 273f

Switch mode RF mixer, 278

Switchable 1X–10X probes, 420, 421, 421f

Switching Class D amplifier, 338–341, 339f

Switching (switch mode) power supplies:

choosing, 411–413, 412f

ripple from, 412, 413f

SX-636 Pioneer power amplifier, 231–240

AC signal conditions, 236–237

DC biasing conditions, 234–236

schematics, 232f–233f, 238f

troubleshooting, 237–240

Tabs, breadboard, 7, 8f

Tape form:

of diodes, 69, 69f

of LEDs, 85, 85f, 88

Tayloe RF mixer, 268, 268f

Tektronix oscilloscopes, 416, 418f

Temperature, resistance vs., 364t, 365

Terminals, bipolar junction transistor, 89–92

Test equipment, 411–423

inexpensive, 422–423

kits, 347–349

minimal, for troubleshooting, 393–406

oscilloscopes, 415–421

power supplies, 411–414

signal generators, 414–415

in troubleshooting process, 1

Thermal-sensing circuit, 361–370

adding current-limiting resistors, 366–369, 367f

adding diodes and resistors, 366, 367f

design problems, 356–366

potentiometer of, 363, 363f

speaker buzzer polarity, 369–370, 370f

thermosistor of, 361–365, 362f, 364f

Thermosistor, 361–365, 362f, 364f

Thevenin series inductance, 317

Three-terminal ceramic resonator, 305f, 306–307

Timer chips:

bipolar transistor vs. CMOS chips, 319–320

modes and pin outs, 320–321, 320f

output signals on oscilloscope from, 328–329

troubleshooting, 346

TLC272 amplifier, 173–175, 175f, 179

TLC555 integrated circuit, 320–321, 320f

TO-5 transistors, 91, 91f

TO-18 transistors, 91, 91f, 93f

TO-92 transistors, 90, 90f, 109

TO-92 voltage regulators, 204, 204f, 205, 206f

TO-220 transistors, 90, 90f, 91f

TO-220 voltage regulators, 204, 204f, 205, 206f

TO-247 transistors, 90, 90f

Total gain, in difference amplifier, 219

Transformers:

in analog meter circuits, 394f, 395

suppliers of, 427, 428

Transistor amplifiers (see discrete amplifier circuits)

Transistor radios:

Arleigh six-transistor radio, 397, 399f, 400–401, 400f

General Electric P-716A, 397, 397f, 398f, 401, 402f

push pull audio amplifier in, 396–403, 397f–400f, 402f

Transistors:

biasing, 96–100, 97f, 99f, 100f

for common emitter amplifier with series emitter resistor, 148–155

for components kit, 347

field effect, 182–183, 284, 427

of light-sensing circuit, 350–351

low-noise, 427

metal case, 91–92, 91f

NPN, 93, 95–97, 96f

one-transistor crystal oscillator, 310–311, 310f

plastic package, 90–92, 90f, 91f

PNP, 93, 95–96, 96f

point contact, 89

power, 90, 90f, 92

replacing, for power amplifier, 239–240

reversed connections for, 108–109, 108f

RF, 293–296, 428

single-supply two-transistor amplifier, 216

small-signal, 90, 90f

specifications, for discrete amplifier circuits, 117–118

suppliers of, 427, 428

two-transistor common emitter amplifier, 373f, 374

(See also Bipolar junction transistors [BJTs]; One-transistor amplifier; specific models)

Transmitter circuit, light transceiver system, 356–358, 356f, 357f

Transmitting antenna, 330

Trans-resistance amplifiers, 257–266, 258f

oscillation due to capacitance in, 261–262

phase inversions to fix, 263–265

with photodiodes connected in reverse, 262–263

replacing op amps in, 257–261

with reversed input leads, 265–266

Triple linear power supply, 413, 414f

Triplett 310 analog ohm meter, 58, 60

Troubleshooting (general), 1

example circuits, 403

minimal test equipment for, 393–406

requirements for, 406–409

schematics and service manuals for, 387–388

True RMS measurement system, DVM, 24

Tuning span, across radio band, 283–284

Turn-on voltages:

LED, 75–85, 88

transistor, 97

2-channel oscilloscopes, 416, 416f

2N3904 NPN transistor, 117–118

Two-gate oscillator circuit, 305f, 306

Two-transistor common emitter amplifier, 373f, 374

U2A and U2B op amps, 162f, 163

U3A, U3B, U3C, and U3D op amps, 162f, 163

UA890C DVM, 24, 24f

Unity gain compensated op amps, 200–201

USB oscilloscopes, 422, 423f

Variable capacitors, suppliers of, 428–429

Variable frequency oscillator (VFO), 296

Vector breadboard, 15

Volt meter, 406

testing diodes and rectifiers with, 56–60

troubleshooting preamp with, 225

(See also Digital voltmeters [DVMs])

Voltage:

anode to cathode, 54–55, 55f

base, with reversed LED terminals, 110–112

base-emitter, 97

biasing, 158–159, 166, 184–185

cathode to anode voltage, 54–55, 55f

collector, 136

collector-base, 112–114, 112f

drop-out, 203–204, 206–208, 210–211

headroom, 112–114

input, 323, 323t

maximum, 32, 35, 117, 171–172, 171t

minimum, 75–81, 172–173, 172t

output, 19t, 179, 323, 323t

reverse, 54–55, 86–88

RMS, 213

turn-on, 75–85, 88, 97

Zener, 64, 64t

(See also DC voltage; Forward voltage; Peak reverse voltage [PRV])

Voltage divider circuits:

AC coupling a signal to trigger a pulse with, 325–327, 326f

in current source circuits, 102–103

Voltage divider circuits (continued):

for one-transistor amplifier, 130–131

power source for voltage follower from, 169, 171f

Voltage doubler circuit, 395–396, 395f

Voltage followers:

inverting, 265, 265f

operational amplifiers, 164–171, 165f

Voltage regulation:

for DC power supply, 378

for operational amplifiers, 173–174

Voltage regulators, 201–211

drop-out voltage for, 203–204

of Dynaco PAT-5 preamp, 221–225, 222f, 223f

low–drop-out, 206–208, 210–211

negative, 204, 204f, 208–210

packages and schematics, 204–205

pin out sequence, 204–206

positive, 204, 204f, 208–210

7800 and 7900 series, 208–210

standard fixed voltage, 202–203

troubleshooting with, 211

Voltage sources, AC, LEDs with, 86–87

Voltage swing (see Output voltage swing)

Volt-ohm-milliamp meter (see Digital voltmeters (DVMs))

Washed out signal voltages, mixers with, 290

Watches, crystals for, 308

Wavelengths, turn-on voltages of LEDs and, 75–83

Wells, breadboard, 8–10, 9f

White LEDs:

physical characteristics, 72, 73f

schematic diagram, 80f

turn-on voltage, 79, 79f, 80t

yellow phosphor of, 74–75, 74f, 75f

Wiring:

antiparallel, 87, 87f

checking connections, 1

parallel, 69, 83–85, 88

Yellow LEDs, 72, 72f

schematic diagram, 78f

turn-on voltage, 77f, 77t

Z setting, signal generator, 415

Zener diodes, 63–69

characteristics, 64–65, 65t

in current source circuits, 104–105, 104f

function, 54, 63–64

labeling, 65–66, 65f

in preamps, 224

reversed connections for, 109–110, 110f

schematic symbol, 53, 53f, 65f

uses, 66–68

Zener voltage, 64, 64t

Zero bias mode, photodiode, 255f, 256

Zero calibration mode, DVM, 46–47

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