CONCLUSION

Marine Tourism, Climate Change, and the State of the World’s Oceans

Mark J. Spalding

To the ancient Greeks, Oceanus was the primordial god of the sea, sometimes seen as an endless river encircling the world, from which the sun rose and set. In this vision, the sense that the human world was encompassed and intertwined with the ocean was absolute.

Today, we know that the ocean is more than just a river encircling the earth, although ocean sunrises and sunsets still call to mind romantic and beautiful images. We know that the ocean covers 70 percent of the planet—and rising, thanks to global warming. We know it is a complex global patchwork of rocky coasts and beach-lined shores, intertidal zones and wetlands, kelp forests and coral reefs, seamounts, deep sea reefs and grottoes, and even the deep abyss, all of which are home to a vast array of fish, mammals, invertebrates, flora, and so much more.

Marine habitats provide critical ecosystem services: providing food and other resources to humans (see Image 5.0.1); helping regulate climate, weather, and temperatures; filtering and breaking down wastes and pollutants; and providing cultural, aesthetic, and recreational services. But these services are in jeopardy. The human relationship with the ocean is not sustainable in its current form. Human activities now affect every drop of the vast, complex, life-giving ocean. Put simply, we take too much good stuff out of the ocean, and put too much bad stuff in.

Image 5.0.1 Well-managed fisheries harvest fish at a sustainable rate¹

The threats humans pose to the ocean are innumerable. A small sample includes:

• Dumping of toxic wastes, as well as chemical runoff from roads and urban areas.
• Sewage discharge from both onshore and offshore (ship) sources.
• Nutrients from agriculture and sewage that lead to algal blooms and oxygen depletion.
• Discharges from mineral and petroleum extraction and transport, including oil spills.
• Noise pollution from shipping, warfare training, seismic surveys, and communications.
• Intentional or accidental destruction of both nearshore and deepwater coral reefs.
• Acidification of oceans due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide.
• Destruction of coastal wetlands, mangroves, and other vital ecosystems.
• Overfishing, destructive gear, and other harmful fishing practices, including by-catch.
• Decimation of top ocean predators, including sharks and game fish.
• Illegal whaling, ship strikes, and seismic surveys that kill or injure marine mammals.
• Dumping of garbage including plastics, which can bioaccumulate in the food chain.
• Poorly managed fish farming that leads to increased nutrients and pathogens.

While a range of human activities, including those related to tourism, are negatively impacting the health of oceans, the most significant future threat to the ocean is likely climate change. In conjunction with the local, regional, and global stressors listed above, warming of the global atmosphere and oceans may push many marine ecosystems over the edge.

The Oceans and Climate Change

The ocean is Earth’s dominant climate regulator, with ocean waters absorbing most of the sun’s radiation. Global warming has raised the average global temperature by about 1.2°F (0.68°C) over the past century.² Meanwhile, ocean temperatures have risen, on average, by only about 0.18°F (0.1°C). This shows the ability of this great mass of water to absorb thermal energy. This warming has been highly uneven, however, both regionally and in terms of ocean depth. Most warming has occurred from the surface to a depth of about 2,300 feet (700 meters), where the majority of marine life exists.³ Changes in sea surface temperatures also show wide geographic variation, with some regions warming by as much as 4°F (2.8°C), and others actually cooling, apparently due to runoff of meltwater from polar glaciers.⁴

Rising surface water temperatures can drastically affect regional and global rainfall patterns, increasing the amount of rainfall and the strength and frequency of tropical storms in some areas, while causing extended droughts in other regions. Changing temperatures can also disrupt ocean currents, including major heat conveyors such as the Gulf Stream, with potentially devastating effects on climate and weather patterns. Changing ocean temperatures can also affect where and how marine life feeds, breeds, and grows, and whether or not marine ecosystems can survive. To add insult to injury, the capacity of the ocean to act as a carbon sink and to mitigate the impacts of our carbon emissions is declining.⁵

In addition to soaking up heat from the sun and the planet’s atmosphere, the ocean absorbs an incredible amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂), including about one-third of the CO₂ produced from human activities.⁶ Absorption of CO₂ in seawater creates carbonic acid, a process occurring faster today than any time in the past 65 million years.⁷ As with temperature, ocean life is finely tuned to survival in a specific range of pH, averaging around 8.2 over the past 300 million years.⁸ For many marine animals, plants, and even entire ecosystems, seemingly small changes in ocean chemistry can mean big changes for future survival. Ocean pH levels have already dropped 0.1 pH units to around 8.1, representing a 25 percent increase in acidity, with a further 0.5 pH drop projected by the end of this century. This could have devastating effects on calcareous (calcium-based) invertebrates including corals, shellfish, and zooplankton, a basic building block of the marine food web.

Coral reefs, the foundation of much marine life, are especially vulnerable. Increased acidity reduces the rates at which corals grow; warmer seawater contributes to coral bleaching (where corals eject the symbiotic algae that give them their color, and which they need to survive – see Image 5.0.2); and more frequent and severe storms can threaten overall coral reef health.¹⁰ Damage to coral reefs impacts fisheries and tourism, and reduces the ability of reefs to protect coasts from ocean storms. The loss of coastal ecosystems including coral reefs, mangroves, seagrasses, and salt marshes reduces coastal resilience to rising sea levels and makes these problems more severe. Small Island Developing States and low-lying coastal areas, including in the Caribbean, are already experiencing increased flooding, coastal inundation, and erosion. This can lead to population displacement, infrastructure damage, and in some cases, political instability.

Image 5.0.2 Bleached coral⁹

Warmer ocean waters are also shifting fish populations, in some cases leading to decreased catches and destabilizing fishing industries that have been part of centuries-old ways of life.¹¹ Many Atlantic species have shifted their ranges considerably over the past few decades, while some have declined in numbers.¹² For example, the lobster industries in Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts have suffered with the northward shift of the lobster population. In 2013, the number of adult lobsters in New England south of Cape Cod fell to roughly 10 million, just one-fifth the population in the late 1990s.¹³ Increased biological stress, reduced breeding success, and increased mortality from epizootic shell disease (ESD) are all thought to be related to warming waters, a problem that has now spread northward to the Gulf of Maine.¹⁴ And while some fish are moving out of their normal ranges, others, including potentially invasive species such as lionfish and black sea bass, are moving in.¹⁵

These threats are changing the ocean and the communities that depend on it. Climate change is already damaging coastal livelihoods, infrastructure, ecosystem services, and economic stability. It is within this context that these volumes have examined the role of ocean-based tourism, including the impacts of tourism on marine ecosystems, as well as how changes in these ecosystems could impact local and regional tourism economies.

The Future Status and Role of Marine Tourism

The travel and tourism sector has an annual economic impact of around US$7 trillion worldwide, representing 9.5 percent of global GDP and 5.4 percent of world exports.¹⁶ Estimates of the value of marine tourism vary, but it is clearly in the hundreds of billions of dollars.¹⁷ The total economic contribution of travel and tourism in the Caribbean region was US$51.9 billion in 2014.¹⁸ While this might be small compared to other parts of the world, such as Europe, relative to the size of the region’s economy, tourism looms large. Compared to 11 other world regions, Caribbean tourism ranks first in terms of its contribution to GDP (14.6 percent), employment (13 percent), capital investment (12.2 percent), and total exports (17.8 percent).¹⁹ In short, no other region relies as heavily on tourism as the Caribbean. And based on current trends, the region’s dependence on tourism, including marine tourism, will only increase over time—assuming there are still things to see and do.

Marine tourism depends on a functioning ocean, including predictable weather patterns, safe transportation routes, healthy fisheries, clean waters, and attractive coral reefs and other sites for recreation. Thanks, in part, to climate change, however, these things are in jeopardy. In terms of weather, shifts in rainfall patterns are causing problems with flooding, droughts, and storms, all of which can increase costs and impact tourism activities. More frequent, severe, and unpredictable tropical cyclones make air and ship transport less reliable, and threaten ports and other transportation infrastructure. Sea level rise and storm surge pose threats to coastal development, including facilities that contribute to island nation tourism revenue.

Other impacts of climate change can affect the activities that tourists want to do, such as diving and snorkeling; the places they want to visit, such as pristine beaches and colorful coral reefs; and the things they want to consume, including fish and other marine foods. Among the most pressing issues is the decline of corals reefs throughout much of the Caribbean, a trend that threatens not only the tourism industry, but the many communities that depend on reefs for food and for protection from storm surges and other environmental hazards. Other imminent threats include the decline of important food and game species of fish; the loss of critical coastal and marine habitats that support these and other creatures; problems with seawater quality that can affect marine recreation; and an increase in nuisance events such as invasions of sargassum seaweed, which chokes beaches and bays, making them virtually unusable for tourism.

While marine tourism is affected by these changes in ocean health, it is also a culprit. The general overdevelopment of many areas, including construction of coastal resorts and other infrastructure, places considerable burden on already stressed ecosystems. Millions of visitors contribute sewage and other waste, use precious fresh water and other resources, and sometimes, engage in destructive practices while recreating (Chapter 2). Their presence can also compel local residents to engage in unsustainable practices, such as overfishing or harvesting reef products to meet tourist demands. Poorly sited or designed marinas (Chapter 3) can destroy important coastal and marine ecosystems including mangroves and seagrass beds, both of which are vital habitat for sea life and provide critical ecosystem services, including protection from storms. The cruise industry (Chapter 4), notorious for lax environmental policies and procedures, impacts water quality and can damage reefs and other critical areas, as well as adding to the environmental burden of port towns and cities. And the tourism industry, as a whole, contributes to carbon emissions and other impacts that add to global warming and other environmental problems.

Linking Marine Tourism with Sustainability

Sustainable tourism centered on marine ecosystems and resources can play a key role in protecting the ocean environment while helping local communities adapt to climate change. Marine protected areas (MPAs), coastal habitat restoration, sustainable fishing and aquaculture, responsible marine recreation, and marine ecotourism, all represent strategies that can increase ocean resilience and help safeguard marine ecosystems from climate change-related impacts.

Engaging tourists in protecting and restoring seagrass meadows (see Image 5.0.3), mangroves, and coral reefs can help provide critical nursery habitat for fish, buffer coasts against storm surges, and sequester carbon from the atmosphere. MPAs, which are often major tourist attractions, can also help preserve endangered species and support larger conservation goals. Sustainable artisanal fishing connects visitors with their environment and contributes to local economies. Local aquaculture, done well, can supply island communities and tourism sites while reducing dependence on imported foods, meaning fewer carbon emissions from transportation.

Image 5.0.3 Seagrass meadows, which are declining worldwide, provide critical functions such as coastline protection and nursery habitat for fish²⁰

Responsible and sustainable tourism can empower local communities and protect marine environments through social and environmental best practices. By using local supply chains and guide companies, tourism has the potential to foster local economic growth, rather than marginalize and displace communities. Sustainable tourism also promotes place-based cultural heritage and patrimony, showcasing traditional aesthetics while providing income for local artisans. Sustainable marine recreation, including responsible cruise tourism and yachting, can be important parts of the equation.

If we grow our tourism economy on the back of the ocean, we must create opportunities that help restore the ocean and its balance and take pressure off the commons. We need to develop innovative solutions to address the problems associated with climate change and its impact on the ocean. There is great opportunity for research, innovation, and collaboration—because the ocean and its issues are international in scope, and because they affect billions of people, including residents and visitors alike. The case studies in these volumes have described some of the many steps already being taken by residents, researchers, NGOs, and the tourism industry to respond to the challenges facing marine ecosystems in this era of climate change.

Protecting What Remains: The Time is Now!

We have an unavoidable and undeniable dependence on the ocean. One in seven people rely on the ocean for protein, and seafood is the most traded agricultural product from developing nations.²¹ At the same time, global fish stocks are declining, even as more and more people turn to the ocean for food. We need to provide greater food security through sustainable onshore aquaculture, restoration of critical coastal habitat, and protection of smaller-scale, well-managed local fisheries. We must also work to rebuild the ocean’s failing ecosystems and better prepare them for the added stresses and risks of climate change, including rising temperatures, sea levels, and acidity. Solutions for a healthy ocean include reducing carbon emissions, enhancing the ocean’s ability to sequester carbon, and promoting resilience by addressing the cumulative effects of multiple stressors, from overfishing to pollution, and yes, even tourism.

Because of its intimate connection to the oceans through fishing and other resource-based activities, its economic dependence on marine and coastal tourism, and its long experience in living with the threat of ocean storms, the Caribbean can serve as a model for adaptation to the climate-changed world. Caribbean nations should play a key role in climate resilience efforts by being leaders in energy efficiency and renewable energy; by promoting local organic food production, including aquaculture; by protecting coastal and marine ecosystems, including mangroves, coral reefs, and seagrass meadows; and by applying sustainable planning techniques, including new, innovative and ambitious zoning and coastal development policies.

We are at a critical point for the future of life on earth. We must protect the ocean because it is our life support system, and because it is in danger. The good news is that the ocean is resilient. This means that the ocean and marine-dependent communities have great ability to recover. Our communal work has only just begun.²²

Notes

  1.  Image Source: Flickr Creative Commons.

  2.  National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). (June 4, 2015). “Science Publishes New NOAA Analysis: Data Show No Recent Slowdown in Global Warming.” http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2015/noaa-analysis-journal-science-no-slowdown-in-global-warming-in-recent-years.html

  3.  Earth Observatory. (2015). Global Maps. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/GlobalMaps/view.php?d1=AMSRE_SSTAn_M&d2=TRMM_3B43M

  4.  For maps showing global sea surface temperature change, see: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2016). Climate Change Indicators: Sea Surface Indicators. http://www3.epa.gov/climatechange/science/indicators/oceans/sea-surface-temp.html

  5.  M. R. Raupach, M. Gloor, J. L. Sarmiento, J. G. Canadell, T. L. Frölicher, T. Gasser, R. A. Houghton, C. Le Quéré, and C. M. Trudinger. (2014). The Declining Uptake Rate of Atmospheric CO₂ by Land and Ocean Sinks. Biogeosciences, 11(13), 3453–75.

  6.  Ocean & Climate Platform. (2016). “17 Ocean and Climate Scientific Items.” http://www.ocean-climate.org/?page_id=1800

  7.  Mark J. Spalding. (March 2015). The Crisis Upon Us. The Environmental Forum, 32(2), 38–43. https://www.oceanfdn.org/sites/default/files/Spalding_FORUM_2015_March.pdf

  8.  National Geographic. (April 27, 2010). “Ocean Acidification.” http://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/oceans/critical-issues-ocean-acidification/

  9.  Image Source: Duke University, with permission from The Ocean Foundation.

10.  O. Hoegh-Guldberg, P. J. Mumby, A. J. Hooten, R. S. Steneck, P. Greenfield, E. Gomez, C. D. Harvell, P. F. Sale, A. J. Edwards, K. Caldeira, N. Knowlton, C. M. Eakin, R. Iglesias-Prieto, N. Muthiga, R. H. Bradbury, A. Dubi, M. E. Hatziolos. (2007). Coral Reefs Under Rapid Climate Change and Ocean Acidification. Science, 318(5857), 1737–42.

11.  Andrew Freedman. (May 14, 2013). “As Oceans Warm, Fish are Finding New ZIP Codes.” Climate Central. http://www.climatecentral.org/news/as-seas-warm-fish-need-new-zip-codes-15992

12.  Northeast Fisheries Science Center (NEFSC). (November 2, 2009). North Atlantic Fish Populations Shifting as Ocean Temperatures Warm. Science Spotlight, 16. http://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/press_release/2009/SciSpot/SS0916/

13.  Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission. (2015). “American Lobster.” http://www.asmfc.org/species/american-lobster

14.  University of Maine. (November 13, 2015). “Researchers Study Lobster Shell Disease to Protect Maine’s Iconic Industry.” UMaine News. https://umaine.edu/news/blog/2015/11/13/researchers-study-lobster-shell-disease-to-protect-maines-iconic-industry/

15.  Kip Tabb. (September 10, 2015). “Fish Respond to Warming Ocean.” Coastal Review Online. http://www.coastalreview.org/2015/09/fish-respond-to-warming-ocean/

16.  World Economic Forum. (2015). The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2015. http://reports.weforum.org/travel-and-tourism-competitiveness-report-2015/

17.  Phillippe Rekacewicz. (2006). “Benefits of Marine and Coastal Ecosystems to Human Wellbeing.” Vital Water Graphics 2. GRID-Arendal. http://www.grida.no/graphicslib/detail/benefits-of-marine-and-coastal-ecosystems-to-human-wellbeing_cc9a#

18.  World Travel & Tourism Council. (2015). Travel and Tourism. Economic Impact 2015. Caribbean. http://www.wttc.org/-/media/files/reports/economic%20impact%20research/regional%202015/caribbean2015.pdf

19.  Ibid.

20.  Image source: John Mark Arnold, with permission from The Ocean Foundation.

21.  World Health Organization. (2015). Global and Regional Food Consumption Patterns and Trends. http://www.who.int/nutrition/topic/3_foodconsumption/en/print.html