New Dimensions in Photo Processes (Photo Imaging, in the first edition) presents techniques that combine painterly concerns with printmaking ideas, photographic principles, and graphic design elements. Painters, for instance, think about the articulation of an image by the physical application of materials and by the selection of a surface onto which the materials will adhere. Printmakers are familiar with different types of paper and the variations that can be achieved in a print while creating an edition. Traditional photographers, used to the light sensitivity of certain substances, may think about the way a photographic technique can change the visual reading of a picture. Graphic designers and illustrators use special tools, procedures, and often text, developed for their profession or borrowed from others. I hope this book will speak to professional artists, teachers, students, and hobbyists who are comfortable employing technical methods and ideas from different image-making areas and will assist in the creation of more cogent visual statements.
Arising from a printmaking syntax,1 photo imaging has always been affiliated with other art forms. William Henry Fox Talbot, in 1839, invented a process related to Van Dyke brown prints (see Chapter 8) partly out of frustration with his unsuccessful attempts at drawing. You see, in nineteenth-century British society, part of a gentleman’s education was learning how to draw. His first book, illustrated with photogenic drawings, as he called his photographic prints, was titled The PENCIL of Nature (emphasis mine). The 1844 edition included Talbot’s drawings, his early experiments with laying objects atop sensitized paper to produce photograms, and his pictures taken with a hand-built camera fitted with a microscope lens, which his wife is said to have called “mouse traps” (see illustration, page 170). Talbot also wrote about the difference between visual reporting and visual expression—distinctions we still debate today.
Many methods described in this book were presented in the 1830s and 1840s. That period in Europe and England saw a proliferation of home inventors, spawned by the mass printing of illustrated books and magazines dealing with experiments in science and technology. Sir John Herschel, for example, developed the cyanotype technique (see Chapter 7) as a method for reproducing his mathematical charts. Soon after, architects and engineers adapted the process for blueprinting their drawings, and by the beginning of the twentieth century, photographers were using the procedure for printing black-and-white negatives. Herschel is also credited with coining the terms photography, snapshot, negative, and positive.2
The business world adapted other photo-printmaking processes. The principle for gum bichromate printing was—and is—the basis for photo silkscreen, photolithography, and commercial offset printing. The gum arabic used for gum printing in 1839 was replaced later by bichromated gelatin. A coating of the light-sensitive gelatin on metal was exposed under a negative in print shops by 1850. Exposure and development hardened the gelatin (the positive), which was used to attract lithographic ink in commercial printing. A hardened gum-and-color-pigment positive is the finished product in a gum print.
Industrialization brought the mass production of factory-made photographic papers, films, and cameras. In 1898, George Eastman marketed the Kodak camera loaded with film, which could be used and then sent back to the Kodak factory by the photographer. The film was developed, prints were made, and the camera was reloaded with film. Eastman’s method freed photographers from chemical manipulation and technical knowledge. Cyanotypes, Van Dyke brown, casein (see Chapter 11), and other hand-coated emulsions, therefore, lost favor with the public. These processes were not seen much until the 1960s and 1970s. Theories have been postulated about the reappearance of homemade photo techniques at a time when a significant segment of Western culture was revolting against the alienating aspects of technology. Now, I believe, all silver-based media will be regarded as “quaint,” “historical,” and “alternative” in the age of digital and electronic imaging.
I was additionally influenced by research into women’s history, where handwork, especially on cloth, flourished. Most of this book’s techniques can be printed on fabric as well as paper, and instructions for imaging on both surfaces is explained herein. Artists such as Betty Hahn and Bea Nettles exploited the possibilities of stitching photo imagery, and their manipulated images influenced other artists. Bea was my teacher in grad school at the Visual Studies Workshop, and I used her Photo Media Cookbook like… a studio cookbook!
These antique processes can make new statements, as you will see by viewing the color figures throughout the book. The picture maker does not need to have sophistication in chemistry, physics, or even photography. I have tried to write step-by-step directions that can be followed easily and without access to expensive equipment. It is hoped that the reader will enjoy learning these methods and that they will become second nature, so that the technical aspects are of little concern compared to the visual possibilities and the challenge from working creatively.
The title of this book has been changed from New Dimension in Photo Imaging, the name of the first edition (1988) and second edition (1995), to New Dimensions in Photo Processes because now “photo imaging” has come to mean digital imaging. Also the chapter on Making Negatives in an analogue darkroom has been removed from the book due to the relative ease of digital means and rarer acquisition of graphic arts film. However, those instructions can be obtained by contacting me via my website, www.laurablacklow.com.
The book is divided into three parts. Part I presents methods that can be carried out in daylight and are therefore called light-insensitive. Innovative and influential artists, such as Robert Rauschenberg, whose artwork begins the Transfers, Lifts, and DIY Printmaking chapter, have utilized these techniques. Part II should be read before trying any of the light-sensitive methods. For instance, Chapter 4, Creating the Photo-Printmaking Studio, contains information on sizing paper, registering negatives, and building equipment such as an ultraviolet exposure unit. Chapter 5, Generating Imagery: Analogue Methods, greatly expanded in this edition, is about directly producing pictures and making transparencies in non-digital ways. Chapter 6, Making Negatives: Digital Method, goes into much more detail in this edition for crafting the image transparencies needed for contact printing. Part III consists of directions for ten light-sensitive processes. Some people refer to these methods as nonsilver photography, but the label is not entirely accurate. Silver nitrate is used in brown printing and salt printing, for instance. The terms alternative and nontraditional photography are also used, because the hand-coated emulsions are seen more rarely than digital photographs. Given the previously described history and contemporary practice of photo imaging, there is some irony in these terms. Several processes, such as traditional Daguerreotype (I have offered directions for the less toxic Becquerrel Process), carbon printing, and photogravure, are not included because of their high cost or safety concerns. Books on these processes, however, are listed in the Annotated Bibliography.
The step-by-step procedures are separated from the rest of the text in order to allow you faster access to methods for each technique—but always read the whole chapter before starting. The Tips, for instance, will make your work sessions more enjoyable and productive. It is imperative that you pay attention to the Safety sections within each chapter so that you take care of your health as well as the physical condition of the environment. Supply Sources for needed equipment are listed in the back of the book. Please observe these symbols as you use this book:
Can work in day light. You can turn on room lights, and sunlight can illuminate the room.
Work in subdued light. You can use weak tungsten light at least four feet (1.25m) from the emulsion, a yellow bug light, or draw the blinds in your work space during the day. Some practitioners coat under a few strands of small, steadily illuminated Christmas tree lights. See the test below, under safelighted conditions, for making sure your situation is not too bright.
Work in safe light conditions. A safe light, available from a photography store, equipped with a Kodak safe light filter, number 1A (light red), a wratten OC (light amber) or equivalent, and a 15-watt bulb should be placed no closer than 4 ft (1.25 m) to the emulsion. To make sure the safe light is not so bright as to cause fogging, thereby exposing the emulsion accidentally, run a fog test. On your work surface, put a piece of paper coated with the desired light-sensitive mixture and dried. Place two coins, side by side, on top and leave them there for 3–5 minutes, or a time equivalent to how long it takes you to prepare a substrate. Then remove one coin and carefully position the sheet with the other coin closer to the light source for another 3–5 minutes. (With enlargement emulsion (Chapter 14) and graphic arts film, put the prepared substrate under the enlarger and expose it for 1 second at f/16 or quickly turn an overhead light on and off.) Eliminate the second coin and develop the sheet. See if the spots where the coins were remain unaffected. If you see a silhouette where the coins were, move your coating area further from the light source or replace the bulb with one of weaker illumination.
Wear a dust mask. Use the kind with two straps to protect from dust and chemical particles (but not able to guard against solvents and other vapors).
Wear protective gloves. For these processes and for cleaning up, heavy, chemically resistant gloves such as neoprene are recommended. You can find them in a hardware store. Playtex now makes HandSaver gloves with latex and Neoprene, which can be purchased at a grocery store. After a work session, wash the gloves and inspect them; if they appear damaged, replace them. Wash the inside and outside of the gloves with a slightly acidic hand cleaner such as pHisoderm™, then hang them inside out to dry. If the gloves are not cleaned properly, they can actually increase your exposure to dangerous chemicals—dirty gloves promote the absorption of contaminants through the skin. Wash your hands before leaving your workspace, even if you wore gloves.
Wear a respirator. Please talk to your doctor before using a respirator. If you can use one, make sure a knowledgeable person fits you. You will need a rubber half-mask air-purifying respirator with a filter for organic vapors and dusts and mists. You can choose between reusable or disposable respirators, but make sure that in the United States you purchase one approved by OSHA. You can purchase masks at automotive paint and body shops or good hardware and art stores. If you need help in selecting the right kind of respirator, consult insurance companies, the National Institute of Occupational Safety Hazards and Occupational Safety Hazard Administration personnel in the United States and the Workplace Hazardous Materials Information Systems in Canada, respirator manufacturers and distributors, or the Arts, Crafts, and Theater Safety (see Annotated Bibliography, page 327). Keep in mind that respirators cannot be used if anything interferes with the seal of the face piece against an individual’s face, such as sideburns, beards, and eyeglasses. Store respirators in clean bags or other suitable containers in a clean and sanitary location. Inspect and maintain the respirator in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. Pregnant women should not attempt any processes requiring a respirator because the mother’s oxygen intake may be reduced, limiting the oxygen available to the fetus. If you have other health issues, such as heart problems, make sure you consult your doctor before using a respirator. One test for checking the fit of your respirator is to put it on, open a bottle of ammonia, then make sure you cannot smell the odor.
Wear protective goggles to avoid splashes, and always wear goggles if you use contact lenses.
Don’t just take my word for it; when ordering chemicals, ask for the Material Safety Data Sheet, which gives specific information on handling and storing each chemical in order to reduce your exposure, as well as first aid and protective equipment to wear.
Good health habits in the studio and darkroom are lifesavers. Never eat, drink, or smoke while handling chemicals. Keep your hands away from your face. Wear a special lab coat or waterproof apron while working, not your unprotected clothes. Avoid splashing chemicals; if you think a procedure will cause splashing, wear goggles to protect your eyes. (When in doubt, put on goggles—and mask—especially if you wear contact lenses.) Clean up spills immediately, preferably with paper towels. Throw paper towels and other refuse into a covered trash can or into a plastic bag. Seal the container and move it to an outdoor receptacle after your work session. Avoid mixing liquid and solid wastes.
Try to limit your chemical mixing and coating to one table with a nonporous top, such as glass. I cover my table with the Sunday newspaper unfolded. Each time chemicals contaminate the top sheet of paper, I throw it into a plastic trash bag, which I secure with a tie. I learned from the former Palladio Co. that you can “evaporate used liquid chemicals and dispose of the sludge as toxic waste,” but don’t evaporate in your small darkroom. The volume once evaporated will be limited. I also learned from The New Photography (see Reeve and Sward in the Annotated Bibliography) that hazardous liquid chemicals, such as unused cyanotype mixtures, should be absorbed by kitty litter, put into a plastic bag, and placed in the trash outside the building, then brought to a toxic waste disposal site. Most towns near where I live have one or two days set aside for collection of such labeled materials. Fixer, used to enlarge graphic arts film, paint chromoskedasicly (page 305), and stabilize brown prints, is toxic to marine life. Contact a university or commercial darkroom and ask if you can pour your used fixer through their silver recovery unit. Otherwise, flush chemicals down the drain with large amounts of water after reversing the order, such as exhausted hypo clear poured into used brown print fixer poured into dirty wash water in order to neutralize them first. Judy Seigel recommends cutting the narrow part of the spout off a large funnel (auto supply store) and inserting the spout into your drain to contain the flow during disposal of chemicals.
Keep all chemicals out of the reach of children and pets, and preferably in a locked cabinet away from heat and electric or other sparks. Most fire departments want to know the type and location of chemicals stored in your workspace.
Ventilation is necessary in the darkroom and the studio; an open window is not proper ventilation! The Center for Occupational Hazards urges that a small work area change air at least 20 times per hour. To determine the size fan required to change the air, compute the size of the room (in cubic feet) by multiplying the length by width by height, then divide that figure by six. Match that number to the fan’s cfm rating.
Locate the exhaust fan so the vapors are pulled away from your face. Hence, the suggestion that you limit your chemical mixing and coating to one table becomes even more important. Because most vapors that result from photographic processes are heavier than air, it makes sense to install a vent near the floor or right where the vapors are released. Fresh air must enter the room in order for the ventilator to work properly. Cracks under the door or light-blocking vents are the solution.
If your workspace is also a living space, such as a bathroom, you need to be meticulous about your habits. Never use eating, storage, cleaning, or cooking utensils for making art, or vice versa. Separate chemically contaminated trash from household trash. If you must use your kitchen, limit your work to one area where you do not prepare or eat food.
NOTES
1 Jussim, Estelle. Visual Communication and the Graphic Arts: Photographic Technologies in the 19th Century. New York: R. R. Bowker (a Xerox Education Co.), 1974.
2 Gassan, Arnold. A Chronology of Photography. Athens, OH: Handbook Company, 1972, p. 23.
A professional artist and art educator, Laura Blacklow currently creates one-of-a kind and small edition artists’ books and prints and is on the faculty of both the Photography and the Printmaking/Graphic Arts/Papermaking Departments at the School of the (Boston) Museum of Fine Arts at Tufts University. She is the recipient of The National Endowment for the Arts Regional fellowship for Works on Paper, the St. Botolph Club’s Morton C. Bradley Award in Color, Polaroid Corporation’s Artist Support Program, the Massachusetts Artists’ Foundation Fellowship for her hand-colored, black-and-white photographs, and Harvard University’s David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies Research Grant. From 1987–1992, she served on the Board of Directors of the Photographic Resource Center and is an active participant in the arts community as well as a long-term volunteer in Guatemala at Fotokids (www.fotokidsoriginal.org). Her manipulated photographic prints have been shown internationally, and her work has appeared in Exploring Color Photography: From Film to Pixel, Photography Beyond Technique, and 500 Handmade Books. Laura received a Master’s of Fine Arts in photography from the Visual Studies Workshop in Rochester, NY and a Bachelor’s of Fine Arts in painting from Boston University.