CHAPTER 5

Where–When–What

From a total solar eclipse to the Milky Way to the Northern Lights, many experts at the 2019 Internationale Tourismus-Börse Berlin, marketed as the world’s leading travel trade show, were making a case for astronomical experiences. According to Andreas Haenel, astronomer, and director of the planetarium museum in Osnabrück, Germany, “Astrotourism is really an increasing business. We now see many travel agencies which offer this kind of tourism.” Two questions that are particularly important to astrotourism are “where to go?” and “when to go?”

The When

The when to go is any time of the year when clouds are not dominating the sky, but some astronomical events occur that are “superstars” and compel the public to travel. Considerable numbers of people are interested, and prime spots may be booked years in advance. Certain months present unique events, like meteor showers that are loosely bracketed by calendrical dates and approximate times.

Total solar eclipses occur at precise moments that are calculated to the second, with a path on earth that requires the viewer to be at an exact place at an exact time. During the eclipse, the shadow of the moon tracking across the earth can move at speeds from 1,770 km/h at the equator to 8,046 km/h at the poles, with the shadow of totality only 267 km across.¹

Viewing conditions change with the seasons, and gear to ensure the astrotourist’s comfort will be needed. The best sky for viewing is during the winter. The Earth’s atmosphere is not as hazy then because cold air has less capacity to hold moisture; the air is drier and clearer than in the summer months. Certain times of the month are better for stargazing due to the moon’s waxing and waning rhythm. The days closer to the new moon are more advantageous, as the stars are more visible when not competing with the sun’s reflection off the lunar surface. The ideal time to see the stars is after the moon has set or before it rises. This will change monthly, as the moon rises about 50 minutes later every day.

The What

The stars themselves and the accompanying nocturnal neighbors are topics that can fill volumes of books. The Milky Way galaxy will be the first and foremost object in the sky that your guests will be introduced to. Anecdotal evidence has shown that people who have never seen it think it to be pollution in the sky. Get familiar with the brightest stars and asterisms in the sky as they are ways to locate constellations. In descending brightness Sirius, Canopus, Rigil Kentaurus, Arcturus, Vega, Capella, Rigel, Procyon, Achenar, and Betelguese. Use the common asterisms of the Big Dipper, Cassiopeia, Orion’s Belt, The Hyades, the Great Square of Pegasus, Orion’s Sword, to get familiar with the night.

The Andromeda galaxy can be seen with the naked eye, appearing like a fuzzy patch in the Great Square of Pegasus, and with a good pair of binoculars or a modest telescope it is possible to see several galaxies.

The Satellites

According to the Union of Concerned Scientists, there are about 6,000 satellites in orbit as of January 2021, with 60 percent defunct and nothing more than space junk, with 2,666 operational. Over the coming decade, the Euroconsult estimates that there are 990 satellites launched every year. By 2028, there could be 15,000 satellites in orbit.² They crisscross the sky 24/7 but are most visible during the early evening and the pre-dawn hours as that is when they are reflecting the sunlight high in our atmosphere while the surface of the earth is wholly in the shadow. The best way to spot a satellite is to lay on your back and allow your eyes to relax to take in a full peripheral view of the sky; try to look at all of the stars simultaneously, and by doing so, you can tell one of them is moving. That will be a satellite and will be moving much faster than a high-altitude jet plane and will be utterly silent.

The Planets

The word planet comes from the Greek word “planetes” meaning wanderer. They traverse the ecliptic, an imaginary plane containing the Earth’s orbit around the sun. The sun’s path through the sky is the ecliptic, and all the planets and the moon follow closely to that path with a slight variance but with different speeds. Venus is the brightest appearing as an evening or morning “star” as it outshines everything else save the moon. Jupiter is more brilliant than many stars in the sky, as is Saturn, whereas Mars and Mercury are harder to see, with the latter a rare sight. Many phone apps will help you pinpoint the planets as they process across the night sky.

The Moons

Stargazers consider moonlight an impediment to viewing, as it diminishes the ability to see the starlight. However, the innovative proprietor of astrotourism products, the full moon (and the nights on either side of it), can easily be the main attraction that will lure people from metropolitan areas. People who live under ALAN have forgotten or never experienced an evening in the countryside, bathed by the light of a full moon. It has a universal appeal to all ages and cultures. For couples, it is all at once magical and enchanting while being romantic and dreamy.

Without the stars taking the night’s attention, the moon provides lovers the opportunity to be starry-eyed with each other. Children can cavort in a haunting and mysterious landscape without any need for artificial illumination. This is a particularly suitable time for ghost stories of werewolves, lunatics, and other night tales that raise the hackles and are linked to the lunar cycles.

Consider offering your guests a “moon menu,” that is, a snack or feast designed to fit the theme of a particular moon. What can be more bewitching and captivating than a picnic under la bella luna? Instruct your guests to allow their eyes to adjust to the night’s natural light, and once they do, they will see how a flashlight or lantern becomes a “spell-breaker” to the full moon’s silver luminosity. Shadows are pronounced, as well as shapes and depth of field, and all that is missing is color—it is as if you are living in a black and white film.

Each month offers a different moon and provides a different theme upon which to create a unique experience. Consider offering a package of 12 events for a client that runs the course of a year, where all they need to do is show up. A theme, blankets, food, beverage, optical equipment, and storytelling are provided, all under the gaze of a swooning moon.

Many Full Moon names are unique to cultures worldwide, and there are more celebrations tied to the moon than to the stars. Their name can be affiliated with seasons or indicate when the plants are animals are active (i.e., Corn Moon when it is time to harvest, Flower Moon when blossoms appear in Spring). Names are logically tied to flora and fauna of the regions like New Guinea’s Flying Fish Moon or Native American’s Beaver Moon.³

The following moons are associated with the Northern Hemisphere and temperate zones:

The finest viewing will be in an area with an unimpeded view to the horizon like an open meadow, field, or atop a hill, escarpment, bluff, plateau, or ridge—the more sky you can see, the better. Summer’s warmer weather requires less gear to remain comfortable; however, heat rising from the earth creates turbulence in the atmosphere, which will distort the view of the stars and create the illusion that they are twinkling.

Another possible drawback during the summer months, especially in the western United States, is smoke from forest fires that can travel hundreds of miles. As our climate continues to change and fire seasons become longer and more severe, the risk of obstructive smoke will continue to be a potential impediment to stargazing. Winter’s sky holds the easily recognizable constellations like Orion, Taurus, and the Pleiades, while the summer sky shows off Scorpio, the largest constellation in the Northern Hemisphere, and the Milky Way.

As the earth turns, the sky overhead will reveal both winter and summer constellations to the committed viewer, one who will remain awake long into the night or choose to rise in the wee hours of the morning, before the sun begins to lighten the sky.

The Meteors

These stellar “blink-of-an-eye” moments have the misnomer of being called falling stars or shooting stars when they are not stars at all. The renowned astronomer, Ptolemy, thought that the gods on Mt. Olympus caused shooting stars. The story goes that when the gods wanted to see what mortals were doing, they pried the skies apart, and the stars fell out. Mortals, thinking the gods were watching, offered up their wishes, thinking that if they could be seen, then they would surely be heard. Early Christians considered them to be rising or falling souls or angels, including babies falling to Earth to be born. Other cultures believed they were souls being released from purgatory, who could finally begin their ascent to heaven and eternal peace.

Though we know better, the stories have not lost their charm and still capture our imagination. Meteor showers and the date of their arrival remain mostly constant from year to year. These celestial events can be exciting and visually stunning, as they put on memorable shows. The meteor shower intensity will ebb and flow depending upon the orbit of the comets and their proximity to Earth.

Most meteoroids (what they are called before they enter Earth’s atmosphere) are pieces of other, larger bodies that have been broken or blasted off. Some come from comets, others from asteroids; some even come from the moon or other planets. Scientists estimate that about 48.5 tons (44,000 kilograms) of meteoritic material fall on Earth each day!⁴

Although meteors may be seen at any hour of the night, they are best seen in the hours between midnight and dawn, particularly when the moon is not visible in the sky. The tremendous friction of a meteor passing through the earth’s atmosphere causes it to produce light and ultimately disintegrate before reaching Earth’s surface.⁵

Some meteors are called Earth-grazing fireballs because they parallel the Earth’s atmosphere and are more inclined to leave long trails that can linger for several seconds before they re-enter space. This phenomenon is not unlike how a rock skips across the surface of the water. A huge meteor of exceptional brightness is called a bolide, especially if it breaks up; these can be as bright as the planet Venus during the evening or morning sky.

These are spectacular events and incite yells and whoops over the typical “oohs” and “aahs” that accompany an evening of shooting stars—they are never forgotten. Approximately 40 different meteor showers occur every year that are visible in either the northern or southern hemispheres; some are visible in both. Once meteors hit the atmosphere, they become meteorites. Meteor showers are graded by the number seen per hour, which can range from two to 100.

Figure 5.1 ©American Meteor Society 2015

Some of this space debris makes the news, and YouTube views can be in the millions. The Chelyabinsk meteor broke up over the city of Chelyabinsk, Russia, on February 15, 2013. The blast was stronger than a nuclear explosion, triggering detections from monitoring stations as far away as Antarctica. The shock wave that was generated shattered glass and injured about 1,200 people. Some scientists think the meteor was so bright it may have briefly outshone the sun.⁶

The International Meteor Organization creates a yearly calendar that indicates the peak dates of the meteor storms. This is an abbreviated list from their 2019 calendar. Learn more at amsmeteors.org

A full list can be found at the link provided in the endnotes.

Meteor showers are best viewed lying on one’s back. Find an open field or hilltop and do not focus on any specific place in the sky. This is an exercise in peripheral vision, not forward vision. When peripheral vision is engaged, the eye does not perceive the depth of field. What one then sees appears to flatten, which is ideal when viewing a night sky. The objective is to see as much of the sky as possible. As this is an event that takes place over many hours, one can sky gaze comfortably with their necks straight.

Name	Date of Shower	Peak	Per Hour	Rating
Ursids	17 Dec–26 Dec	23 December	10	medium
Quadrantids	28 Dec–12 Jan	4 January	110	bright
Alpha Centaurids	31 Jan–20 Feb	8 February	6	bright
Lyrids	14 Apr–30 Apr	23 April	18	bright
Eta Aquarids	19 Apr–28May	6 May	50	bright
June Bootids	22 Jun–2 Jul	27 June	variable	bright
Southern Delta	12 Jul–23 Aug	30 July	25	bright
Alpha Capricornids	3 Jul–15 Aug	30 July	5	bright
Perseids	17 Jul–24 Aug	13 August	110	bright
Draconids	6 Oct–10 Oct	9 October	10	medium
Southern Taurids	10 Sep–20 Nov	10 October	5	bright
Orionids	2 Oct–7 Nov	22 October	20	bright
Northern Taurids	20 Oct–10 Dec	13 November	5	bright
Leonids	6 Nov–30 Nov	18 November	15	bright
Puppid-Velids	1 Dec–15 Dec	multiple	10	medium
Geminids	4 Dec–17 Dec	14 December	140	medium

The Auroras

The aurora borealis (Northern Lights) and the australis borealis (Southern Lights) are major attractions in the pantheon of celestial events. The aurora is a breathtakingly beautiful, if hard to predict, phenomenon occurring year-round.

This magnificent display of light, color, and motion is a top attraction for astrotourists but it requires traveling to the top or bottom of the planet. To see them with any regularity, the traveler must endure extreme environments. They are rarely seen in the lower 48 of the United States. The summer months are off-season for aurora chasers, as the upper latitudes do not experience total darkness.

Most displays occur in a band known as the auroral zone, which is typically 3° to 6° wide in latitude and between 10° and 20° from the geomagnetic poles.⁸ “Our own planet has auroras 24 hours a day,” says Jim Spann of the Marshall Space Flight Center, “and we can see them even in broad daylight.” The trick, he explains, is picking the right wavelength. “If we look at Earth from space using an ultraviolet (UV) filter, we see there are auroras underway at all times. It is a beautiful sight.”

NASA operates a spacecraft called the Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) that provides near-real-time 24/7 continuous coverage of solar wind parameters and solar energetic particle intensities, referred to as “space weather.” When reporting space weather, ACE provides a warning (about one hour) of geomagnetic storms that can overload power grids, disrupt communications on Earth, and present a hazard to astronauts.⁹ Spaceweatheralerts.com is a subscription service that sends the user text messages about solar activity.

Knowing when this CME happens provides vital information to determine the timing of unparalleled celestial events. The astrotourist or anybody interested in the auroras will use these valuable tools, as they portend the arrival of a display. Mobile smartphones give each one of us the capacity to be a citizen scientist and know, not predict, when things will occur in the sky, as sure as Aurora is the Greek goddess of the Dawn.

Figure 5.2 “Aurora” Giovanni Francesco Barbieri 1621 Ceiling of Casino Ludovisi, Rome

Aurora borealis tours and resort/hotel destinations are located in Alaska, Canada, Iceland, Norway, Finland, Sweden, Lapland, Russia, and Greenland. The Aurora Australis tours occur in Argentina, New Zealand, Australia, South Georgia Island, Tasmania, and the South Pole. The chance of seeing the displays increases closer to the poles. Because there are no landmasses near the South Pole, the northern displays are more readily accessible and where the vast majority of vendors are established. At this writing, there are 114 listed tours on tourradar.com and range in price from $234 to $19,972.¹⁰

Tour packages may include visits to multiple cities, destinations, attractions, and part of the time on a cruise ship. The quality of the trip, in many cases, has everything to do with the guide and their knowledge of the terrain, both on terra firma and the sky overhead. As the aurora display takes place over vast areas, it is not beyond the traveler to simply step outside on a night to see when they have arrived at a suitable destination. Some tours are self-guided, and from reviews found online, it was clear that little was offered that could not be accomplished with a guide book, auto transport, and a sense of adventure. When the term “expert guide” is included in the tour package, it is the adventurer’s responsibility to learn what metrics they are using to qualify themselves as experts. Seek out individuals who have degrees in astrophysics or astronomy or others who possess years of experience leading these kinds of tours.

Lodges and resorts listed as being located within the auroral oval do so because there is a greater likelihood of seeing at least one display. They will also advertise the lack of light pollution, as does Kangerlussuaq’s town in Greenland. Few could have predicted 30 years ago that being in a location with no outdoor lighting and a clear sky would be a selling point to attract tourists.

Jussi Eiramo, the owner of Kakslauttanen Arctic Resort in Finland, had the vision to figure out a way to accommodate his guests to be comfortable in a warm bed to view the mesmerizing and thrilling spectacle that is the northern lights. From his idea, history was made, and after a few experiments with prototypes, he came up with the original glass igloo in 1999.

This type of accommodation’s phenomenal popularity is since you can enjoy the northern lights from a toasty interior while it is −25 degrees outside.¹¹ Igloos were never part of the Finnish or Lapland culture but were built and used by the Inuit people of Alaska, Canada, and Greenland.

Glass igloo accommodations are available in Norway, Sweden, Iceland, and Greenland. The largest number are in Finland and Lapland, which also has the largest selection of glass hotels and transparent igloos from budget options to luxury premium accommodations.

There are over thirty glass resorts in Finland alone, situated mainly in the northern areas.¹² Most of the glass igloos are within the Arctic circle, and though the best time to see the northern lights is between August and April, some igloo villages are open all year for this unique overnight experience.

Figure 5.3 Photo Kakslauttanen Arctic resort

Figure 5.4 Photo Kakslauttanen Arctic resort

At the time of this writing, 59 locations offered glass igloos or structures with prominent glass features developed to provide comfortable surroundings and accommodations to the astrotourist who wishes to see the auroral displays. One tour operator advertises it this way:

These see-thru igloos have heated glass to keep off the ice and snow and provide other amenities, including wood-burning fireplaces, saunas, and hot tubs.

Many of these resorts offer daytime activities. Dog and reindeer sleds and sleighs, snowmobiles, ice fishing, snowshoeing, and cross-country skiing are a few of the pastimes listed. One location calls itself “the home to Santa Claus” and has a Santa house, park, village, and post office. Though it is impossible to predict the aurora borealis, most resorts and hotels use alarm services and wake up the guests if the Northern Lights are visible.

The glass igloo has become a worldwide phenomenon spawning alternative; there are inexpensive bubble models available online under $1,000. These clear dome-shaped tents provide a stellar way to accommodate an astrotourist in climes that are not sub-zero.

Odds and Ends

There exist obscure astronomical sites that rarely get mentioned yet hold all of the marvel and wonder of the better-known celestial phenomenon.

Sundogs

When suspended ice crystals refract the sun’s light, a sun dog appears about 22 degrees left, right, or on both sides of the sun based on the crystals’ location. They can range from red to blue, with the former closest to the sun and the latter furthest away. They are also called mock suns or parhelion, a Greek word meaning “beside the sun.”

Zodiacal Light

Before dawn breaks or after twilight ends, it is possible to see this curious site that appears as an eerie cone of light comparable in luminosity to the Milky Way but even more milky in its appearance. It will be seen in the east before dawn during late summer/early autumn and in the west at dusk in the late winter/early spring.

Green Flash

When the conditions are right, this rare sight can occur fleetingly at the moment of sunset or sunrise, where a green spot may appear, just above the upper rim of the sun.

Moon Halos

Somewhat familiar, moon halos occur under similar circumstances as a sun dog with ice crystals refracting the sun’s light, creating a circle of light that is 22 degrees in radius, which can also appear with the colors of the rainbow. It is a reasonably accurate indicator of turbulent weather approaching.

The Where

There are places dark enough to see the wonders of the night sky the world over, but here we focus on the destinations that have created the infrastructure to service clientele. Astrotourism in New Zealand has shown dramatic growth. At the 2019 New Zealand Starlight Conference, the theme was “Towards a Dark Sky Nation.” About 120 delegates from 17 countries attended the conference to discuss light pollution and the benefits of international accreditation as a dark sky nation. There are three dark sky areas in New Zealand, one of which, the Mackenzie Basin, attracts about 150,000 astrotourists each year. Most of these visitors come from overseas, making dark-sky tourism in Mackenzie one of the country’s biggest tourist attractions.

The website, spacetourism.space, has links to over 75 astro-destinations on every continent. These lodgings advertise the size and number of telescopes available for guest use, the clarity of their night skies, various amenities and activities, with accommodations ranging from rustic to chic. One location in Chile provides a telescope and retractable dome roof for each room, another lodge incorporates their wine cellar as part of the package, while others present nighttime programs led by local astronomers. Many of these astro-destinations are positioned near designated areas to provide accommodations and additional viewing opportunities. It is just outside these certified areas where the greatest growth potential may occur.

The IDA was founded in 1988, and its mission is to: Preserve and protect the nighttime environment and our heritage of the dark skies through environmentally responsible outdoor lighting. They are recognized as the authority on light pollution and the leading organization combating it worldwide. Specific criteria were created by the IDA that would appropriate an area to become a certified destination; the first one was Natural Bridges, Utah, in 2006.

The number of IDA certifications (and certifications from Fundaçion Starlight) is increasing at an accelerating rate, reflecting the growth of the astrotourist market. Communities, counties, states, and countries reap the certification benefits; it attracts tourist dollars, media coverage, and goodwill. These designations can take up to two years to obtain and require research, grassroots participation, local business, and government support. There are different distinctions, each with its own specific measurements, that must be achieved to gain certification.

Designations

Parks

Parks are publicly or privately owned spaces protected for nature conservation that implement good (dark sky friendly) lighting and provide dark sky programs for visitors.

Communities

Communities are legally organized cities and towns that adopt quality outdoor lighting ordinances and undertake efforts to educate residents about the importance of dark skies.

Reserves

Reserves consist of a dark “core” zone surrounded by a populated periphery, where policy controls are enacted to protect the core’s darkness.

Sanctuaries

Sanctuaries are the most remote (and often darkest) places in the world whose conservation state is most fragile.

Developments of Distinction

Dark Sky Friendly Developments of Distinction recognize subdivisions, master-planned communities, and unincorporated neighborhoods and townships, where planning actively promotes a more natural night sky but does not qualify them for the IDA Community designation.¹³

Communities and Developments of Distinction are crucial when it comes to protecting the core of a reserve. Examples are Sun Valley and Ketchum’s cities, Idaho, where outdoor lighting ordinances protect the core of the Central Idaho Dark Sky Reserve.

As remote regions recognize the potential to develop this sustainable form of tourism, they may take the necessary steps to gain certification. One can wait for empirical data to deliver statistical trends or engage in critical thinking and deductive reasoning to come to conclusions. Developing countries will continue to contribute more ALAN, further threatening their dark skies, an already rapidly diminishing resource. For the astrotourism industry to flourish, those on the supply side would be well-served to get involved in dark sky advocacy to protect the natural resource from which they intend to profit. To preserve and protect from the pressures of development, the vendor must be aware that sky glow from cities can travel up to 200 km, which has a deleterious effect on the very thing that will be attracting clientele—a dark sky.

“[There is] an emerging astrotourism trend as Airbnb sees strong growth in travel linked to astronomical events and destinations known for stargazing. In 2017, more than 50,000 Airbnb guests from 26 countries traveled to the US for the solar eclipse.”¹³ As of this writing, there are 78 IDA Dark Sky Parks globally, most of which (55) are located in the United States. There are three in Hungary; two in Germany, England, Scotland, Croatia, and the Netherlands; one in Spain, South Korea, Wales, Australia, Denmark, Japan, Israel, Ireland, Taiwan, and Australia. One IDA Park straddles an international boundary between the United States and Canada, demonstrating that all nations of the world have something in common, the night sky above them.

There are only 13 Dark Sky Reserves worldwide with three in the United Kingdom and France, two in Germany, and one in Wales, New Zealand, Ireland, Canada, France, Namibia, Australia, and the United States. There are 10 Dark Sky Sanctuaries with three in the United States, two in New Zealand; one in Chile, South Africa, Australia; and a British Overseas Territory, the Pitcairn Islands.¹³

Airbnb and other online “owner to guest” platforms are uniquely positioned to propel astrotourism, as this niche market is a boost to local economies. International hotels and lodging chains are not well-situated to benefit from this new travel market, as dark sky destinations are spread out over remote areas that are not usually situated near other attractions.

Begun in 2008, Airbnb has decisively changed the travel market, giving locals around the world the opportunity to participate and prosper from the tourism industry. Table 5.1 is data collected by Airbnb and the Starlight Foundation. Airbnb has been tracking astrotourism trends and homeowners around the world who are hosting these stargazing enthusiasts. These numbers are substantive proof that astrotourism is an accelerating market, with some impressive growth in regions that have been overlooked. Expect to see more lodging, services, and other amenities developed for tourists traveling to see IDA/Starlight Foundation dark sky-designated areas. The Starlight Foundation has their own designations for hotels, cottages, restaurants, camps, and stellaries, as well as parks, reserves and tourist destinations. The following table was collected by the Starlight Foundation who provided Starlight Sites, and potential Starlight Sites, to perform this analysis with Airbnb.

Table 5.1 This chart shows country, location, annual growth rate and nationalites visiting

Country/state	Night sky area	Annual growth rate (%)	Top nationalities visiting
Kaposvár, Hungary	National Park of Zselic	105	Hungary, Germany, Netherlands, Great Britain, Austria
Bagnères-de-Bigorre France	Pic du Midi	99	France, Spain, Great Britain, USA, Netherlands
Gilbert, USA	Gilbert Riparian Preserve	164	USA, Canada, Great Britain, Mexico
Olijato, USA	Natural Bridges National Monument	70	USA, France, Spain, Germany, Italy
San Felipe, Mexico	National Astronomical Observatory	191	USA, Mexico, Canada, Germany, Spain
Windhoek, Namibia	Namibia	162	South Africa, Germany, USA, Namibia, France
Kailua-Kona, Hawaii USA	Mauna Kea	68	USA, Canada, Australia, Japan, Germany
Ouarzazate, Morocco	Atlas Mountains	52	France, Germany, USA, Great Britain, Netherlands
Yarmouth, Nova Scotia	Acadian Skies & Mi’kmaq	221	USA, Canada, Great Britain, Germany, Australia
Kiruna, Sweden	Campalta	134	Sweden, France, Germany, USA, China
Évora, Portugal	Alqueva Region	64	France, Portugal, USA, Canada, Spain
Lake Tekapo, New Zealand	Lake Tekapo	223	China, Australia, New Zealand, Singapore, USA
La Palma, Spain	La Palma Island	90	Spain, Germany, Great Britain, France, Switzerland
Antofagasta, Chile	Mano del Desierto	327	Chile, Argentina, USA, Germany, Brazil