The Art of Motivation
3
Motivation is a concept that is difficult to define. PMI (2008a) defines it as “creating an environment to meet project objectives while offering maximum self-satisfaction related to what people value most” (p. 410). PMI further explains that values differ but can include satisfaction with one‧s job, challenging work, a sense of accomplishment and success in one‧s work, personal achievement and growth, financial compensation that is commensurate with the work to be done, and other recognition and rewards.
Kerzner and Salidis (2009) define motivation as “encouraging others to perform by fulfilling or appealing to their needs” (p. 193). Jack Welch, the former chief executive officer of General Electric, echoes this idea, saying that managers’ role in motivating employees “is not to control people and stay ‘on top’ of things, but rather to guide, energize and excite” (Godin 1995, p. 88).
Motivating team members is more art than science. A good motivator can tailor an appropriate approach for each individual on the team. Because certain workplace trends may make motivating team members more challenging, the program or project manager must adopt specific approaches to motivating the team as a whole as well as each team member. This chapter discusses various trends affecting motivation; some motivation approaches to consider, based on some of the work of various theorists but tailored to program and project management; motivation mistakes to avoid; and a motivation checklist that will help the program or project manager work effectively with team members.
Schmid and Adams (2007) conducted a survey using PMI‧s online research network to gain insights into perceptions held by project professionals regarding team motivation. They also wanted to learn about motivation during different project stages. The results of this survey showed that scope changes (as opposed to time, cost, quality, and other constraints) had the most negative effect on team member motivation. Weak team motivation was attributable to lack of top management support and commitment to the project, but even if the organization‧s culture had a negative effect on motivation, more than 54 percent of the respondents felt the project manager could still motivate his or her team toward project success. They also found team motivation to be at the highest level at the start of a project and that rewards affecting motivation play an important role during the intermediate or executing stage.
Seventy-nine percent of the respondents felt the project manager was responsible for encouraging team motivation at the beginning of a project; this dropped to 58 percent for the closing stage. This survey shows the importance of the project manager‧s early involvement in motivating each team member to want to be part of the project and to work toward project success.
Trends Affecting Motivation
Three trends affect work in program and project management that make the task of motivating team members more difficult for managers:
Reductions in force
Increasing complexity
Cross-cultural influences.
Reductions in Force
Ongoing reductions in force through downsizing, offshoring, and outsourcing are underway in many organizations. No longer is there an unspoken agreement that once a person joins an organization, he or she will remain with it for the duration of his or her career. The old assumption that good work will lead to job security no longer applies, given the world‧s economic condition and the changing nature of each organization‧s strategy in response.
When downsizing, offshoring, or outsourcing decisions are made, the organization‧s strategic goals and its approach to reach these goals typically changes, and if so, the situation requires a rebalancing of the organization‧s portfolio. The program or project manager is rarely consulted about how such decisions will affect his or her program or project, though there may be significant losses and changes. The program or project‧s resources may be needed elsewhere, or the people working on the programs or projects may lose their jobs entirely. Scope changes may result if the programs or projects are continued. Subject matter experts, who were considered critical to completion of the work, may be among those who are no longer employed, challenging program and project managers to find people to fill these gaps.
If employees do survive, they must do more with less. Motivating these team members is difficult. They may experience anger toward the organization‧s executives and guilt about surviving the cuts when colleagues were forced to leave the organization (Noer 1995). In organizations or industries that undergo repeated downsizings, it is not unusual to find pervasive cynicism, feelings of alienation, increased resistance to even small changes, and skepticism among the surviving employees. Some team members will lack the trust and commitment needed to perform their assigned work packages or activities efficiently, believing they may be next to lose their own jobs.
Helping team members overcome these feelings is a major challenge for program and project managers, and it requires that they have available time and leadership abilities. They also must spend more time in the facilitation role to make the work environment as positive as possible, given the economic situation and the possibility of additional job losses or reprioritization of the work to be done. One study (Strom 2009) noted that in such situations, the organization must redefine its own vision and make sure it is communicated to the remaining employees. This study also suggests that additional emphasis be placed on both individual and team rewards and recognition. Further, Strom says that the organization should recognize that employees’ self-esteem will be affected.
What does this study mean for program and project management? It is incumbent on the manager to meet with his or her team, explain the circumstances, consider the restructuring to be a critical incident, and discuss everyone‧s feelings. He or she should work out a strategy to somehow turn the restructuring into an opportunity for those who remain, revisiting and revising the program or project management plans as required, as well as each individual‧s developmental plan and annual performance plan.
Increasing Complexity
The growing complexity of programs and projects is a key challenge and the subject of a PMI study (Cicmil, Cooke-Davies, Crawford, Richardson 2009). Why is program and project work so complex? The study points to the unpredictability of future events, the ambiguity of performance criteria, different understandings of what constitutes success, and the numerous interactions and processes in terms of relationships on projects.
In addition to the factors PMI cited, in many organizations, the enterprise tools and techniques used to assist in managing programs and projects are often so difficult to use that people must become specialists in them or outsiders must be hired to manage the tools. The tools sometimes drive the process, rather than the process driving the tools. The selection of the tools becomes a project in itself—let alone their implementation and the assessment of their contribution to overall project success.
Also, organizations, business units, departments, and even programs often have program management offices (PMOs) at various levels. While PMOs have been shown to provide numerous strategic and tactical benefits in many areas, unless they are managed effectively, they can become bottlenecks, slowing down the processes of delivering program and project benefits and ensuring that the work to be done has value.
Finally, as noted by Kerzner and Salidis (2009), the time of relying on only the triple constraint—getting projects done on time, according to budget, and within specifications—is gone. Instead, there is a new imperative: to follow the triple constraint but to ensure value is provided even if the triple constraint is met. Kerzner and Salidis point out that the entire project environment has changed amid rising costs, competition, the global economy, and the lack of attention to project definition. They write that “the final value of a project may be a moving target rather than a stationary target” (p. 5), as it was in the past. Such an approach means that new definitions of metrics are required to assess program and project success, team success, and individual success.
Cross-Cultural Influences
The extensive cross-cultural influences that affect many programs and projects can complicate motivation for the manager. If teams take advantage of their diversity, they can make more effective decisions and come up with creative ways to resolve conflicts, but diversity also presents motivational challenges. It is too easy to treat people as stereotypes based on their specific culture and not to recognize the importance of individual differences. If mutual respect does not exist on a team, team members will lack trust in one another and will not respect others’ contributions. Individual differences require the program or project manager to consider how best to motivate and work with team members with different cultural backgrounds, and the challenges are even greater when working with a geographically dispersed team in which face-to-face meetings are rarely if ever held.
Strategies for Motivating Team Members
You can consider a number of different motivation styles as you work with your program or project team, including:
Motivating using personal styles
Motivating using career stages
Motivating using career values
Motivating using situational considerations.
The guidelines that follow can help you find an approach for use on your program or project.
Motivating Using Personal Styles
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) can be used to identify individual personality differences on a team and to determine the best sources of motivation for the various personality styles. Using either formal or informal knowledge of team members’ MBTI styles, the program or project manager can motivate individuals more effectively.
Table 3-1 suggests strategies the program or project manager can use to motivate team members based on their personality styles. For example, for a team member has extraverted and sensing MBTI preferences, an appropriate motivational approach would be place to him or her in a group with many people that is assigned to solve tangible, real-world problems. By contrast, an introverted person with intuitive and thinking preferences would be better motivated by tasks that give him or her time to reflect individually on innovative possibilities, using an analytical and logical approach to decision-making.
Table 3-1 Motivating Different MBTI Personality Styles (Flannes 1998)
| Personality Style | Best Approach to Motivating |
| Extraverted (Outgoing, enjoys dealing with people) | Have this person focus on the relationship or social aspects of the project, such as interfacing with stakeholders or leading team meetings. |
| Introverted (Quiet, reflective, inner-directed) | Offer this person work that requires extended periods of concentration, possibly working alone. |
| Sensing (Pragmatic, practical, down to earth) | Give this person work that has a distinct completion point and can be measured in concrete terms. |
| Intuitive (Conceptual, big picture) | Put this person to work on the strategic and design portions of the project, relating the project‧s objectives to the organization‧s strategic objectives. |
| Thinking (Logical, analytical) | Present this individual with tasks requiring quantitative skills, in-depth analysis, or research. |
| Feeling (People-oriented) | Allow this person to be in roles involving nurturing, supporting, and customer relationship management. |
| Judging (Orderly, structured, timely) | Permit this individual to create schedules, budgets, and project closure systems. |
| Perceiving (Flexible, spontaneous) | Direct this person toward situations requiring troubleshooting. |
When using a personality style system such as the MBTI, it is important not to take the system too literally. Systems like the MBTI are excellent for giving a manager an approach to consider when thinking about motivation, but the best way to motivate people is to ask them what motivates them—and to listen carefully to what they say.
Motivating Using Career Stages
People evolve through different stages in a career. Schein (1990) presents a career stage model consisting often distinct stages that a person goes through during his or her career. An understanding of Schein‧s model can give program and project managers insight into how to motivate team members.
Stage One and Stage Two occur in a person‧s life before he or she enters the world of project work. These stages involve the early years of initial career exploration followed by formalized career preparation, such as college and specialized training.
Stage Three involves formal entry into the workplace, where real-world skills are acquired. To motivate a team member in this stage, the program or project manager should give him or her an opportunity to demonstrate competency in a variety of tasks, which will allow the team member to show how he or she can contribute.
In Stage Four, training in the concrete application of skills and professional socialization takes place. The identity of being a professional is becoming established. The most effective motivational approaches during this stage will focus on helping the team member master the subtle technical and professional nuances of his or her profession.
During Stage Five, the team member has gained full admission into the profession based on demonstrated competency and performance. Program and project managers can use motivational methods that help team members perceive themselves as full-fledged, responsible contributors, such as assigning them to senior roles on the team.
In Stage Six, the team member has a sense of having gained a more permanent membership in the profession. To motivate a professional in Stage Six, offer opportunities for professional visibility, such as being a member of a cross-functional team or serving as a team advocate with other stakeholders.
Team members functioning in the final four stages require the program or project manager to use more sophisticated motivational methods because the challenges and issues inherent in these stages are more complex and demanding.
Stage Seven involves a natural mid-career assessment or crisis. The person in this stage asks questions about the value of his or her career, what he or she has accomplished, and whether he or she can identify a new career direction. The best way to motivate a person in Stage Seven is to focus on identifying new directions within the existing program or project that the team member could pursue, with the hope that the new direction creates a spark that translates into increased motivation.
Stage Eight involves the challenge of maintaining momentum as a career starts to move toward the end. Motivation during this stage and Stage Nine, when the individual begins to disengage from the profession and the world of work, involves:
Helping the team member focus on a program or project task that he or she has yet to accomplish during his or her career
Helping the team member get excited about the legacy he or she will leave in the company or within the profession. A legacy could, for example, take the form of developing educational resources or coursework.
During Stage Ten, the retirement or separation stage, the team member ends his or her employment with the organization or membership in the profession. Strategies during this stage should be based on:
Motivating the team member to retire on a positive note—for example, encouraging him or her to complete the last assignment at a high level of quality
Helping the transitioning person use his or her professional skills in a post-retirement consulting or coaching role, if that is of interest to the team member.
This approach works particularly well for program and project managers who know the age of their team members. If this is the case, the manager can use these stages, working openly in conjunction with the team member, to determine the most effective motivational approach. Consider this career stage model a starting point, and then use interpersonal communication skills to ascertain what specifically motivates each particular individual.
Motivating Using Career Values
Schein (1990) developed another approach to examining what work functions and work-related values motivate people. He believes that:
The more we understand our own values in specific areas, the better we are able to achieve work satisfaction.
Our motivation in the workplace will be greatest when we are pursuing tasks and functions that are consistent with our values.
Schein‧s research identified eight work-related values, which he describes as career anchors. The word anchor means a fundamental activity that an individual perceives is important when he or she considers the aggregate of his or her skills, motives, and values. Schein‧s eight anchors have important implications for motivation.
Technical-Functional Anchor
The professional with a strong interest in being a specialist in his or her profession is an example of someone who prioritizes the technical-functional anchor or value. This person has little interest in roles involving general management and takes great pride in being a skilled, expert practitioner of the trade. To motivate a technical-functional team member:
Create opportunities for this person to learn specialized skills.
Reward this person through a professional or technical advancement track, not a general management or leadership track.
On a virtual team, recognize the technical expertise of this team member so that others are aware of his or her strongest areas, and make sure that everyone knows how to contact the team member should they need help.
General Management Anchor
The team member with a general management anchor is highly motivated by situations in which leadership roles are available. This person seeks to ascend to consistently higher levels of organizational control and leadership and has little interest in remaining a technical expert.
Motivate the team member with a general management anchor by:
Providing opportunities to manage some aspect of the program or project
Offering concrete forms of acknowledgment, such as monetary compensation, status and titles, and recognition by senior managers
Creating opportunities for him or her to help develop the administrative structure for the program or project, such as helping set up a program management office, as appropriate, or helping to determine methodologies to follow and tools and techniques to use.
Autonomy and Independence Anchor
The autonomy-driven team member has a strong desire to do things his or her own way with little external influence. This person may create problems in a team environment and is often thought of as not a team player.
To motivate the team member with an autonomy-independence anchor:
Assign this person work that emphasizes self-reliance. (On a virtual team, this person may excel because he or she does not need to interact with others on a daily basis.)
Keep the person out of roles that involve repeated group decision-making or general managerial functions.
During group meetings, encourage this individual to participate, perhaps by asking open-ended questions, to get his or her views on issues affecting the program or project.
Security and Stability Anchor
A team member with a security-stability anchor poses motivational challenges for the project manager because he or she seeks continuity, a steady work environment, and job tenure—qualities that are at odds with the project environment. Challenging and innovative project roles hold little interest for this professional.
Motivating someone with a security-stability anchor involves:
Placing him or her in roles that are more traditional, such as that of the project control officer or project administrator. Recognize that the program environment may be a better fit for this individual because programs typically last longer than projects.
Guiding this person toward program projects that tend to be of long duration.
Encouraging him or her to engage stakeholders from customer and product-support units because these units later will be responsible for benefit sustainment, and this individual may be an ideal candidate to support these organizations once the program or project ends.
Entrepreneurial-Creativity Anchor
The entrepreneurially driven team member can be a source of pleasure or frustration for the program or project manager, depending on the nature of the program or project. This individual has the urge to use his or her own vision to develop new business ventures. If working on a program, he or she can be given opportunities to assist a new project manager in crafting a vision for the project as part of the program. This individual can also ensure that the program or project‧s vision remains in line with the organization‧s strategic goals and objectives as they change.
People with an entrepreneurial-creativity anchor work best when they can motivate and create. They often become restless when working on routine, administrative tasks that are predictable and lack challenges. Motivate the entrepreneurial team member by:
Involving him or her in creating the program or project vision and getting the program or project started
Keeping him or her away from roles with narrowly defined duties
Quickly moving this person from programs and projects that are ending to new ones. Do not expect this team member to efficiently close a current program or project.
Service Anchor
A person with a service anchor wants to perform professional activities that are personally meaningful. In the world of technical project work, for example, a biologist with a service anchor may seek a position with a company conducting environmental cleanup activities. A service-oriented person is especially valuable on programs and projects that emphasize sustainability—recognizing the effects of the program or project on the environment, the community, and the organization.
To motivate a team member with a service anchor, place him or her in roles where he or she can:
Provide “customer service” to other team members or to program or project stakeholders
Troubleshoot situations in which customer or client complaints require someone with a desire to help
When planning a program or project, provide opportunities for this individual to participate because he or she may have ideas about the program‧s or project‧s long-term effects and sustainability, especially regarding possible risks and opportunities
Enable this individual to participate in decision-making sessions as appropriate to ensure that sustainability remains a key consideration.
Pure Challenge Anchor
Motivation is rarely a problem for the team member with a pure challenge anchor, assuming that he or she is engaged in tasks and duties that consistently provide chances for him or her to feel professionally stretched and challenged. This person is always looking for a new professional challenge to master. Managers can motivate the challenge-focused team member by:
Meeting with him or her at the start of the program or project to identify challenging professional activities
Asking him or her to help “save the day” if disaster strikes the program or project
Tasking him or her with reducing the complexity that is characteristic of program work
Encouraging him or her to help other team members embrace changes.
Lifestyle Anchor
A team member who seeks balance between work life and personal life, believing that his or her professional work is not the sole focus of his or her life, has a lifestyle anchor. This person may value the flexibility offered by flextime or telecommuting.
Motivate the lifestyle-oriented team member by providing opportunities for him or her to:
Work on tasks that have clear starting and ending points and do not regularly expand into personal time
Get involved in program or project functions that do not require a great deal of travel or relocation
Assist in developing and maintaining the program or project‧s administrative structure.
Schein‧s career-anchor approach can be a helpful lens for the program or project manager, who can then craft appropriate motivational strategies that reflect each person‧s anchors.
Motivating Using Situational Considerations
Maslow (1954) devised a theory of motivation based on the premise that people are motivated to satisfy various needs according to a hierarchy, with the most basic needs at the bottom of a needs pyramid. When one need is satisfied, the individual is naturally motivated to move to the next higher need level to attempt to satisfy that need.
Maslow‧s hierarchy of needs encompasses seven levels:
Level 1: Basic physiological needs, such as food and nourishment
Level 2: Security and safety needs, such as stability and survival
Level 3: Belonging needs, exemplified by affiliation or love
Level 4: Esteem needs, including achievement and recognition
Level 5: Cognitive needs, such as the expansion of personal knowledge
Level 6: Aesthetic needs, exemplified by a search for beauty or order
Level 7: Self-actualization needs, illustrated by the realization of one‧s personal potential.
Maslow‧s hierarchy of needs can be applied in a program or project environment by addressing the immediate work challenges facing a team member. Flannes and Buell (1999) adapted Maslow‧s hierarchy and redefined the need levels using situations frequently encountered in project work. Their adapted hierarchy reflects the idea that the project manager must observe dynamic situational variables to motivate team members effectively. Their work has been updated here to apply to program management and for work on a virtual team.
Level 1: Job Survival Needs
Level 1 needs are the basic needs of the team member (similar to Maslow‧s level 1 need for food and water), such as keeping his or her job during organizational reductions in force. Little else is on the mind of the team member during this period of ensuring basic survival. The program or project manager can motivate an individual at the job survival level by providing the team member with tasks whose completion increases the chances of job survival.
Level 2: Job Safety Needs
At this level, the team member must develop the confidence that he or she can “survive” in the organization over time and that his or her project management career path extends past the current program or project. To motivate a team member whose situational focus is at the job safety level, the program or project manager should think out loud with the team member about long-term opportunities within the organization, involving his or her functional manager in this discussion as appropriate. If working on a virtual team, spend time with this person chatting one-on-one through instant messaging or comparable software and through periodic phone calls.
Level 3: Belonging and Affiliation Needs
The team member functioning at this situational level is motivated by a need for affiliation and feeling part of the organization. To motivate a team member who is seeking affiliation:
Provide opportunities for him or her to create professional relationships and liaisons within the company so that the team member can feel he or she is part of the action.
Encourage the team member to become involved in professional organizations.
On a virtual team, encourage him or her to serve as a relationship manager, introducing new team members to the team‧s operating norms and helping facilitate team meetings and encourage participation.
Level 4: Esteem Needs
At this level, a team member may want to be recognized for professional accomplishments and have a high level of visibility within the professional community. An appropriate motivational approach is to place him or her in situations in which he or she can be center stage. Motivate the person operating at the esteem level by encouraging him or her to:
Present papers, write articles, or give talks within the organization or at professional conferences
Obtain certifications such as the certified associate in project management (CAPM), project management professional (PMP), or program management professional (PgMP)
Present a webinar at a team meeting on a topic of interest.
Level 5: Intellectual Challenge Needs
Project team members who have mastered advanced professional competencies and are looking for something new to do are at this level, which is similar to Schein‧s stage seven, during which people often experience a mid-career lack of interest or motivation. Motivate the team member seeking intellectual stimulation by:
Giving him or her opportunities to learn more about the program or project world on a macro level. He or she might become more involved with tasks that demonstrate how this program or project integrates with the organization‧s strategic initiatives.
Encouraging the team member to volunteer to help with any updates of the organization‧s strategic plan.
Asking him or her to serve as the program or project‧s liaison to the organization‧s portfolio review board or comparable committee.
Allowing him or her to focus on external changes that may affect the program or project, such as the use of new technology or the need to implement a new regulation, and determine how best to handle those external changes with minimal disruption to the work of the rest of the team members.
Level 6: Aesthetic Needs
A team member at the aesthetic level may, for example, become interested in shifting from the hard skills of the profession to developing soft skills that can be applied in his or her work. A senior project manager who has “seen it all” and now wants to give something back to the profession might be at level 6.
Motivate the team member interested in developing soft skills by encouraging him or her to:
Become an informal mentor to a junior team member
Serve as an informal customer relationship manager over the course of the program or project
Become a knowledge manager for the team to promote lessons learned and the sharing of knowledge assets.
Level 7: Self-Actualization Needs
A team member in this situational stage is one whose comfort and sense of security allow him or her to take a path that is personally rewarding and that allows the team member to live up to his or her full potential. For some team members, this could mean deciding to leave the technical side of the organization and, for example, taking a position within the organization‧s training department designing training curricula for entry-level technical staff.
There are few concrete steps a program or project manager can take to motivate a team member at this level because the activities that motivate individuals are often less tangible than the day-to-day tasks. Nevertheless, the manager can:
Encourage the team member to identify aspects of the program or project where he or she can give back or leave behind a personally meaningful achievement
Ask the team member to serve as a consultant to the team on various issues, both interpersonal and technical.
Within this model, a team member may move in a fluid manner, up and down, from one level to another, based upon the external, situational variables that he or she encounters during the course of a program or project. For example, a team member may be operating within the esteem level (working to expand his or her professional network within the organization), but then may quickly drop to the survival level upon learning that company layoffs are planned and his or her job is at risk. Consequently, when using this adapted model for motivating team members, it is crucial for the program or project manager to remember that people and their needs are dynamic. External, situ- ational variables such as downsizing, transfers, and project problems alter a person‧s immediate source of motivation.
McClelland‧s Achievement, Affiliation, and Power Theory
McClelland (1961) set forth a theory that people are motivated in different ways based on their needs for achievement, affiliation, and power. Rad and Levin (2003) adapted McClelland‧s work to project management and to work on the virtual team. This section expands their work as appropriate to also cover program management.
Achievement Orientation
A person who is motivated by achievement is driven by the challenge of success, especially in the technical aspects of the program or project work. This individual will take risks, but only if they are ones for which he or she feels the response to the risk is appropriate, and the risk will not unduly affect the work. The achievement-oriented team member is driven by setting goals that are attainable. In addition, he or she desires feedback on his or her work, but at a technical level, not on interpersonal issues.
When working with the achievement-oriented team member, the program or project manager can best motivate this individual by:
Providing opportunities to work in an environment that allows autonomy and flexibility in performing assigned work packages and activities
Encouraging the team member to seek identity in the work he or she is performing on the program or project
Enabling the individual to set personal goals that complement the program or project‧s goals.
Because an achievement-oriented person likes an environment that provides challenges and that facilitates working alone, he or she tends to find work on a virtual team appealing. He or she does not need the daily interaction that would occur in a co-located environment and is comfortable using technology to communicate as needed. The program or project manager must ensure that when virtual meetings are held, this team member participates in them, asking open-ended questions to make sure the person is engaged in the team meeting and is not doing other work while the meeting is underway.
Affiliation Orientation
The affiliation-oriented team member may not find virtual work challenging and may resist being assigned to virtual teams. These team members enjoy the camaraderie of the co-located team, making friends with team members and getting together with them outside the work environment. In motivating the affiliation-oriented team member, whether on a co-located team or a virtual team, the following approaches are suggested:
Provide an opportunity for this team member to serve as a relationship manager for the team, introducing new team members to one another, informing team members of the team‧s operating procedures and team charter, and ensuring that people on the team are comfortable with how the team works together to resolve issues and conflicts.
Ask the individual if he or she is interested in becoming a mentor to others on the team, especially members who are new to the organization, to help others learn how the informal organization operates and which interpersonal skills are best to use in various day-to-day situations.
Enable this team member to facilitate team meetings, encouraging active participation by everyone who is in attendance.
Ask him or her to work with stakeholders to make sure they are receiving the information they need about the program or project in a timely way and find out if they need additional information.
Power Orientation
Often, the person motivated by power dislikes any role on a team unless he or she is its manager. This person then tends to dominate team meetings and wants others on the team to recognize him or her for accomplishments that may be team accomplishments rather than individual ones. The power-oriented team member can present challenges for the program or project manager but also can work effectively with customers and other key stakeholders. This team member may find being part of a virtual team difficult—he or she may lack the visibility he or she desires with the program or project manager, the program sponsor, the customer, or other key stakeholders.
The following are suggestions for motivating the power-oriented team member:
Ask him or her to make sure the team‧s practices conform with the overall goals and objectives of the program, project, and the organization.
Enable this team member to work with stakeholders as much as possible and especially to determine the best strategy to use to engage stakeholders so that they will have positive feelings toward the program or project.
Ask this person to lead program or project team meetings from time to time to provide leadership opportunities.
Encourage the team member to engage in problem-solving situations with others on the team to help the team close out issues and conflicts.
Rad and Levin (2003) present an example of how achievement-, affiliation-, and power-oriented people can work together to develop a project team charter. The achievement-oriented person should work independently to develop the charter; then, when the project begins, the power-oriented person can call meetings to discuss the charter and determine if changes to it are warranted. Throughout the process, the affiliation-oriented team member can work to ensure that others are comfortable with the contents of the charter, listening to any concerns people have about it and introducing new people to the team‧s operating norms. Additionally, when someone leaves the team, the affiliation- oriented team member can ask this person whether he or she felt the team charter was effective and can ask him or her for suggestions for improvement.
Systemic Approaches to Motivating the Team
In addition to pursuing strategies to motivate individual team members, the program and project manager should implement macro-level methods aimed at motivating the team as a whole. These systemic methods include:
Creating an empowered team
Applying force field analysis.
Creating an Empowered Team
Meredith and Mantel (2009) explain how a group motivation strategy in which team members experience a strong sense of empowerment through participatory management can be applied to project management. Empowerment, for Meredith and Mantel, is a participatory management approach that stresses:
Individual initiative, as team members design their own methods, usually with some constraints, for doing their work
Responsibility and accountability for project deliverables
Synergistic solutions through team interactions
Enabling teams to harness the ability of their members to manipulate tasks so project objectives are met and the team finds better ways to do things.
The authors further point out that project success is associated with teamwork, while project failure is almost guaranteed if the people on the project do not wish to work as a team.
This empowered approach complements the People Capability Maturity Model (P-CMMM(r)). The P-CMMM(r) states that empowered teams are ones that have the responsibility and authority to conduct their work effectively (Curtis, Hefley, and Miller 2001). These teams are characterized by team management, not management of individuals. Members of these empowered workgroups accept increasing responsibility for performance. They have a sponsor to whom the team is accountable and who represents the organization‧s interest to the team. In the P-CMMM(r) approach, the sponsor is the program or project manager. He or she acts as a liaison to other stakeholders, provides organizational resources, reviews progress and performance, clarifies the team‧s mission and responsibilities, provides guidance, and resolves problems and issues as escalated. According to the P-CMMM(r), empowered workgroups or teams are responsible for:
Recruiting and selection of team members
Performance management
Recognition and rewards
Training and development
Compensation activities.
The program or project manager who takes an empowered team approach may need guidance in facilitation and participatory management approaches, assigning responsibility and delegating authority, shifting some of his or her own responsibilities to the team, and guiding the growth of empowerment in these teams.
The challenge for the program or project manager who wants to lead an empowered team is enabling the team to make decisions and resolve issues while still retaining the needed leadership controls and monitoring the program‧s or project‧s delivery of benefits and overall performance. Such an approach requires the manager to focus on his or her role as facilitator. It also shows the importance of having a team charter that each team member supports and signs.
A team charter is different from a program or project charter and other planning documents. Its purpose, according to Levin and Green (2009), is to lay out the team members’ roles and responsibilities and establish guidelines for how the team will operate throughout the program‧s or project‧s life cycle. It describes actions the team can take on its own and those that require escalation. It also explains how to escalate an issue if the team cannot resolve it on its own. Levin and Green (2009) recommend the charter include:
A commitment statement. Describe the objectives the team plans to achieve and the benefits it expects to deliver.
A description of the program or project manager‧s role. List the program or project manager‧s name and describe how the team plans to interact with him or her during the life cycle. Recognize that some team members will have more extensive interaction with the manager than others.
A description of the sponsor‧s role. List the program/project sponsor‧s name and describe how the team will interact with the sponsor.
A description of the customers’ roles. List the customer(s) and explain how the team will interact with them during the program or project.
A list of other key stakeholders. Describe team members’ level of involvement with other key program or project stakeholders and the specific level of interaction. Consider using a responsibility assignment matrix.
Team performance objectives. Describe performance objectives at the team level during the life cycle and link them to the program or project objectives.
Success measures. Describe metrics that will be used to measure overall team performance.
The scope/boundaries of the team‧s work. Build on the scope statement, which describes what work is within or outside the boundaries of the program or project, as well as assumptions and constraints that could affect the teams’ work.
A description of the deliverables. Using the program or project work breakdown structure, list the program packages or project work packages and include a resource assignment matrix to show roles and responsibilities for the deliverables.
The conflict management approach to be used. Describe the process the team will use to resolve internal conflicts without involving the program or project manager, as well as the method the team will follow to escalate the problem to the program or project manager if necessary. Also, explain how resolutions will be communicated: If a conflict involves only a few team members, should the entire team be included in the resolution?
The decision-making process. Describe the process the team will follow in making decisions, and list the types of decisions the team can make on its own without involving the program or project manager. Explain how the team will communicate decisions, e.g., informally or formally, to the program or project manager, and whether the team will use a decision log or register to track all decisions.
A description of the administrative activities. State the roles and responsibilities team members will perform, such as preparing meeting agendas, taking minutes, updating plans, preparing reports, updating the knowledge-management repository, and performing closeout tasks. Consider using a responsibility assignment matrix.
The issue escalation process. Explain the process the team will use to resolve issues on its own and list the types of issues that should be escalated to the program or project manager.
Charter updates. State the frequency with which the charter will be reviewed to determine if updates are needed and how these reviews will be conducted.
Approvals. Here, the program or project manager, sponsor, and team members sign the charter. When new people join the team, ensure that they also sign it.
Another key factor in building an empowered team is the need for trust. The program or project manager and team members must work to earn and assume trust. Because of the time constraints associated with program and project work, managers and team members must assume trust; i.e., the team members will not have enough time initially to earn the trust of their manager. Empowered teams are facilitated by a culture based on swift trust.
Swift trust is the willingness to rely on team members, who may have not met previously and may never meet, to perform their roles effectively, both informal and formal, in a quickly formed team. It also involves establishing and communicating clear roles and responsibilities among team members.
Swift trust is not accidental. Environmental factors act as preconditions, either enabling and encouraging trust and its effective use or blocking trust. Teams must have processes for knowledge management, collaboration, and communication. Collaborative tools can help build relationships and forge connections within a team so that it will not have to rely on proximity alone. People must have access to each other, regardless of title, position in the organization, or location.
For overall success in virtual teams, and in any management-by-projects environment, there really is insufficient time to build trust in the normal way; teams must quickly form, and members must assume their teammates have a similar commitment to the project‧s vision, mission, and values. Handy (1995) writes, “If we are to enjoy the efficiencies and other benefits of the virtual organization, we will have to rediscover how to run organizations based more on trust than on control. Virtuality requires trust to make it work: Technology on its own is not enough.” This means that for effective collaboration, the formation of swift trust among team members is essential. Trust facilitates collaborative and cooperative behavior. But in the majority of virtual teams, the conditions required to develop trust simply do not exist because physical proximity, daily informal and unplanned interactions, and face-to-face meetings are lacking. Including team members in conference calls, decisions, and activities as often as possible is one way to promote trust within a virtual team.
Verma (1997) states that trust is a basic condition for the achievement of highly functioning project teams. By implication, the establishment of trust becomes a basic component of any successful project leader‧s strategy for motivating team members Verma suggests that trust is developed in part by:
Modeling desired behaviors, such as respect and the discussion of sensitive issues
Helping create an atmosphere of interaction and friendly relationships
Developing win-win strategies for individual and group goals.
Verma believes that team motivation is likely to flourish in groups that emphasize, and have, the following qualities:
Pride, loyalty, and teamwork
Self-discipline and accountability
Dedication, credibility, trust, and dependability.
Applying Force Field Analysis
Lewin (1948) explored forces within groups that support change and forces that inhibit change. He believed that in any system or group, both kinds of forces exist simultaneously to different degrees, depending on the unique conditions of the particular group. His model, force field analysis, has been elaborated and modified to apply to team motivation. It can be a positive tool for program and project managers to use in examining the forces influencing motivation within a team. Packard (1995), for example, describes force field analysis as an effective tool for managers to use when instituting changes within a group or team.
When defining the forces that hinder motivation, the program or project manager is actually dealing with individual and systemic forces that can be described as resistances. Resistance to change, action, or motivation is to be expected, and managers should not overreact to it. In reality, some resistance is often warranted—for example, when a project manager is trying to motivate team members to take an action that may not make sense or may even be wrong. When a program or project manager encounters resistance, it is important for him or her to:
Question whether the resistance is grounded in a valid and accurate assessment of the current facts
Make certain that the vision, goals, and benefits of the program or project have been clearly communicated to the team members
Examine whether individual differences (such as a personality clash) is obstructing cooperation.
A force field analysis has five general steps:
The program or project manager states the problem so the team understands it and why it is being discussed. For example: “Our program is considering adding a new project that has an approved business case. If this project is added, we may be able to complete the program earlier than planned, but we also will need some additional resources. It may require us to reallocate resources from an existing project to this new project.”
With the team, brainstorm the positive and negative forces against the proposed change.
Then clarify the background of each force to show why it exists and also how it may affect the change. Determine whether any of the forces can be changed or modified.
Next, determine how strong the resisting forces are versus the forces in favor of the change. Look at the causes of the resisting forces and talk about how they might be overcome.
Prepare a plan to address the areas of resistance.
Ideally, force field analysis is best conducted in a face-to-face setting, but it can be effective for virtual teams, especially if these teams have access to conferencing tools. Regardless, it can be effective if everyone on the team is involved in discussing the positive aspects of the change as well as the resistance forces. This approach can be used to help teams reach consensus on a decision and prepare a plan to implement the decision.
Force field analysis can also be effective in portfolio management, which in turn affects both program and project management. Each time there is a change in the portfolio—for example, when a new project is added to it—this means the portfolio must be rebalanced. Often, other programs or projects will be canceled or deferred because the new project needs resources. Through the use of force field analysis, the portfolio manager can meet with program and project manager and use this approach to overcome resistance to the new project and the changes it may bring to the current work that is underway.
The portfolio manager also can use force field analysis to determine whether the proposed program or project is one that will support the organization‧s goals, objectives, and overall risk tolerance or whether including this proposed project in the portfolio may also engender too much resistance for it to be successful.
Motivational Mistakes
The program or project manager should experiment with different approaches to motivating team members. He or she should pay close attention to whether motivational efforts are working. Here are some examples of well-intentioned but questionable motivation strategies and beliefs:
“Whatever motivates me will motivate others.” This belief is an extension of the assumption that others want to be treated the way we would like to be treated. People are often motivated by the same approaches, but not always. Do not make assumptions about what will motivate someone—ask him or her!
“People are motivated primarily by money.” Although it is obviously valid to an extent, this belief does not explain the full range of human motivation. People are also highly motivated by personal acknowledgment from their managers, meaningful recognition from peers, and the opportunity to work in a setting in which they can keep developing marketable skills.
“Team members love to receive formal awards.” Many people do value the opportunity to receive a formal award noting a special achievement. Frequently, however, formal awards are presented in a way that may actually cause employee cynicism, such as a situation where employees believe that the recipient of the award is chosen for reasons other than accomplishment, such as company politics or political correctness. Formal awards are likely to be motivating forces when team members themselves vote for the recipient and when the award is not given to mask some other issue.
“Give them a rally slogan.”Initially, slogans can help win team members’ focus and give them a sense of purpose, but if they are overused, they can quickly backfire on the program or project manager. Slogans can make the message behind the slogan seem like a sham. Many self-directed professionals feel that the overuse of slogans is patronizing.
“The best project leader is a strong cheerleader.” Cheerleading is an important part of managing people, but the program or project manager needs to be careful not to overdo it. Cheerleading comments can be positive, but they need to be used carefully. Often, the best way to motivate people is to let them come up with the inspiration and energy for their own actions, free from outside cheerleading.
“These people are professionals. They don‧t need motivating!” Project professionals are generally self-motivating, following an inner drive that leads to achievement and productivity. However, nearly everyone profits from occasional outside sources of motivation, particularly on programs that are lengthy or projects that are frustrating.
“I‧ll motivate them when there is a problem.” This approach to motivation takes the old adage that says “No news is good news” to an extreme. Unfortunately, people tend not to tell others when their motivation is starting to lag; their level of motivation usually needs to get seriously low before most people speak up and address the issue. The skilled motivator takes a proactive approach to motivating the team, not waiting for motivation issues to surface.
“I‧ll treat everyone the same. People like that, and it will be motivating for them.” It is safe to assume that it is important to treat everyone the same on issues of basic fairness and job performance standards. But it is also important to recognize team members as individuals, especially when creating strategies to motivate each of the individuals on a team. Different things motivate people at different points in their lives.
Motivational Checklist for the Program or Project Manager
Here are seven suggestions to follow when considering how to motivate a team member:
Determine the team member‧s personal style (using the MBTI system or another framework for describing individual differences).
Assess the member‧s career stage (as described by Schein).
Identify the team member‧s career anchors (the work-related values described by Schein).
Identify the team member‧s primary need: achievement, affiliation, or power (as described by McClelland).
Determine the team member‧s particular level of need according to the Flannes and Buell model based on Maslow‧s hierarchy of needs.
Use force field analysis as appropriate.
Remember to be proactive in motivating others, and try to avoid making the common motivational mistakes discussed above.
Summary
Motivating team members is one of the most challenging and sophisticated interpersonal tasks required of the program or project manager. In developing and implementing motivation strategies, the program or project manager should consider macro-level factors such as downsizing and sociological forces such as the increase in cross-cultural influences and virtual teams. Motivational approaches must also consider individual variables, such as each team member‧s personality style, personal values, and career development stage, as well as situational variables.
The program or project manager should remember that all sources of motivation are fluid and dynamic. Keep in touch with team members to determine what is currently motivating for them. The best approach to use when deciding what is motivating for any particular team member is to ask that person. That may sound simplistic, but it will provide the manager with a wealth of current, specific information that cannot be obtained through any other method.
Discussion Questions
Angelica is the project manager for a software development project. When she was chosen as project manager, her manager told her that her team comprised some highly skilled professionals representing diverse backgrounds and professional goals. These team members, the manager explained, would need to be skillfully motivated to get the work completed on time.
As Angelica left the initial meeting with her manager, she began reflecting on how she would motivate these people, particularly given the rumor of impending company layoffs. She knew what was motivating for her, and she assumed that these same things would also motivate her team members.
However, as she learned more about her team members’ backgrounds during her next meeting with her manager, she began to have second thoughts about what motivating approaches she could use successfully with them. One of the members, for example, was an introvert and a long-term employee 14 months from retirement. Another team member was a new employee who recently arrived in this country after completing his degree in another country. Two others were technical contractors on loan to the project for undetermined lengths of time. There was a disgruntled mid-career engineer who believed that he should have been selected as project manager. Finally, two other team members were young, fast-track engineers who were noted for their technical innovation but were often perceived to be short on task follow-through and closure.
Reviewing the composition of her team, Angelica realized that she would be significantly challenged to motivate each of these individuals given their unique situations and professional needs.
If you were this project manager, how would you motivate each of these different individuals?
What would be your first step in the motivation process?
How would you assess your effectiveness as a motivator?