Index
Note: Page numbers in italic indicate a figure and page numbers in bold indicate a table on the corresponding page.
abstraction, identifying opportunities 72–74
actions 85–86, 185; at the organizational level 159
activity-based models 69
actualism 85
aesthetic critique of imagination 130–131
affordable loss 193
Africa, entrepreneurship in 145
agency 89–90; entrepreneurial project 69–71; ‘entrepreneuring’ 114; in entrepreneurship 57; normativity 113; and structure 90–91; voluntarism 90–91
agent relativization 10
Aïssaoui, Rachida 2
ambiguity: of postcolonial discourse 99; as requirement for entrepreneurship 67; and risk 27–28; see also uncertainty
analytic philosophy 19n1
“the ant trap” 14
anxiety, imagination as source of 135
‘appeal to authority’ 8
applied entrepreneurship theory 67–69
applied opportunity evaluation 71–74; ‘opportunity development’ 75–76; ‘opportunity readiness’ 74–76, 74; performativity 74; recombination of resources 72–73; reflexivity 73–74
applied science 155
applying philosophy 6
Arend, Richard J. 2
aspiration 160
assumptions: about human behavior 51–54; about knowledge 49–51; about reality 46–49; in entrepreneurship research 44–45; influence on knowledge construction 66; ontological 83; of opportunity creation vs. discovery 56
attachment to fantasy 113–114; cruel optimism 115–116
Austrian economic theory 35
Avogadro’s number 16
axioms 66
Bacon, Sir Francis 54
‘bad’ projects 71
bankruptcy, stigma of 115
basic processes underlying entrepreneurship 24; heterogeneity 25
behavior: and deontology 170; deterministic assumptions about 44; ‘free will’ 53–54; logic of appropriateness 162; non-determinism 51–52; social construction of 51–54; stimulus-response systems 160, 171
beliefs 23, 57; “herd mentality” 18; institutionalized belief systems 58–59; significations 50; social construction 25–26; and social phenomena 18–19
Berger, P.L. 46
Berlant, L., cruel optimism 115–116
black boxes 30; creativity 32, 34–35; firm dynamics 159
Borgerson, Janet 4
Bourdieu, P. 143
bricolage 21, 23, 31, 37; as partial theory, testing 33
business models 21
capabilities 160; programmatic view of organizational capabilities 173–174; ‘zero-level’ 166–167
capitalism 21; MI 22, 23; for-profit MI 23–24, 24
causal claims 83
causal explanations 89, 155, 193–194
causal power, granting to social structures 94n5
Chua, Peter 144
citation 8
claims, justifying 8
cognitive science 160
collective identity formation 143
common-sense reality 46; labels 49
communication 48; creative expression 133; objectifications 50; typifactory schema 49–50; see also language
conceptual definitions 9
consequences of social construction 26
constructionism 85–86, 87; entrepreneurial identity 92–94; non-experiential entities 87–88; postcolonial deconstruction 98–99
contractual agreements 165; as basis for theory 165–166; nexus of contracts theory 175–177
corporate entrepreneurship 71
cosmopolitanism 142–144, 148; cultural view of 144; ‘ordinary cosmopolitans’ 143
counterexamples of theoretical constructs 11–12
creation of novel deontic architectures 172–173
creation opportunities 31, 37; and alertness 58–59; assumptions 56; environment of entrepreneurs, assumptions about 56–57; opportunity discovery vs. creation debate, origins of 55–56; as partial theory, testing 34
creativity 32, 34–35, 73, 77n2; bricolage 23; imagination 44
critical naturalism 85
critical realism 14–15, 67, 82, 84, 86–92; and applied entrepreneurship theory 67–69; entrepreneurial identity 92–94; entrepreneurial project 69–71; immanent critiques of alternative philosophical positions 84–88; ‘opportunity readiness’ 74–76, 74; structure/agency approach 90–91
cruel optimism 112, 115–116; belonging, need for 120–122; data analysis of identity research 117–118; findings of identity research 118–120; life story approach to identity research 116–117
cultural view of cosmopolitanism 144
Darwin, Charles 157
decision making: ambiguity and risk 27–28; and deontics 170–172; and entrepreneurial projects 70–71; ‘free will’ 53–54, 189–190; imaginative model of 171; logic of consequences 170; role in entrepreneurship 44; role-based 162–163; and social constructionism 53–54; see also reflexivity
defining: entrepreneurship 10–12, 23; identity 92–94; philosophy 9; reality 48; social science 141
definitions, importance of 9
deontic architecture 157, 167–169; contractual agreements 165–166; creation of 172–173; dynamic capabilities of firms 177–178; the firm as nexus of contracts 164–166; as framework for a unified theory of the firm 169–170; microeconomics 165; nexus of contracts theory 175–177
deontic bundle 158
‘Deontological Thesis’ 167
Derrida, Jacques 99; deconstruction 101–102
describing phenomena 30
Dimov, Dimo 5
discovery theory 35, 44, 56; alertness 58–59; assumptions of opportunity discovery 56; determinism 56–57; environment of entrepreneurs, assumptions about 56–57; opportunity discovery vs. creation debate, origins of 55–56
discussion on entrepreneurial imagination 134–135
disposition 143
diversity, and cosmopolitanism 143
division of labor 169
dual-use technologies 39
Dubin, R. 23
Durkheim, Émile 13
dynamic capabilities of firms 166–167, 177–178
economic value 11, 18; and capitalism 21; of money 26; for-profit MI 23–24, 24
effectuation 31, 37, 70–71; as partial theory, testing 33–34
embodiment 60
empirical research 1; positivism 85; qualitative research 41n10; and social sciences 12–14
endogeneity 25, 69; applied opportunity evaluation 72
endurance 188
engineering 155
enterprise culture, internalization of 114–115
‘enterprising self’ 114
entrepreneurial failure 112; bankruptcy, stigma of 115; cruel optimism 115–116; data analysis of identity research 117–118; findings of identity research 118–120; life story approach to identity research 116–117
entrepreneurial identity 92–94
entrepreneurial imagination 4
entrepreneurial projects 67, 69–71, 76; features of 70–71; and ‘opportunity readiness’ 74–76, 74; reflexivity as condition for 73–74
entrepreneurship: in Africa 145; alertness 58–59; applied opportunity evaluation 71–74; basic processes underlying 24; bricolage 33; capitalism 21; as contextual process 140–141; corporate 71; cosmopolitanism 142–144, 148; creativity 32, 34–35; defining 10–12, 23; discovery 35; endogeneity 25; environment of, assumptions about 56–57; explanatory model 40n2; factors 25–26; false opportunities 71; human flourishing 72; and imagination 44; imagination 126–127; individual-opportunity nexus model 41n6; information gaps 26–27; innovation 72; intermediate factors 26; market imperfections 22; narrative approach to 148; newness test 23; non-relativized approach to 10; novelty 21–22; opportunities 44; opportunity discovery vs. creation debate, origins of 55–56; orientalism 144–145, 148; origins of 24–25; partial theory 21; philosophy, understanding firms through 155–156; postcolonial deconstruction approach 106–107; proposed theories 37–39; recombination of resources 72–73; research, traps of 45; risk 27–28; social construction 25–26; social constructionism in entrepreneurship research 54; social nature of 15–19; as social science 11–14; social sciences, implications of applying to 146; subjectivity 26; and Sustainable Development Goals 139–140; uncertainty 184–186; ventures 25; see also entrepreneurial identity; ESB (entrepreneurship and small business) research; realist approaches to entrepreneurship
environment 56–57; context, importance of 140–141; entrepreneurs and 56–57
epistemological objectivity 17
epistemology 49–51, 82; experiential knowledge 129; social sciences, implications of applying in entrepreneurship 146
Epstein, B. 14
ESB (entrepreneurship and small business) research 82; entrepreneurial identity 92–94; necessity for ontological commitments in 83–84; philosophical implications of postcolonial deconstruction 106–107; postcolonial deconstruction 98, 99; pragmatism 87; voluntarism 90; see also entrepreneurial identity
evaluating opportunities 71–74
evolutionary models of novel capabilities 160
examples: of deontics 167–168; of ‘entrepreneurship’ definitions 10–12
exogeneity 25, 69; applied opportunity evaluation 72
experience, perception 132
experiential knowledge 129
experimentation 85
explanatory models 29; causal explanations 83; of entrepreneurship 40n2; premises 32–33
exploitation: alertness 58–59; ‘opportunity readiness’ 67; short-term opportunity exploitation 40n3; see also creation opportunities; discovery theory
extensional definitions 9
failure see entrepreneurial failure
false opportunities 71
fantasy: attachment to 113–114; cruel optimism 115–116; and secondary imagination 132
field differentiation 38–39, 40
findings of identity research 118–120
firms: contractual agreements 165; creation of novel deontic architectures 172–173; deontic architecture 157–159, 167–169; dynamic capabilities of 166–167, 177–178; evolutionary models of novel capabilities 160–161; management 165, 168–169; microeconomics 165; as nexus of contracts 164–166; nexus of contracts theory 175–177; operant conditioning 160; programmatic view of organizational capabilities 159–161, 173–174; roles and role hierarchies 174–175; search 160; stimulus-response systems 160; understanding through philosophy 155–156; unifying theory of 157–159; and ventures 12; ‘zero-level’ capabilities 166–167
formal definition of philosophy 9
for-profit MI 24
Fox, Joe 2
‘free will’ 53–54, 189–190; relational critique of imagination 130
functionalism, assumptions in entrepreneurship research 44–45
fundamental questions, and philosophy 6–7
gap-filling 32
Going Global initiative 139–140
‘good’ projects 71
good reasoning 8
Gordon, Brian R. 4
‘grand societal challenges,’ research addressing 139–140
habitual knowledge 51; non-determinism 51–52
Hegel, G.W.F. 77n1
“herd mentality” 18
heterogeneity 23–24, 41n7; endogeneity 25; exogeneity 25; information gaps 26–27
heterogeneous entities 24
hierarchies 161–164; authority 161–162; logic of appropriateness 162; means-end decomposition of work 162; microeconomics 165
historical sketch of entrepreneurial imagination 127–129; Kirzner, I. M. 128; Schumpeter, Joseph 128; Shackle, G.L.S. 128
human behavior, social construction of 51–54; non-determinism 51–52
human flourishing 72; cruel optimism 115–116
‘hypothesis driven’ entrepreneurship research 44
identifying opportunities 72–74
identity: collective identity formation 143; cosmopolitanism 142–144; cruel optimism 115–116; data analysis of identity research 117–118; findings of identity research 118–120; life story approach to identity research 116–117; need for entrepreneurial belonging 120–122; as self-narration 93
ideology, influence on knowledge construction 66, 145
imagination 44, 126–127; aesthetic critique of 130–131; alertness 128; discussion on 134–135; historical sketch of entrepreneurial imagination 127–129; images 132–133, 134; Kirzner, I. M. 128; primary mode 131–132; processual critique of 129–130; relational critique of 130; renewing the entrepreneurial imagination 133–134; re-theorizing entrepreneurial imagination 131–134; Schumpeter, Joseph 128; secondary mode 132; in social constructionism 53; as source of anxiety 135; and uncertainty 128
imaginative model of decision making 171
immanent critiques of alternative philosophical positions 84–88
implications of postcolonial deconstruction 106–107
incumbency 25
individual-opportunity nexus model 41n6
information gaps 26–27; gap-filling 32
information sources 24
innovation 72
‘innovative self’ 114
institutional theory 14
institutionalized belief systems 58–59
intensional definitions 9
intentionality 91
internalization of enterprise culture 114–115
interpretivism 87
intransitive dimension of knowledge 88
intuition in social constructionism 53
iterative relationship between entrepreneurs and their environment 57
justifying claims 8
Kaasila-Pakanen, Anna-Liisa 3
Kirzner, I. M. 28, 35, 128; opportunity discovery vs. creation debate, origins of 55
Kitching, John 3
Knightian uncertainty 184
knowledge 17; and ambiguity 28; epistemology 49–51; experiential 129; fallibility 88; habitual 51; and imagination 128; intransitive dimension 88; language 49, 52; objectifications 50; as power 145; relative nature of 50–51; shared dimension of reality 47–48; transitive dimension 88
labels 49
language 52, 61; and common-sense reality 46–48; deconstruction 101–102; objectifications 50; the Other 99–100; significations 50; typifactory schema 49–50
laws 85
‘learning by doing’ 74
Letter to a Japanese Friend (Derrida, 1991) 101
life story approach to identity research 116–117; belonging, need for 120–122
linguistic turn 19n1
logic 7–8; ‘appeal to authority’ fallacy 8; of consequences 170; subjectivist 130; of supplementarity 102
‘logic of appropriateness’ 162, 170
London School of Economics 141
love 19n5
Luckmann, T. 46
Mallett, Oliver 4
Martin, Lee 3
materiality 60
meaning: the Other 99–100; typifactory schema 49–50
meaning-making, semiosis 86
means-end decomposition of work 162
memories: images 132–133; and perception 132
merely related ideas 8
Messi, Lionel 89
methodological implications of social sciences 146–148
MI (market imperfections) 22, 23; bricolage 23, 31; creation opportunities 31; creation opportunities, testing 33–34; and creativity 34–35; effectuation 31; effectuation, testing 33–34; heterogeneity 25, 41n7; individual-opportunity nexus model 41n6; information gaps 26–27; origins of 24–25; for-profit 23–24, 24; proposed theories 37–39
microeconomics 165
minimal ontological realism 83–84
mistaking partial theory for an alternative theory 37
money as social construction 26
narrative approach to entrepreneurship 148
natural philosophy 7, 155; actualism 85; critical naturalism 85; see also social sciences
need for entrepreneurial belonging 120–122
negative deontics 168
newness test 21–23, 28–29; bricolage 37; bricolage, testing 33; creation opportunities 37; effectuation 37; effectuation, testing 33–34; proposed theories 37–39
Newton, Isaac 7, 156, 157, 178n1
nexus of contracts theory 164–166, 175–177
Nicolopoulou, Katerina 4
non-experiential entities in constructionist approaches 87–88
non-relativized approach to entrepreneurship 10
normativity: attachment to fantasy 113–114; internalization of enterprise culture 114–115
not status quo 28
novelty 21–22, 73; evolutionary models of novel capabilities 160–161; newness test 23; and risk 27; see also newness test
null hypothesis 185
objectification 46, 50, 60; creation opportunities 59
objectivist approach to social phenomena 29–31; opportunity discovery vs. creation debate, origins of 55–56
objectivity: epistemological objectivity 17; knowledge 49–50; ontological objectivity 17; principles of the social construction of reality 47–48
Of Grammatology (Derrida, 1976) 101
ontological objectivity 17
ontological subjectivity 17
ontology 46–48, 82; aesthetic critique of imagination 130–131; deontic architecture 157–159; domains of 88–89; immanent critiques of alternative philosophical positions 84–88; ontological commitments, necessity for in ESB research 83–84; philosophical 83; positivism 56, 85; processual critique of imagination 129–130; relational critique of imagination 130; scientific 83; social ontology 167–169; social sciences, implications of applying in entrepreneurship 146
operant conditioning 160
operational definitions 9
opportunities: alertness 58–59, 72; and applied entrepreneurship theory 68–69; applied evaluation 71–74; assumptions about 56; discovering 44; false opportunities 71; identifying 72–74; ‘imagined’ 73; individual-opportunity nexus model 41n6; innovation 72; origins of 57–58; origins of discovery vs. creation debate 55–56; recombination of resources 72–73; and social constructionism 53; social constructionism in entrepreneurship research 54; see also entrepreneurial projects
‘opportunity development’ 75–76
‘opportunity readiness’ 74; and the entrepreneurial project 74–76, 74
optimism see cruel optimism
‘ordinary cosmopolitans’ 143
organizational story-telling 113
organizations: actions 159; aspiration 160; authority 161–162; capabilities 159–160; creation of novel deontic architectures 172–173; deontic architecture 158–159, 167–169; dynamic capabilities of firms 166–167; evolutionary models of novel capabilities 160–161; hierarchies 161–164; logic of appropriateness 162; management 165, 168–169; means-end decomposition of work 162; nexus of contracts theory 175–177; operant conditioning 160; programmatic view of organizational capabilities 173–174; roles 161–164; roles and role hierarchies 174–175; search 160; stimulus-response systems 160; ‘zero-level’ capabilities 166–167
origins: of entrepreneurship 24–25; of opportunity 57–58; of opportunity discovery vs. creation debate 55–56
partial theory 21, 23, 40n1; alternative theory, mistaking for 37; bricolage 31, 33, 37; creation opportunities 34, 37; discovery 35; effectuation 33–34, 37; explanatory models 29; heterogeneity 25; objectivist approach to social phenomena 29–31; premises 32–33; proposed theories 37–39, 42n13; subjectivist approach to social phenomena 29–31
Patton, M. 147
perception 132
phenomena: describing 30; see also social phenomena
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Newton, 1687) 7
philosophy: abstraction 71; analytic philosophy 19n1; and applied entrepreneurship theory 67–69; applying 6; critical realism 82; deconstruction 101–102; formal definition 9; and fundamental questions 6–7; immanent critiques of alternative philosophical positions 84–88; linguistic turn 19n1; logic 7–8; natural philosophy 7; positivism 84, 85; pragmatism 87; reasoning 7–8; structuralism 14; understanding firms through 155–156; see also epistemology; ontology
physical phenomena 15; epistemological objectivity 17; facts 16–17, 17; ontological objectivity 17; see also social sciences
positive deontics 168
positivism 56, 66, 84–85, 87; strict positivism 94n3
postcolonial deconstruction: philosophical implications of 106–107; “unlearning” privilege 105
power 88–89; authority 161–162; causal power, granting to social structures 91; deontic power 168–169; knowledge as 145; microeconomics 165; and social structures 90–91
Practice Theory 143
pragmatism 87
prediction 155
premises of partial theory 32–33
principles of the social construction of reality 47–48
privilege, “unlearning” 105
processual critique of imagination 129–130
production systems 160
profit, for-profit MI 23–24, 24
programmatic view of organizational capabilities 173–174
projects: agential 70; features of 70–71; and reflexivity 73–74; see also entrepreneurial projects
proposed theories 37–39, 42n13
propositions defining reality 48
Puhakka, Vesa 3
“pure duration” 190
qualitative research 41n10
realist approaches to entrepreneurship 66, 76; entrepreneurial project 69–71; minimal ontological realism 83–84; social phenomena 73; transcendental realism 85; see also critical realism
reality: common-sense reality 47; and epistemology 49–51; objective dimension 51; positivism 56; propositions defining 48; shared dimension of 47–48, 51; social construction of 46–48; space 47–48; subjective dimension 51; subjective reality 47–48; time 47–48; as truth 56
reasoning 7–8; abstraction 71; agency 89–90; justifying claims 8; merely related ideas 8
recombination of resources 72–73, 75–76
reflexivity 2; as condition for entrepreneurial projects 73–74; ontological 82
relational critique of imagination 130
relative nature of knowledge 50–51
renewing the entrepreneurial imagination 133–134
research: addressing ‘grand societal challenges’ 139–140; alertness 58–59; assumptions in entrepreneurship research 44–45; data analysis of identity research 117–118; ESB 82; experimentation 85; findings of identity research 118–120; life story approach to identity research 116–117; qualitative 41n10; social constructionism in entrepreneurship research 54; traps of entrepreneurship research 45; variance research 59; see also ESB (entrepreneurship and small business) research
re-theorizing entrepreneurial imagination 131–134
retrodiction 155
risk 27–28; affordable loss 193; as requirement for entrepreneurship 67
roles 161–164; authority 161–162; and decision making 162–163; logic of appropriateness 162
Samy, Christine 4
Schrodinger’s Cat thought experiment 188
Schumpeter, Joseph 128
scientific laws 85
scientific ontology 83
scope of social science 141–142
search 160
secondary imagination 132
semiosis 86
‘sensecreating’ process 61
seriousness 77n1
Shackle, G.L.S. 128; opportunity discovery vs. creation debate, origins of 55–56
shared dimension of reality 47–48, 51; epistemology 49–51
short-term opportunity exploitation 40n3
Slutskaya, Natasha 4
Smith, Adam 157
The social construction of reality: A treatise in the sociology of knowledge (Berger & Luckmann, 1967) 46
social constructionism 25–26, 34–35, 45, 51–54, 60, 85–86; common-sense reality 46; in entrepreneurship research 54; epistemology 49–51; ‘free will’ 53–54; ontology 46–48; origins of opportunity discovery vs. creation debate 57–58; principles of the social construction of reality 47–48; propositions defining reality 48; space 53; time 53
social entities 18
social evolutionary theory 14
social nature of entrepreneurship 15–19
social objects 94n1
social ontology 14, 15, 167–169
social phenomena: “the ant trap” 14; and beliefs 18–19; economic value 18; epistemological objectivity 17; facts 16–17, 17; ontological objectivity 17; social realist view of 73; subjectivist approach to 34–35; theory 29
social sciences: conceptualization 68; defining 141; entrepreneurship 11–14; epistemological implications for entrepreneurship 146; institutional theory 14–15; methodological implications 146–148; objectivist approach to 29–31; ontological implications of applying in entrepreneurship 146; scope of 141–142; social evolutionary theory 14–15; social nature of 15–19; social ontology 14, 15; subjectivist approach to 29–31; unified framework, lack of 13; see also theory
social structures 90–91; deontic architecture 167–169; granting causal powers to 91
societal norms 113; attachment to fantasy 113–114; ‘enterprising self’ 114; internalization of enterprise culture 114–115
society 90; context, importance of in entrepreneurship 140–141; research addressing ‘grand societal challenges’ 139–140
space 189; connection with social action 140–141; social constructionism 53; and subjective reality 47–48
status quo 28; disruption of 61
stigma of bankruptcy 115
stimulus-response systems 160, 171
strict positivism 94n3
structuralism 14
subjective assessment of a situation 186–188
subjectivist approach to social phenomena 29–31, 34–35, 41n8; opportunity discovery vs. creation debate, origins of 55–56
subjectivity 51; and entrepreneurship 26; ontological subjectivity 17; principles of the social construction of reality 47–48; significations 50; and space 47–48; and time 47–48
success 72
success ethics 112, 114; bankruptcy, stigma of 115; belonging, need for 120–122; data analysis of identity research 117–118; findings of identity research 118–120; life story approach to identity research 116–117
supplementarity 102
Sustainable Development Goals 139–140
technology, dual-use 39
testing partial theory: bricolage 33; creation opportunities 33–34; effectuation 33–34
theoretical constructs, counterexamples of 11–12
theory 29, 155, 156; applied entrepreneurship theory 67–69; applied theory 75; Austrian economic theory 35; contractual agreements as basis for 165–166; of firms 179n2; mistaking partial theory for an alternative theory 37; partial theory 23, 40n1; Practice Theory 143; proposed theories 37–39; re-theorizing entrepreneurial imagination 131–134; of roles and role hierarchies 161–164; social construction of human behavior 51–54; straw man arguments 29–30; see also deontic architecture; partial theory
Thompson, Neil A. 4
time: endurance 188; and ‘free will’ 189–190; “pure duration” 190; social constructionism 53; and subjective reality 47–48
transcendental realism 85
transitive dimension of knowledge 88
traps of entrepreneurship research 45
typification 61
uncertainty 184–186, 191–193; and imagination 128; as requirement for entrepreneurship 67; subjective assessment of a situation 186–188; subjective uncertainty 193–194
unified theoretical frameworks: programmatic view of organizational capabilities 173–174; roles and role hierarchies 174–175; in social sciences 13
universal Darwinism 14
universal nature of knowledge 50–51
“unlearning” privilege 105
value production 72
variance 59
ventures 25; ambiguity 27–28; and firms 12
voluntarism 90
vulnerability 194
weaknesses: of contracts 165; of dynamic capabilities 166–167; of role and role hierarchy theory 163–164
Wealth of Nations (Smith, 1776) 157
Wilson, Nick 3
zeal 195n1
‘zero-level’ capabilities 166–167