Kreg Ettenger
Tourism is a major economic activity in the Caribbean, generating US$56.4 billion in total annual revenue and contributing 13.4 percent of total regional employment in 2016.1 A heavy reliance on marine-based tourism means that the region is especially susceptible to the types of impacts that climate change will have, and is already having, on ecosystems and the physical environment throughout the Caribbean and across the globe. Specifically, damage to coral reefs, beaches, mangroves, seagrass beds, and other critical habitats are impacting the types of activities in which marine tourists engage, namely fishing, snorkeling and diving, surfing, and sailing. In addition, the physical and economic infrastructures that support these activities—including harbors and marinas, coastal resorts, airports, and the human communities that make tourism possible—are all facing threats of various types and scales as a result of climate change. In short, the industries that make up the marine tourism sector in the Caribbean, as in other parts of the oceanic world, have a direct and significant stake in understanding, responding to, and preparing for how climate change will affect them now and in the future.
These industries also contribute, to varying degrees, to environmental and other stressors that exacerbate the effects of climate change on this region. From the carbon emissions of cruise ships and pleasure boats (not to mention the planes that carry most marine tourists to and from the region), to the direct physical impacts of divers and other recreationists on coral reefs and other fragile marine ecosystems, to the added stress on local resources and waste management systems, marine tourism plays a part in degrading the very environments that are critical to the future of the industry. For this reason, an increasing number of marine tourists and advocacy groups are looking for more sustainable ways to enjoy the marine environment, while a growing number of marine tourism businesses are trying to make their practices more sustainable in response to this demand.
In the first volume of this two-volume marine tourism set, we looked at the threats that marine environments in the Caribbean are facing as a result of climate change and other human-induced factors. Authors looked specifically at coral reefs and how these are in jeopardy as a result of both climate change and a host of other factors; other case studies looked at mangroves and the growing problem of encroaching sargassum seaweed. The volume then considered the state of fisheries in the Caribbean and in two other regions, looking at how non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are playing a role in helping local fishing communities develop more sustainable harvesting strategies. Volume I also looked at the role of marine protected areas, or MPAs, in conservation efforts throughout the region and how their importance will be even greater in the era of climate change. And finally, authors showed how marine tourists can be incorporated into marine conservation efforts through such innovative programs as participating in the care of coral reef nurseries.
Here, in Volume II, we turn toward a discussion of the various sectors of the marine tourism industry in the Caribbean, considering the impacts these sectors are having on the region’s environment and what steps individual companies or advocacy groups are taking to minimize these impacts. Industries considered include individual sports such as surfing, diving, and sport fishing; the thriving, yet vulnerable, yachting and marina sector; and the juggernaut of Caribbean marine tourism, the cruise ship industry. Each of these sectors has impacts that can exacerbate the negative effects of climate change, and each is already being impacted by climate change, some significantly. However, as we have shown in the other volumes, each of these sectors also has examples of individual companies that are taking steps to lessen their impacts on the environment, while also adapting to the “new normal” in the region. These examples, often the result of innovative partnerships with NGOs, national or international agencies, and local communities, are what we choose to focus on in this book. The following are short synopses of the three chapters in this volume, including overview essays and case studies.
Chapter 2: Marine Recreation
All types of marine recreation depend on healthy oceans, diverse and plentiful marine life, attractive and accessible coastlines, safe and vibrant coastal communities, and adequate coastal infrastructure, including hospitality facilities and workers. As Mark Spalding and Luke Elder point out in their overview essay, all of these factors can be threatened by climate change. Sea level rise is wiping out beaches and affecting famous surfing areas; large ocean storms are affecting coastlines, communities, and recreation infrastructure; ocean warming and acidification are damaging coral reefs and their associated biota; and declines in fish stocks are impacting both sport and commercial fishing. These and other changes threaten the future of marine recreation in many parts of the world, including the Caribbean. In response, some in the marine recreation industry are taking steps to protect their own interests as well as the world’s oceans, beaches, and coastal communities. A growing number of organizations are getting involved in advocacy at the local and global levels, helping members of their own communities change their behaviors, while lobbying for more government and international action on climate change and marine preservation. Surfers, divers, sport fishers, and others are all coming to realize that only concerted action to mitigate, reverse, and prepare for the effects of climate change will save their treasured sports and the places they love.
The two case studies in this chapter reinforce these ideas. The first, written by Travis Bays and Shengxiao Yu, describes Bodhi Surf & Yoga, a small business located on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica. Bodhi’s responses to climate change and other environmental threats include restoring vegetation around local beaches, ensuring proper wastewater management, implementing community education programs, and promoting good practices among guests, both while they are at Bodhi and after they return home. Tools such as their Travelers’ Philanthropy Program and the Ocean Guardian Pledge reinforce the idea that surfers can, and should, help play a role in mitigating climate change, in part through steps they take in their everyday lives.
The second case study is written from the perspective of an experienced diver and marine scientist who has explored coral reefs around the world, including in the Caribbean. The author, Rick MacPherson, laments the drastic decline of coral reefs over the past few decades, the result of overfishing, rapid coastal development, invasive species, climate change, and in some cases, dive tourism itself. MacPherson ends with a description of a shark diving business in Fiji that ultimately led to the creation of a marine reserve and the partial restoration of the local fishing economy, both side benefits to this tourism-led project.
Chapter 3: Caribbean Yachting and Marinas in an Era of Climate Change
Chapter 3 begins with an in-depth essay on the rise of yachting in the Caribbean, from its roots as an occasional activity of wealthy Americans in the early twentieth century, to yet another form of mass tourism today. As it has risen in popularity, its economic influence in the Caribbean has also grown, to the extent that it today vies with cruise tourism in terms of its overall contribution to the region’s tourism revenue. As author Martha Honey points out, however, it does so with fewer than one-tenth the number of visitors as the cruise ship industry, showing the relative importance of this activity and its continued growth potential. At the same time, the yachting sector is perhaps one of the most vulnerable to the effects of climate change, with several large marinas already devastated by major hurricanes in the past two decades. As Honey points out, there is a clear need for better design and construction techniques in this sector, as well as a need to protect the reefs, coastlines, mangroves, clean harbors, and other resources on which the sector depends. There must also be a focus on sustainable growth, rather than the type of rapid and ill-advised development that is now occurring in many places as Caribbean destinations vie with one another to attract more yachting business, including the massive megayachts and superyachts that have become the new playthings of the super-rich.
In the first case study in this chapter, Esteban Biondi looks in more depth at the environmental impacts of marina construction and operation, and considers some of the design tools that are available to reduce these impacts. Among the guidelines he describes are Working with Nature (WwN) and the Clean and Resilient Marina Initiative, both of which offer guidance to planners and developers seeking to minimize the impacts of new or expanded marinas while also preparing for the impacts of climate change. Biondi also considers the social impacts of marinas and describes how some are working with local fishing communities to offer more benefits and fewer drawbacks.
In the second case study, Robin Swaisland looks at the yachting sector in Grenada, at one time among the Caribbean’s most popular boating destinations. In the early 2000s, this sector was devastated by three successive hurricanes, Lenny, Ivan, and Emily, causing billions of dollars in damages, damaging hundreds of yachts, and forcing the permanent closure or relocation of several marinas. As the marina sector in Grenada works to rebuild, it now faces competition from many other regional yachting destinations, as well as the looming threat of more damage from an increasing number of large tropical storms, and the likely impact of sea level rise on marine tourism infrastructure. Swaisland concludes by looking at some of the steps industry leaders in Grenada are taking to reduce their own impacts on climate change.
In the final case study, Martha Honey returns to look at one marina complex in Grenada, the Tyrell Bay Marina on the island of Carriacou. According to Honey, this is a prime example of how not to do marina resort development, with massive facilities that are inappropriate to the region in economic, social, and environmental terms. As she describes, the development has already had negative impacts on coastal ecosystems, including the fragile Mangrove Oyster Beds area, while bringing few local economic benefits. As this case study illustrates, while some areas are making strides to reduce the negative impacts of marinas and yachting, and to better prepare for the coming effects of climate change, this is far from universal in the Caribbean region.
Chapter 4: Cruise Tourism
The final chapter in this volume looks at a behemoth of Caribbean tourism, the cruise ship industry. Like the yachting sector, the cruise industry has grown far beyond its humble roots to become one of the true tourism power players in the region. However, it has done so much faster, to a much larger extent, and with considerably greater environmental and social impacts than the yachting industry. As Martha Honey points out in her overview essay, cruise ships also bring fewer economic benefits to the Caribbean than other forms of marine and land-based tourism, due in part to the short stays of visitors in each destination, but also because of the very economic structure of the cruise industry. Cruise passengers are really buying a destination package in the ship itself, with ports of call being minor diversions with little onshore spending, according to Honey. This leaves most Caribbean nations paying a large price in environmental and other terms as they cope with huge numbers of short-term visitors, but seeing little payoff in return. In terms of climate change, the cruise industry has multiple impacts, ranging from carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from their massive engines, to the release of sewage and other effluents that impact marine ecosystems and cause additional GHG production. In short, this is an industry that needs serious oversight and regulation if they are to become responsible members of the Caribbean tourism industry. As Honey points out, this would be in their own best interest, as they need well-preserved marine environments and coastal destinations for their passengers. They are also already seeing the effects of climate change cut into their bottom line, through cancelled and diverted cruises, unhappy passengers, and damaged infrastructure from a growing number of major hurricanes in the region.
The three case studies for this chapter further elaborate on the environmental impacts of the cruise industry, but also describe some steps currently being taken by industry leaders. In the first case study, Julia Lewis describes in some detail the various environmental impacts of the cruise industry, including its effects on global climate. She describes, for example, the rather disgusting—but perfectly legal—practice of dumping raw sewage at sea. When one considers that each of the dozens of cruise ships sailing in the Caribbean is essentially a floating town with as many as 9,000 residents (passengers and crew), it is not surprising that millions of gallons of black water and gray water are dumped into the sea every day. In addition, ships regularly dump ballast water, oily bilge water, and various hazardous wastes into the ocean, whether legally or illegally. In addition, they dump macerated food waste into the ocean, emit pollutants from onboard garbage incinerators, and of course, generate large amounts of GHGs from their ship engines and generators. These and other environmental impacts, such as reef destruction, sedimentation from harbor dredging, and sunscreen pollution, are all described by Lewis.
The next case study paints a somewhat more positive picture, focusing on one cruise line and the steps it has taken to be more environmentally sustainable. Samantha Hogenson looks at Royal Caribbean Cruises, Ltd. (RCL), widely acknowledged as a cruise industry leader in terms of reducing various environmental impacts, including carbon emissions. According to Hogenson, RCL has been working on sustainability issues for more than two decades, with its innovative Save the Waves program addressing multiple types of environmental impacts, from solid waste disposal to sewage treatment to fuel consumption and emissions. RCL is also working with organizations such as World Wildlife Fund (WWF) to create guidelines for more sustainable actions in individual destinations, something that has been a clear weakness of the cruise industry. While not perfect, and admitting the difficulty of monitoring and enforcing company guidelines on individual ships, the actions that Royal Caribbean has taken are certainly steps in the right direction.
The final case study, by Kennedy Magio and Elisa Arguelles, looks at climate change and cruise tourism in Cozumel, México. According to the authors, the island currently vies with The Bahamas as the world’s leading international cruise tourism destination. Of Cozumel’s 4.3 million visitors in 2016, some 3.7 million (or 86 percent) were cruise ship passengers, disembarking from about 1,600 ships. Despite these numbers, however, stay-over tourists actually generated more revenue for the island than cruise passengers, because they each spent, on average, five times as much. This is the type of math that makes it difficult to justify cruise ship tourism as an economic generator for many Caribbean nations. As the authors point out, there are also environmental and climate impacts of cruise tourism in Cozumel, as well as other places in the Caribbean. Ironically, cruise lines have the advantage of being able to move their ships out of harm’s way in the face of severe storms, while local communities such as Cozumel bear the brunt of cleanup and rebuilding costs. Cozumel suffered some US$400 million worth of damage in 2005 alone from hurricanes Wilma, Emily, and Stan, which devastated the island’s hotels, resorts, and marine tourism infrastructure. As the authors conclude, more needs to be done to reduce the negative impacts of cruise tourism and to better prepare places such as Cozumel for future climate-related threats.
Conclusion
Our goal in this volume, as with Volume I, is to demonstrate that far from being simply culprits in the demise of the region, the marine tourism industry is largely aware of the impacts of its activities on the Caribbean’s marine environments and is taking at least some steps to reduce these effects. It is in their own interest to do so, for if the delicate marine environments of the Caribbean cannot be protected, there will be no marine tourism industry to speak of. Climate change already threatens many of the region’s most important and (from a tourism perspective) attractive features, including beaches, seagrass beds, mangroves, coral reefs, and the diverse species that call these habitats home. Without drastic action, many of these ecosystems could be gone within our lifetimes, and certainly within the lifetimes of our children. A collapse of the marine tourism industry in the Caribbean would be an economic loss in and of itself, but more importantly, would likely coincide with a devastating loss of food and other marine resources and employment for the people of the region. This is a future that no conscientious traveler would ever want to imagine. We hope that the essays and case studies that follow, therefore, give some ideas as to how such a future can be avoided.
Notes
1. World Travel & Tourism Council. (2017). Travel and Tourism. Economic Impact 2017. Caribbean. https://www.wttc.org/-/media/files/reports/economic-impact-research/regions-2017/caribbean2017.pdf