Fourth, the final factorization has to be fair, that is, independent and impartial, like the anonymity of the participating people of a Delphi study. Indeed, mathematical algorithms can be inherently partial, either hazardously or deliberately by reasonably skilled tricksters. But the whole effort to investigate a trend is just profitable, when arbitrary, surprising, unbiased, and novel aspects become obvious. For instance, a controversial discussion about falsifications, uncertainties, contradictions, and incompleteness is always a feasible research option, as previously explained. Taking a sincerity of impartial judgments as given, the best opportunity turns out by the algorithm alone—freed from idols of misperceptions, misunderstandings, prejudices, and wishful thinking, as previously explained as the barriers for any innovation marketing.

In the 1970s the ecologist Vester developed a Sensitivity Model to analyze the driving factors of a trend [108]. By this factorization a forecast is somehow objectivated and less suspended from factual grounds. The interdependence of these factors deepens the understanding about the epistemology of a future situation. The related algorithm for such a trend study depends on a paired comparison which is similar to that of the prophetic Delphi method or the contradiction matrix of TIPS for research. The impacts and the crosslinking of causes and effects are examined by means of a matrix or table sheet for correlations. Again, the algorithm can be described in four stages:

In the beginning a set of appropriate factors has to be identified. For that purpose, all evidence, aspects, positions, influences, circumstances or terms are compiled, which may affect the topic. These factors have to be discrete, extensive, adjusted, and fair in the way previously described for any trend investigation. In particular, the previously explained structuring by varied orientations of an organization chart is recommended to obtain a suitable choice of factors.

Then, the correlation between each pair of factors is estimated. In difference to the direct estimation of a factual value for a Delphi study, now just the correlation between a pair of factors is required. In general, people are good at correlating a single pair of factors, that is, whether they influence each other or not. However, a confusing system of factors and their correlation is better evaluated as a whole by an algorithm. Hence, it is rather important to instruct the participants that only direct correlations are sought, because some keen and skilled members may try to preview by their own further consequences. But the interference of preventive considerations with the algorithm is detrimental and has to be prohibited by repeated reminders.

Practically, the estimations are established by acclamation within a group. And generally a spontaneous settlement can be expected. For occasional disagreements a confined time for discussion and consideration has to be budgeted. Any estimation is valued by small integer numbers, for example, zero for no correlation, one for some correlation and two for strong correlation. If the participants are not familiar with the topic, even a discrimination of zero and one may be enough—and if a large familiarity can be expected, even a discrimination of zero to ten may be appropriate. In general, zero, one, and two will make it. The self-correlation of factors should not be considered and is set as zero. As the result can be presented by a table on a paper sheet, it is sometimes called a Paper Computer. On the left side the factors are presented as causes in a column, and the related factors are in a row. Similar to the contradiction matrix, the correlation is not necessarily symmetric, that is, there are strong effects by factors, which inversely are just weakly affected by these others. In consequence, a totality of z = n (n–1) estimations becomes necessary, if n is the number of different factors.

The preliminary evaluation of the table attributes to any factor a different relevance. The active sum A is the aggregated value for each factor in a row, that is, a relative account for the impact of the respective factor on all the others. Hence, the passive sum B is the aggregated value for each factor in a column, that is, a relative account of the impact on the respective factor by all the others. The product value P by A times B for each factor is a relative account for its effectiveness, that is, the activity according to all the other factors. And the quotient value Q by A over B for each factor is a relative account for its dependency, that is, the passivity according to all the other factors (see Figure 4.13).

The final evaluation concerns the comparison of all factors in regard to their relative effectiveness and respective dependency—or activity and passivity, respectively. Factors with a comparably high Q-score are impellent, that is, they cause a high impact without being affected—hence, they are factors to drive changes. In contrary, factors with a comparably low Q-score are driven, that is, they are strongly affected without causing much effect—hence, they are factors to limit the changes. Then, factors with a comparably low P-score are inert, that is, they cause inferior impact and are just little affected—hence, they are factors of high reliability during a change. And finally, factors with a comparably high P-score are critical, that is, they cause many effects and are affected much by the others—hence, they are factors to keep under control during a change.

Figure 4.13: Trend evaluation scheme by Vester’s Paper Computer.

These trend factors show a different aspect for the forecasting of a topic. Inversely to prophecies or anticipations, the knowledge of these factor qualifications helps to influence a trend. Thus, the process of progress for invention and innovation management can be controlled by such a sensitivity analysis of a topic.

For example, the introduction of electric motors in cars affects many factors of propulsion technology, yet it is much less affected by them if one considers pistons, cylinders, valves, exhaust pipe and gear shift becoming obsolete. Hence, the product innovation of electric drive vehicles is not very attractive because it competes with established and reliable technologies of combustion motors. Only by later achievements in production, by the use and pursued higher efficiency in the far future will an innovation reward may come within reach. In consequence, such impelling innovations initiate many changes and further cause related problems and maybe become the origin for other innovations. A respective promoter needs in this case a considerable obstinacy.

A contrasting example is the introduction of novel fuel like natural gas or hydrogen. It is rather driven by conventional propulsion technology. And the particular sort of energy carrier affects other factors of propulsion to a considerably lower extent, for example, the engine, the gear box, the clutch, the shafts, and the bearings. Hence, an innovation of the factor “fuel” requires a reorganization of the distribution, for example, the transport and the storage, without much surplus value. Only by secondary effects, for example, due to ecological customer satisfaction or to enhanced investor interests as well as legal claims or public relations, does a marginal benefit become achievable. As a consequence, such driven innovations require special market conditions. A respective promoter needs in this case considerable patience.

A further example is the introduction of renewable fuel—derived from corn, sugar cane, rapeseed or other plants. They appear rather inert and compatible with the actual propulsion technology by supplementing the present supply without affecting the topic or being affected. Biofuels can make some sense if derived from local abundance or additional farming, like the oil from Jatropha, a desert plant growing in the savannas of Africa, South America, and India outside of the usual farmland. Hence, an innovation of supplementary factors requires initiative, training, and advertising campaigns in a most traditional way. It may be a new business filed for entrepreneurs beyond competition, with its particular benefits at hand. In consequence, such inert innovations are isolated solutions in the market. A respective promoter needs in this case a considerable cleverness.

A final example is the hybridization of different propulsion technologies—like engine and electric motors fueled by petrol, battery, and fuel cells altogether. They are rather critical because they require a higher effort for packaging in construction and in quality control. And they cause additional weight with higher fuel consumption as well as exclusive marketing efforts to get wealthy customers pay a respectively elevated price. Presently, it is contested if this innovative way is just a further improvement or the transitional way to a disruption. Hence, an innovation by critical factors is risky and revolutionary, including the advantages and disadvantages it brings along. The innovation reward has to be obtained within a high competitive market field, accompanied with respective high technical requirements and a dubious mission. A respective promoter needs in this case a considerable assertiveness.

In general, trend factors predict just properties of future conditions. They provide hints according to consequences, to circumstances, to markets, and to related requirements. They furnish an impression about challenges and about appropriate promoters. Yet, they do not assure improvement or success.

Lesson 36

Inventions go by trend settings!

4.3.4Forecast

Whether things will get better, if we change, I cannot say;

that things must change to get better, is sure enough.

Notebook K #293 by the scientist Georg Christoph Lichtenberg 1793

In 1966 Gordon and Helmer from the already mentioned RAND Corporation elaborated an algorithm to forecast future settings by matrix calculation. It is based on a development of facts and reason by some kind of morphological analysis: beginning with a primary description of the topic, continuing with a reasonable classification by discrete factors and leading to the factual features of these factors in their appearance. Finally, the morphological combinations are seized by a cross-impact matrix, which consists of a paired comparison of the estimated correlations between all the different features.

In comparison to a trend analysis this approach goes one step further, that is, from an understanding of the factors to a correlation of their features. In comparison to the research for contradictions by TIPS this approach is more grounded by a specific topic, suspended from general technical factors and the related inventive principles. And in comparison to the development by a morphological analysis this approach resorts to mathematical matrix calculation in order to manage the extraordinary amount of possible settings. As a consequence, the algorithm requires some higher mathematics and shall here only be described in its outlines:

First, the different features of each factor are to be registered as written statements, called descriptors, and the influence of each descriptor to another one is attributed with a rating number. There is to mention that the rating number can be negative in contrast to a trend analysis, for instance, when an enhancement of one descriptor affects detrimentally the other descriptor of a factor. Apart from that, the proceeding is similar to that of Vester’s sensitivity model described before. However, the fathoming of the correlations between the different features yields a considerably larger spreadsheet matrix.

For example, the event of the factor “global warming” may have a descriptor of “2°C” with a preliminary probability of 60%. All the other descriptors share the rest of 40% probability. And a higher probability for 2°C will restrict the other descriptors to lower probabilities, for example, if 2°C would be attained with 100% probability, then other features would be logically excluded and just get 0% altogether.

As a consequence, each change of a descriptor will influence the respective probabilities of all the other descriptors. Some descriptors may rise as others fall. For instance, the features of heavy rain, drought, and thunderstorm of the factor “tempest” will change their probabilities of appearance and the sum of the probabilities attains 100%, if the feature “no tempest” has been included.

When just direct influences are considered of each feature to any other, a square matrix represents the formally rated impacts of all considered descriptors to any others. Hence, for a topic with just 10 factors, each with 4 features, a 40 × 40 square matrix is obtained, and therefore 1,600 correlations have to be duly assessed. Similar to the contradiction matrix of TIPS a restricting preselection seems appropriate, therefore.

Afterwards, the mathematical calculation can start by following the rules of linear algebra, where an initial vector set of probabilities is modified under the action of the cross-impact matrix. In general, each vector set yields a different vector set by the multiplication with the square matrix. Subsequently, the yield can be taken as another vector set for a further multiplication with the cross-impact matrix—and so on.

This appears somewhat arbitrary to begin with and by an endless repetition of multiplications any results seem likewise possible. However, under the constraining action of the cross-impact matrix, even quite different initial vectors will come to similar results, because the algorithm converges according to hidden constraints within the matrix.

In particular, there are so-called eigenvectors of a square matrix, which are somehow inert to any multiplication, because the general outcome stays almost the same. Formally, an eigenvector e of a Matrix M is subjected to the equation

where λ is just a real number called the eigenvalue of a matrix.

This means that the changes of the matrix have a similar effect to an eigenvector as just a stretching of the eigenvector e by a value λ—however, its orientation is kept. In consequence, the eigenvector represents a consistent outcome under the changes caused by all kinds of cross-impacts. This fulfills the required convergence of a predictive algorithm.

For instance, a topic with ten factors, each with four descriptors, yields 410 = 1,048,576 morphological combinations for initial vectors. But the theory of linear algebra helps to manage this, because the number of independent descriptors is called the rank of the matrix—and the rank corresponds to the maximum number of its eigenvectors. All other initial vectors will converge sooner or later to one eigenvector. Hence, there are just 40 eigenvectors to consider as consistent, that is, as invariant solutions of such a matrix.

However, there is still the mathematical challenge to calculate the eigenvectors, because for ranks higher than three no explicit formula exists to calculate them. They can just be elaborated be successive deduction of the rank one after the other or by approximation.31

Third, the difference between the obtained results can be calculated by the distance of the eigenvectors due to the scalar length of the difference between two vectors. If this distance falls under a minor threshold, the results can be taken as equal. And consequently, the eigenvectors can be further classified to an even lower number of selections.

For instance, one of the eigenvectors corresponds generally to an obvious and expected set of features, which is called the trend vector. And a major part of the other eigenvectors is pretty close to it, because they have an inferior distance. However, within the rest of the eigenvectors there are generally some distinctive ones, yet pretty close, which can be called alternative vectors. And there may be even exotic vectors, which exhibit a higher distance and considerable distinction to the trend. At the end, there will be also some extreme vectors, which hold the highest distance to the trend. As a matter of fact, such extremes will appear rather strange, yet they are still consistent under the action of all cross impacts of the matrix.

Fourth, the choice of vectors can be retranslated by the set of the corresponding initial descriptors. This is called a scenario, as a possible set of features of a forecasted situation. Each scenario is consistent due to the respective cross impacts of its other features. Therefore, they represent a possible future to care about, although it is not yet obvious, how to get there. For this, another investigation becomes necessary comprising the roadmap of events, which may bring up or may prevent the particular scenario. Apparently, this can be accomplished by an anticipation of futurity, as mentioned before.

For example, it is quite useful to start with an investigation about two extreme scenarios, in general a desirable utopia—called the positive scenario—and an undesirable dystopia—called the negative scenario. Then such a situation can be elaborated by means of the mentioned tools for development and for quality, in particular. For instance, measures can be derived to reach or to avoid a scenario by a cause-and-effect analysis or by a failure mode and effect analysis, as previously explained for any development. This allows to provide suitable arrangements in due time in order to change things for the better.

The advantage of the scenario analysis is often argued with the successful conversion of freight charges for crude oil at Royal Dutch Shell in 1970 [109]. Back then, one of the detrimental scenarios showed that a cancellation of oil supply would cause extreme deficits to the company because the charges for shipping would still have to be paid without any remuneration by sales. In anticipation, the contracts were adapted to this scenario by and by. When in 1973 and 1979 the oil crises happened by an embargo of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), Dutch Shell came out quite better than its competitors. The anticipation of a detrimental scenario saved substantial assets and probably prevented a bankruptcy of the entire company.

The word “scenario” signifies a small scene on stage, where the stage director can check whether a presentation appears plausible and consistent with the story line, or has to be put in another way. It has been transferred from theater dramatics to forecasting in 1967 by Kahn and Wiener, again from the RAND Corporation [110]. Similar to a stage production, the actors try out different ways of interpretation, until a coherent play is achieved and becomes believable. Accordingly, the work of a managing director depends likewise on the ability to stage a story in such a way that the context of the development gets comprehensible by its consistence.

Scientifically, such a scenario forecast contains equally a consistent set of different features by an objectivating set of facts. In particular, that objectivation is the basic advantage in comparison to mere trend factors; however, it corresponds to a considerably higher effort of elaboration. Each detail has to be described and systematically varied, until a coherent display is finally achieved.

More than a mere anticipation of a consistent set, the advantage depends on a successful understanding of the requirements for an appropriate development, for instance a fuel cell propulsion with a related hydrogen station network and appropriate hybrid engines, as already mentioned before. By means of such a perspective, the related problems become perceptible in due time to generate appropriate solutions and to take the measures required. If such solutions are novel and feasible, they offer a way to inventions for patents and for innovation.

Such a scenario technique can also be executed without the explained mathematical elaboration by means of a cross-impact matrix. Actually, most scenarios are obtained by an aforementioned design process, which are based on a convincing mirroring of self-referencing usability and human-centered appreciation. Since the cross-impacts of the matrix have to be estimated anyhow, a consistent set of descriptors can be guessed directly, without resorting to matrix computation and linear algebra. Indeed, the human brain disposes on own subconscious calculation abilities, which seem to be rather similar to a spreadsheet algorithm.

Figure 4.14: A funnel to future scenarios around a trend and limited by extremes.

A scenario funnel is used then to illustrate the approach (see Figure 4.14). Similar to the innovation funnel of entelechy as described before, it is based on the idea that the perception of things here and now is considerably lower than the unknown things of future scenarios. Just the trend scenario lies in the central line of the funnel, whereas the extreme scenarios are found on the outskirts of the funnel. Inversely, any forecast scenario has to be focused by a connection within this funnel, which therefore stands for some sort of event horizon of imaginable expectations.

For example, the research and development by the mentioned approach of TIPS can be explained as a general scenario for future inventions. The descriptors are featured by the inventive principles, which resort to the technical factors. And the contradiction matrix contains all the consistent sets of features to obtain a patentable solution for any given relation.

In general, a scenario analysis is based on a detailed consideration of different alternatives or extremes, where the scenarios are various plots of the possible futures. They do not reveal the importance of particular features, but they show a consistent combination with some liberty for design. It is still the duty of the managers to derive and to select the suitable means and the appropriate measures to provide an advantage. And in general it is sufficient to obtain one sole idea to justify the laborious efforts of a complex scenario analysis. The benefit is achieved if a novel aspect of future development is derived and suitable actions are installed.

After all, a scenario has a connection to prophecies, too. A further input of wild carts may be included, like for strategic games, in order to test its consistence for the case that unsuspected troubles may occur. And a deepened discourse about utopic or dystopic extremes may be beneficial to understand and act appropriately within a framework of the complex correlations.

Scientifically, fantasy bears on a mere metaphysical understanding. Consequently, the related inventions are always somehow transcendental, because they require a different mindset to become marketable. For instance, Libet showed in 1979 by his famous experiment that actions have a neuroelectric precursor in the form of a neuronal signal that precedes the conscious decision for an action [112]. There is no compulsion to execute this preceding impulse—if there is time for some reflection—but in any case a certain readiness for it. This becomes evident for emotional reactions, for instance, when suddenly threatened or amused.

Modern brain research has identified the neurochemical agents serotonin and dopamine as the essential drivers for such a creative process. Roughly stated, serotonin stimulates an excitement and dopamine spurs an expectation—and both work on the reward system of the human brain. Therefore, people already experience some reward in advance of an accomplishment by excitement and by expectation. This appears quite reasonable due to the evolution of the human species, because it appeals and spurs the mastering of arduous challenges by thinking.

Expectancy is sometimes a more reliable joy than its accomplishment—a statement, which holds particularly true for many famous inventors. Despite repeated disappointments and related setbacks a creative mind is characterized by a permanent incitation to get over the foreseeable adversities again and again. Or, as the Nobel laureate Camus described this behavior in his famous book The Myth of Sisyphus: One has to consider that people manifest a strange pleasure to roll a rock to the mountain top, although it will surely tumble down again. [113]

However, the source of creativity and of fantasy seems to be part of the unconscious and therefore beyond any deliberate reach. Most reasonably, during the daytime and the busy workaday times the thinking supports mainly the pragmatic action, where visionary and imaginative thoughts are seldom helpful. Under the practical pressure to act appropriately, imagination is censored by the consciousness— blocked and ruled away to the unconscious or subconscious. A pure experience of creative thoughts becomes available by dreaming or perhaps in daydreaming, to a certain extend. And therefore dream interpretation is the traditional way to learn something about this creative wisdom beyond the conscious.

Already in pre-Christian ages dream interpretations are reported in the Bible, like the apparition of Jacob’s ladder during his flight and later on Joseph’s prediction of the Ten Plagues of Egypt anticipated by the dreams of the Egyptian Pharaoh. A first book about oneirocritics is known by the diviner Artemidorus Dalianus of the 2nd century [114]. In modern science it was Freud, who introduced by his famous oeuvre

The Interpretation of Dreams as an appropriate way to learn something about subconscious thoughts [115].

In the 1960s the Nobel laureate Sperry reported so-called split-brain experiments for the treatment of epilepsy: If the two brain hemispheres are decomposed, the patients could either perform logical considerations or intuitive associations. The respective operations were located on the left hemisphere for linear and logic thoughts and on the right hemisphere for complex and associative notions (see Figure 4.16).

For instance, a first impression of facts is linked to former memories and experiences by an association of rather high complexity, like the indications and the evidences of some correspondence. But the search for further consequences and their logical conclusions by relations is a brain activity of reasonable relationships. In total, the creation of a new idea requires always an interaction of both hemispheres, by fact and by reason, similarly to the way of science mentioned before.

This duality of the human brain has turned out to be quite simplified. Meanwhile an extended set of categories has been elaborated in order to explain the complexity of human thinking. However, a duality to explain and understand the functional operation of thinking has been rediscovered ever since and redescribed with various words:

In 1959 Guilford discerned a linear conclusion as converging and a complex association as diverging [116]. De Bono denominated in 1969 the conclusive logic as a vertical thinking and the broadening association as a lateral thinking [117]. In behavioral economics Stanovich discerned a type 1 thinking by intuitive association and a type 2 thinking by abstract logics [118]. The psychologist Watzlawick described a Brief Therapy Concept by two orders of solutions, a first order by forced implementation of known means and principles, that is, the more the better, and a second order by change of paradigms, that is, a different point of view to enable another kind of solutions. And the Nobel laureate Kahneman identifies in his Prospect Theory a fast thinking, that is, intuitively, complex, and by unconscious association, as well as a slow thinking, that is, reflective, logic, and by conscious consideration.

According to the purpose of inventions, thoughts have to be newly generated, that is, by association, intuition and lateral, divergent, complex, and fast thinking. However, the considerations have to be intentionally and willfully introduced, that is, by logics, abstraction and vertical, convergent, linear, and slow thinking. The challenging task for any invention is therefore to provide opportunities for fast as well as slow brain processes, that is, unconscious and intentional ways of thinking in an almost equal measure.

Drugs are a renowned and traditional means to change and stimulate the neurological functions. They are deliberately introduced to the human metabolism and replace or suppress own messenger agents of the body, for instance the previously mentioned neurochemical agents serotonin and dopamine. However, this intrusion of the autonomously self-adjusting body system is accompanied by manifold, detrimental and occasionally lasting consequences. In general, the human metabolism strives to hold an appropriate equilibrium of causes and effects, which has to be overruled by an overdosage or by an indirect suppression of the biological mechanisms. In both cases the collateral damage is at least perturbing, if not cataclysmic for the recipient.

Trance is a somewhat lighter way of intrusion, where the body is subjected to a procedure in order to change the metabolic system in a desirable way. The state of absentmindedness can be achieved by extreme stress, like hunger, thirst, excessive dancing or extreme fatigue. The selfadjusting body system is generally able to recover afterwards, since such stresses appear naturally, too. But the circumstances to achieve trance are time consuming and the consequences may be detrimental due to accidental injuries or to traumatic experiences.

Hypnoses or other suggestive interventions are able to induce a sleepy condition of a person, by which a better interaction of the two hemispheres should be able. Yet, closer investigations indicate that this state is quite superficial and not really “dreamy”—unless additional drugs or trance are applied. Apparently, an unconscious or tacit train of thoughts is rather guided and accompanied by a sensitive hypnotist or a suggestive mentalist. A transcendental crossing to really novel ideas and notions is therefore rather limited.

Lobotomy is a chirurgical intrusion of the neuronal cortex and only applicable in order to prevent damage from injury or from disease by a medical treatment or surgery. A milder opportunity may be obtained by means of electromagnetic impulses [119]. Indeed, the tremendous capabilities of the human brain become discernible by the recent studies on so-called savants, a group of about a hundred people on earth who have a different brain structure due to embryonic malfunction or later accidents. These people show an extraordinary capability for reproduction of music or graphics, or for an execution of calculation or retrospection—although their consciousness is quite confined with a general IQ of about 70. Their ability to act is very restricted and they mostly need support to manage their daily routines. Yet, on their field of talent they dispose on almost superhuman isolated erudition, that is, an encyclopedic knowledge without appropriate comprehension. This appears quite savvy—but not creative at all. Anything complex and new is an insurmountable challenge for them. Hence, even partial acquirement of a savant condition seems not to be very promising to spur creativity for inventions.

Altogether, a forced inducement of means to enhance creativity is not suitable to cope with the scientific complexity for an inventive entanglement of facts and reason. The human mind disposes obviously on extraordinary abilities; however, the practical aspects of inventions always remain. Especially innovation management comprises the task to be result-oriented and open for alternatives at the same time.

Lesson 38

The human mind creates inventive ideas all by itself!

4.4.1Inspiration

Travel spurs the mind.

common saying

The occasional perception of passing facts does inspire a novel understanding—even about considerations, which are in no way related to the perceived things. One can trust on creativity, when suddenly new things occur on the way, since the human brain is somehow programmed to accompany each impression with a suitable understanding. Immediately, the right hemisphere of the brain searches divergently for some lateral associations, whereas the left hemisphere starts convergently to arrange this to a vertical logic. In total, both ways of creative thinking get involved simultaneously. That is the way new insights or ideas are inspired during a journey. As has been previously stated for science, the capability for elenctic conviction is an inborn human ability. And it has been an old tradition to send people on an educational trip, peregrination, or pilgrimage in order to let them find out a novel way to see and to manage their life. In a similar way, scientific conferences are generally recommended to spur the imagination of all participants.

The old Persian fairy tale Three Princes of Serendip—literally standing just for the island of Ceylon, now Sri Lanka—deals about creative discoveries during a trip. Many similar tales about the inspiring effect of adventures are known. Therefore, serendipity has been introduced by the historian Walpole as an English word for this approach to inspiration. Indeed, many scientific advances can be attributed to some sort of serendipity [120]. When the human brain tries to integrate a new observation in the context of the already acknowledged, inventive thoughts are created without genuine scientific intention. Most people find road novels or road movies so fascinating, because the detection of new challenges yields novel solutions for other occurring problems, too.

One of the oldest examples for lucky findings is reported by the historians Plutarch and Vitruvius: The famous inventor Archimedes was charged with the problem to verify if the new votive crown for the King of Syracuse at Sicily was totally made of gold, or if cheaper metal has been fraudulently alloyed. When he considered the problem and meanwhile entered a bathtub, he notified that the weight of his body seemed to decrease while the water-level increased. Spontaneously, he concluded a coincidence between the displacement of the water and the levitation of his body. And subsequently, he was inspired with a solution to measure the density of an arbitrarily formed body by means of this observation: A beam balance immersed in the water will incline to the side of the fewer displacement of water, when both sides are equally loaded with weight. The effect of buoyancy was recognized. Inspired by this serendipitous discovery he is said to have scampered the streets of his town Syracuse shouting out loud that he had found out, which in Greek means Eureka, that is, a heuristic finding.

A more recent serendipitous inspiration has been the discovery of dimples and riplets to reduce the flow resistance of bodies. Indeed, golfers had observed that older golf balls with many notches fly farther, and air force pilots have noticed that airplanes fly safer after being riddled in combat. What may appear as some sort of machine experience turned out to be as a helpful turbulence of the boundary layer. Theoretically, smooth surfaces provide a stationary flow with good control—at low velocities. However, if that flow gets turbulent at elevated velocities, big vortices and stalls cause a very dangerous flight situation. In that case, small vortices in the vicinity of the surface are a petty evil, that is, they occur already at inferior velocities, but they stay small and provide better flight conditions up to quite fast movements. Sometimes, heuristic inspirations turn out to be quite true, although not understood in the beginning.

In general, learning by nature is acknowledged nowadays as a successful way of serendipitous research by bionics, that is, the technical inventions are inspired by natural or by biological solution patterns. Already in the ancient myths the famous builder Daedalus learned from birds the secret of flight and subsequently constructed wings to escape his arrest in a tower at Crete. More secured are reports about flight studies by Leonardo da Vinci in the 15th century. However, the wings and the forces required to carry the load of a human person turned out to be considerably larger. Thus, merely gliding flights became possible until the 19th century by Berblinger in 1810 at Ulm or by Lilienthal in 1874 at Berlin. And only the introduction of lightweight motors of the Wright brothers in 1903 made it possible to travel the sky. What can be learned by that history is that a bionic inspiration is mostly just a mere starting point for an invention, which turns out more complicated than presumed.

Another serendipitous transfer is reported by de Mestral in 1941: When he detached the burrs from the fur of his dog he noticed spiral wound hairs as hooks, which attach to any loop fibers, be it fur, curly hair or textile cloth. And this inspired the novel technique of hook-and-loop fasteners. Surely, a lot of development about appropriate material, form, and efficiency had been required afterwards; yet, the imagination was spurred by the biological archetype.

In a similar way, bats, owls, and dolphins exhibit stunning abilities to navigate by sonar echo sounding, which is still a stimulus to develop and to improve the corresponding acoustic and electromagnetic technologies. In that way, bionics is not just a copy of a natural archetype, but an inspiration for an exaptation of the principle, as previously explained for innovative disruptions.

It may even happen that different causes lead to the same solution, since the inspiring notion has to be transferred to another subject anyhow. The main activity of creation is provided when someone pricks up his or her mind to novel encounters. And this can be enhanced by some creativity methods.

Mind Mapping is a method to systematically spur inspirations by means of absentminded design and drawing of plans, drafts, tables, or diagrams. Although this procedure has been surely known since long, for example, by the sketches of artists and draftsmen, Buzan, in 1974, revealed this method with a set of firm rules [121]. Thereby it is recommended to start in the middle of a large sheet of paper or a board with a central notification of the topic. Around this starting point, further terms, numbers, signs, images or symbols are then added, by and by. Associated terms are aligned along a line from the center to the outskirts. Important terms are marked by size, by color, by form or by an underline. Further lines can branch from the terms, in which main lines are drafted bolder than side lines. Emphases, enhancements, handwritings, or even a personal style are welcomed. However, interdependencies or cross references are detrimental for the survey and should be just exceptionally employed. Additionally, a Metaplan technique was designed by Schnelle in 1978 in form of removable plug-in cards or adhesive stickers. This enables an easy rearrangement of the preliminary setting in a more suitable way, when during mind mapping new ways to look at the topic are inspired.

Brainwriting is somewhat similar to mind mapping, yet it replaces the geometrical structure of a map by a tabular chart listing. This method is suitable to inspire ideas by serendipitous storytelling and has also been known since long—at least in the form of the epistolary novel during the 19th century. But in 1968 Rohrbach defined a formal way to proceed, which is known as the 6-3-5 method, standing for 6 people and 3 commentaries within 5 minutes. For that, six charts with six lines and three columns are distributed to six participants. They have the first task to take five minutes to note down three primary comments about an agreed topic to each of the three boxes of the first row. Later, the charts are exchanged among each other. Now, the second task is to comment on each previous notion of the line above with an own notion in the box below—again within five minutes in total. The mutual exchange and comment is repeated, until each chart has been handled by all participants. Hence, the whole process should last about half an hour. In that way, everybody inspires and gets inspired by the notions of all the other participants. Today, a Brainpool forum has become feasible by an electronic network, where the notions and the exchanges are managed by some sort of electronic mail transfers. As the comments are automatically registered, the originator of a patentable idea can be later verified by the transfer protocol. And the structured scheduling as well as the common mode of employment ensures that everybody is involved and every notion is respected.

Brainstorming methods had been previously known as the more accessible free addresses of speakers, for example, known by parliamentary debates and by counseling of politicians and cadre members. By the 1940s Osborn elaborated a ruled procedure to exchange serendipitous notions in a working group with an obligatory set of four ground rules: “First, free-wheeling is welcomed! The wilder the idea, the better; it is easier to tame down than to think up. Second, criticism is ruled out! Adverse judgment of ideas must be withheld until later. Third, quantity is wanted! The greater the number of ideas, the more is the likelihood of useful ideas. Fourth, combination and improvement are sought! Participants should suggest how ideas can be turned into better ideas—or, how two or more ideas can be joined into still another idea” [122].

Nevertheless, it should be added, that after about ten to fifteen minutes a primary exhaustion of the brainstorming contributors does usually occur. This has to be endured because afterwards the desired inspirations and deeper insights are obtained—as some sort of second guess or elenctic conviction about previously unknown notions. Furthermore, the four rules have to be strictly abided by the participants, because an open discussion implies the danger that some participants resort to eristic tricks—as already explained for the research of uncertainty. As a consequence, many open discussions end up just in manipulation, polemics, and quarrel, without any inspiration at all. Even though a free talk about notions is a simple and fast means to create novel ideas about a common topic, firm rules are needed in order to avoid a mere palaver.

A further method to obtain inspirations has been described as Bisociation by Koestler [123] in 1964. It is based on the concept that new ideas are inspired by a combination of different notions, which has been already explained for improvements before. In the 1950s Gordon and Prince elaborated the structured procedure of Synectics by a suite of four analogies [124]: First, a direct analogy is elaborated for a factual object to begin with, for example, an objective lens and its direct analogy of a biological eye. Second, a personal analogy is created for the direct analogy, for example, to roll one’s eyes as a spontaneous notion of a notably performance. Third, a symbolical analogy for the personal analogy is searched, for example, a mechanical pivot joint to change the orientation of an object. Fourth, a further direct analogy is elaborated for the symbolical analogy, for example, some sort of periscope in order to guide the optical path by a pivot joint. In total, the first notion gets alienated and then familiarized again, for example, as an approach for a new way to make photos.

The prescribed method of synectics guarantees a certain target orientation since arbitrary analogies tend to get lost in the neverland of pure fantasy. By Force-Fit a subsequent test is performed, whether the idea created is appropriate in regard to the original intention, for example, if a photo camera can be equipped with a flexible “periscopical” pivot joint. The conclusion may appear absurd or just feasible in a most simplified and less inventive way. Therefore, patience and perseverance are required—or an urgent demand for a real invention.

For example, this method is renowned to have been employed by NASA to provide supplementary oxygen supply in due time for the unfortunate space mission of Apollo 13 in 1970.

Lesson 39

New things are always somehow associated to existing things!

4.4.2Improvisation

Fortune favors the bold.

common saying

Bolder, than to manage expectations, is the provocation of unexpected challenges. Provocations enforce an improvised, strange or sudden reaction, in order to break the habitual ways of thinking and to obtain a novel logical conclusion. This seems to be a rather radical form of inspiration.

A peculiar situation calls for equally extraordinary considerations, which otherwise would be rejected as negligible, dispensable or inconvenient. When everything appears equally hopeless, even the least probable solution seems to be rather promising. If necessary, all the stops are pulled out by improvisation, that is, divergent and convergent, as well as lateral and vertical or associative and logical thinking. Thus, some ideas become just thinkable if enforced by a desperate situation [125].

Food innovations are a good example to explain the effects of improvisation. Indeed, there have been always times of abundance as well as times of shortage of food—even the worst of all plights, famine. So it has been always a human endeavor to improvise novel sources for alimentation or to find better ways of preservation. According to recent investigations luxury drinks such as beer and wine were originally cultivated in order to provide an edible and lasting basic supply with aliments. In fact, a delicious taste was initially not given because the processes of fermentation and appropriate refining were not known originally. The early alcoholic beverages contained fusel oils, bitterns, and digestates, which have been reduced in a long tradition of ingenious manufactures. Hence, the development of the modern civilization goes along with the ingenious removal of unwanted side effects of alcoholic beverages.

A particular example for an improvised improvement is the development of the Cognac from the city of Cognac in the vineyards of the French region Charente. Because of an inferior quality of the wine there it was converted to brandy by distillation in the 16th century by Dutch merchants, for subsequent storage and trade to northern Europe. The distillate was stored in oak barrels of the Charente and the wooden taste was appreciated by the consumers—sometimes liked even more than the original taste of wine. The recipes to refine brandy by settling it in oak barrels were elaborated and traditionally preserved until this form of remnant sale came to be renowned as a refinery [126].

A similar utilization of remnants has been the origin of the successful idea of pizza, meaning morsel and traditionally offered by Italian bakeries—and not by pizza restaurants. Remnants of bread dough were dispersed and garnished with small cuts of goodies, like cheese, sausage, and pickles, in order to stimulate some attraction. This also happened in other parts of the word, for example, in France under the name of Tarte Flambee, in Switzerland as Wähe or in southwest Germany as Dinnete, meaning just a thin thing. By and by, the improvised remnant came to be more in demand than the original product and soon became a regional delicacy.

In 1904 at the world exhibition of St. Louis, Missouri, the street vendor Hamwi was selling crispy, yet flexible, sweet waffles from his native country Egypt to the passersby. Next to him was an ice cream booth, which was sold back then in paperboard cones called Cornucopia. When stock of cones ceased, the two vendors improvised with a rolled waffle. And this improvisation flew off the shelves so that during the exhibition itself Hamwi commissioned several bakeries with the production of such conical waffles. Although an ice cream wafer had been invented before, for example, in New York by Marchoni in 1896 and in Manchester by Valvona in 1902, the commercialization began with Hamwi’s Cornucopia Waffle Company, later extended to the Missouri Cone Company and finally spread as the Western Cone Company.

An improvisator seems to be someone who is not as badly affected by a sudden challenge to take flight. A skilled improvisator is someone who is stimulated by a sudden provocation and makes the best of it. In contrast to an intentional invention, an improvisation succeeds by luck or coincidence. In consequence, the success depends not only on skills and perseverance of the people but on the situation and its circumstances, too. However, a particular characteristic seems to be the boldness to consciously dare and venture a provocative situation in order to spur one’s creativity. And such provocations can be generated methodologically.

For example, simple word creations like “X3GPM” or “Firneol” may provoke new ideas to a puzzled mind: What may be meant by this? And sometimes new solutions are inspired just by a misspelled or by a misunderstood remark: What could be Firneol as a material, as a process or as a tool? What could be understood by THE Firneol in the context of photography or of vehicle construction? What may be the opposite of a Firneol in the paper industry?

If an oral presentation is open for discussions, there is always someone in the audience who may be interested in a very special detail and there might be just a very dim remembrance about the appropriate word to employ for a question. When that person dares to ask, then the lecturer is provoked to think in all possible ways to answer. Perhaps, afterwards it turns out that this detail is named by a quite different word or the inquirer has completely mistaken the explanation or the remembrance concerned a devious aspect of the topic, which has been rightly condemned to oblivion since long. So, even if the expedience of a question is rather doubtful, it may spur a renewed understanding, leading probably to a creative imagination with a promising idea for an invention. Surely, such provocations have to be applied sparsely because they lose their impact when expected. However, it is recommendable to play around with such incomprehensible words in order to train one’s skills for improvisations.

The Random Input method resorts to supplementary irritations to encourage new ideas, for example, strange musical compositions or sounds, irritating pictures or illuminations, disturbing perfumes or smells, extraordinary flavors, or even events. Virtual reality has made it possible to try out even extreme situations, for example, the living on other planets or at other times, past or future.

In marketing, creative directors are known to be always on the hunt for a new kick providing a very special idea. And reportedly engineers get almost all their inventive ideas outside of the daily business routines, for example, during a long business trip to an exotic region or by an extraordinary conference on an extraordinary topic at an extraordinary place. In order to create extraordinary ideas, it is sometimes enough to provoke an extraordinary experience.

The method of Picture Frustration was originally developed by Rosenzweig in 1949 as a psychometric mean to measure the resilience of people. [127] It is based on the traditional intention of painting artists to provoke new ways of thinking by looking at their oeuvre. For psychometric purposes the test consists of a cartoon strip with 24 standardized images about the interaction of two persons. One of the speech bubbles contains a frustrating statement that needs a vicarious response from the test person. By the identification with the imaginative responding person, there is an attempt to draw psychological conclusions about the typical reaction of the person tested. Therefore it is important that the answers are given spontaneously and improvised.

For the purpose of invention the same method is usually employed by a rough draft, a preliminary sketch of a construction or a design. Spontaneously, straying imaginations are stimulated for the naïve beholder, which may result in related suggestions, in counterproposals or in further discussions. Here, it is not intended to learn about the participants but rather to stimulate their different ways of thinking. So it may be helpful to implement consciously a provocation in order to get the creative process started. According to an initial frustration one can often await the development of an especial originality.

As Provocative Operation this method was further extended by de Bono in 1969 [128]. Already traditional Zen meditation uses the imaginative power of Koan, meaning the induction of a great doubt. Thereby, the trainee is summoned to justify a senseless, an unusual or even an absurd statement, for example, a heterology, a paradox, a tautology or an antinomy, as previously explained for the research of falsifications. When the trainee gets lost in the errors of entangled contradictions, new ways of thoughts may become induced.

For example, the loony statement is marked as a provocative operation by the syllable PO in front, for example: PO, knowledge is ignorance! A justification of that statement seems to be quite challenging—it is a rather hopeless task and requires good skills about improvisation and perhaps eristic. Surely, this comprises the consideration of particular exceptions and the negation of usual correlations, the distortion of meanings and an excessive exaggeration. However, a skilled improvisator should know ways to comply with that challenge. And maybe this way turns out to be quite creative and discloses a practical relation to an unexpected novelty.

Lesson 40

Necessity is the mother of invention!

4.4.3Interpretation

It’s written: “In the beginning was the Word.”

Already I stick, who shall help me afford?

The word at such high rate I may not tender;

The passage must I elsewise render.

If rightly by the Spirit I am taught,

It’s written: “In the beginning was the Thought.”

By the first line a moment I tarry,

Let not thine eager pen itself so hurry!

Does thought work all and fashion all outright?

It should stand: “In the beginning was the Might.”

Yet even as my pen the sentence traces,

A warning hint the half-writ word effaces.

The Spirit helps me from all doubting freed,

Thus write I: “In the beginning was the Deed.”

from: Faust, First Part of the Tragedy, Scene 7 by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 1808 [1]

Words are the predominant vehicle to transform the few facts of living into the vast region of each human mind. Words are suited for serendipitous inspiration as well as for the provocation of improvisations. Words stimulate the association of lateral thinking as well as the alignment to a vertical logic. And words are the most convertible tools to create novel ideas out of a general comprehension.

For example, a sharp-edged stone can be understood as a hand ax. And the mere wording suggests that it is no longer a mere stone but a tool for cutting, splitting, drilling, grinding, scraping, milling, crushing, and perhaps even hunting. The various wordings already imply that the forces of a human hand can be focused by the stiffness of a stone to its sharp edge and thereby tremendously increase. A skilled worker understands to treat and to change other things by a smart application of such a tool—for example, like an ax, a blade, a knife, an arrowhead, a hammer, a spike, a needle, a rasp, or a crow. Apparently, each purpose gets a different name in order to grasp the meaning in an appropriate way.

In the human wording each thing is attributed to a meaning, which exceeds the mere mark of its factual existence but comprises its proper application and perhaps includes a deeper understanding of its consistence. When a fact is transferred between two persons, its significance is meant to be transferred as well by words. But what makes the difference then when the facts stay the same? This question makes obvious that the art of explanation is never just an assembly of the appropriate words but also an act of some artistic expression. By the gradual abstraction of words the mere terms obtain a novel significance. And things are invented again and again, just by trying to explain them in a new way. Thus, the progressive abstraction of an interpretation is a quite powerful tool for invention.

If an object gets interpreted, it implies genuinely a subconscious creation of the human spirit. In particular, the arts resort to a progressive abstraction of terms in order to develop permanent development of their understanding. And this becomes part of a newly perceived reality, as previously explained for the entelechy in science by discourse.

For example, a linguistic reality is established by brand names, like Scotch tape for an adhesive foil, Post-It for a removable self-adhesive label or Personal Computer for a computer at home. Other terms have obtained an institutional reality by comprising a complete spectrum of attributions, for example, auto brands like Ferrari, Porsche, or Mercedes; shopping-related terms like Wal-Mart Stores, Kroger, or Target; or the worlds of electronic communication by Microsoft and Apple. Then there are terms that include some reality in performance, for example, key words like “exclusive”, “modern”, “ecological”, or “innovative”. And finally there are terms that become a practical object by them, for example, the word “googling” for using the search engine Google, the word “Commonwealth” for the former British colonies (originally meaning welfare). In particular the word “Internet” for a computer network, open to anybody who likes to exchange information, has become actually an entire world of communities, businesses, gambling, and lifestyles.

Each interpretation starts with the abstraction of a factual thing or a concrete situation. However, a mutual understanding requires a basic understanding and some experience with similar things and comparable situations. But a creative interpretation relies on a surprising new notion, which becomes obvious in the very moment when the audience is convicted to some ignorance and immediately resolved by an appropriate cognition. This is obviously the process of elenctic as previously described. In consequence, any abstraction consists mainly of some consciousness about the unconscious. Therefore, most methods for inventive interpretations can be transferred from psychological analysis.

Projection is an expression employed by Freud in 1895 for his studies on hysteria [129], that is, a psychological mechanism to mirror the world by one’s own reflections and thereby transfer the outer facts to an inner comprehension. In that way, outer impressions become always mingled with inner moods and subsequently the inner feelings influence the perceptions of the world by a projection. Surely, most of us have already experienced that the same thing appears quite differently under the influence of bright weather, lovely music, a friendly ambience or at a pleasant occasion—than perhaps on a rainy day with noisy and harsh people around or after a personal defeat.

For example, the corresponding World Technique for child psychotherapy by Lowenfeld and Bühler can be often found at innovation factories. By a standardized equipment of figures, tiles, cards, and modeling material, selected topics have to be interpreted in a playful way. By analyzing the difference between the expectable and the realized displays, one may understand a peculiar interpretation of the topic. And by analyzing this interpretation the abstract pattern of thought become obvious, which can be employed to elaborate an innovative approach.

In a similar way, other psychometric tests bear on an interpretation of pictures. What may indicate an emotional problem in psychology may be understood as a creative act of invention with considerable innovative potential as well.

For example, the most renowned pictures in psychology are the inkblots of Rorschach developed in 1921. After some symmetry is obtained by a folding centerline the participants are invited to describe their understanding of the blot. And their interpretation hints again for possible differences in perception with some inventive potential. In a similar way the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) of Murray in 1943 refers to a short comic strip, which is gradually disclosed to a participant in order to find out how the storyline is perceived, interpreted, and completed after each disclosure. In consequence, a probable alternative way to accomplish any given task can be obtained.

Then, psychological role plays are well suited to obtain an inventive idea by creative interpretation. At the times of Commedia dell’Arte in Italy of the 16th century the actors just got a fixed role, like the old man, the harlequin, the young lover or the seductress. For the presentation the author only explains roughly the storyline of the play, whereas the actors have a broad liberty to interpret their respective roles in a most entertaining way. This corresponds a bit to the revealed World Technique mentioned above and is equally apt for an inventive interpretation.

For example, de Bono described in 1985 a creative method by utilization of different Thinking Hats to mark the respective role, for example, a white one for the naïve perspective, a black one for the sad perspective, a blue one for the faithful perspective, a green one for the juvenile perspective, a grey one for the senior perspective and a red one for the spirited perspective [130]. Instead of those six hats, just sashes or even scarves would do it, too. In a similar way, Dilts described in 1994 the creative method of Walt Disney to induce creative thinking by changing the rooms of his house, which provided each a special ambience by color, furniture, and fixtures. While successively switching from one room to the other and working there on his creations, the characters of his ideas changed, became more and more abstracted, until a fantastic mutation was achieved [131].

The effect of abstraction depends on the well-known experience that a topic can be understood in many different ways, if the circumstances are interpreted in a novel way. The old legend of the famous Gordian Knot exemplifies the method by a narration: The knot was tied in such a smart way that virtually no one seems apt to loosen it again—and rumor was that the one who could succeed there should be equally able to conquer the whole Persian Empire. When Alexander the Great was confronted with the problem and its challenge he is said to have taken his sword and dissected the knot by its sharp edge, thus illustrating the power of abstraction and new interpretation of visionary prophecies. In a similar way, Columbus is said to have managed the fixture of an egg on its tip by gently breaking the shell on that side. After a suitable interpretation of the task, the solution may appear quite easy, he concluded. So, this seems a promising solution for creative inventions.

For example, Geschka described in 1980 a method of Progressive Abstraction, when a solution cannot be found within a given framework [132]. Basically, it is based on an enlargement of the specifications by interpretation, that is, to cut a knot, when it seems impossible to loosen it, or to break the shell, when it seems impossible to get it straightened. This seems almost to exemplify the scientific method of investigating any given problem: At first the knowledge is abstracted from perception by experience and subsequently transformed to a theoretical understanding. Any new comprehension can then be checked and recognized theoretically before being accomplished with further information to a novel perceptible display. The consideration and discussion of the entelechy of things furnishes a never-ending opportunity for creative inventions.

Lesson 41

Good conversation does sometimes suffice to obtain an inventive idea!

4.4.4Intuition

Meditation is better than sitting around and doing nothing.

common saying

Meditation is a particular state of mind, which may be characterized by daydreaming, semi-somnolence, and dozing. It may appear just as sitting around and doing nothing but it comprises an intentional search for an intuition, literally meaning an inspection or insight. Quite recently it turned out that sleep is not a state of rest of the brain but contrariwise the neuronal activities are even stronger than when awake. Apparently, the brain is extremely concerned about itself in the state of dozing.

A reasonable explication for this is a regular reorganization and required coordination of the different brain activities while the other bodily activities are at rest. When survival does not depend on conscious decisions and control, mental activities have more liberty to develop, research, and predict the accumulated impressions. In particular, during the relaxation of the body, the split brain activities of either converging logic or diverging association can perform simultaneously and with increased exchange rates or repetitions. In this sense, dreaming is a naturally inborn ability for invention.

A lucid dreaming is a particular form of meditation where the dreamer recognizes to be dreaming yet does not awake by this notion, as usually happens. This offers the possibility to influence the dreams in a desired direction, yet without factual consequences. For instance, morphological variations can be tried out, contradictions can be solved or scenarios can be explored—in order to learn more and to understand better the actual problems, to analyze topics or to elaborate appropriate prophecies. New thoughts become intuited for solutions, falsifications or anticipations. Consequently, it seems rather promising to explore this mental ability.

Oneirology is the name of the scientific discipline for dreams. And virtually all aspects of scientific entelechy can be equally located within dreams. First, a repeated reflection about factual appearances and related experiences is realized by a regression, where facts are seized again and processed by a dream, for example, an adjourned activity is resumed or a finished episode is revived. Second, impressions are intensified by agglutination, that is, an integration or an extension of different appearances and experiences is performed, for example, a former episode of life is experienced in slow motion or in multiple ways. Third, an improved understanding of possible problems and hidden desires is provided by the substitution of appearances and experiences, for example, the features of a holiday trip are embellished or the characteristics of persons and things are conveniently completed. Fourth, a general comprehension is pursued by uncountable permutations of categories for appearances and for experiences according to an interchange or an exchange in nightmares or in wishful dreams, for example, occurrences become escalated, familiar things become alienated or solutions are contrived.

Empirical studies indicate that permutations are the most frequent forms of dreaming. Probably, an essential function of dreams is the projection of drafts to develop notions, to research the premises and to predict eventualities. For instance, there are indigenous tribes with a culture that encourages discussion of dreams before a hunting expedition or a martial campaign in order to perceive information about possible threats or success factors for joint activities. Indeed, it is quite advisable to sleep on an important decision or severe complains, because the topic may turn out afterwards quite clearer, more balanced or in a safer way to proceed.

By the night of November 10 to 11, 1619, the 23-year-old French officer in Bavarian services at Neuburg by the Danube river—with the name René Descartes—had an intuition by three dreams, which became the fundament about the renowned theory of rationalism. Similarly, during a winter’s night in 1861 the 32-year-old chemist Kekulé at Darmstadt dreamed about carbon and hydrogen atoms sparkling around, then forming a snake, which finally bites its own tail like in an old alchemist symbol—thus providing an intuitive explanation for the cyclic organic bonding of benzene.

Nowadays, some athletes and musicians show a capability for lucid dreaming and use this to train their abilities by managing difficult or fast passages by the speed of thoughts. In fact, investigations of the neuronal activities during lucid dreaming proved to be quite similar to real movements, yet limited by the spinal cord. In that way, only the factual execution is prohibited while sleeping, which enables quite faster trials of motion according to shortened nerve conduction. Additionally, the sole procedure can be prepared with lowered complexity, since other nerve signals do not interfere. Thereby, the virtuosic performance of champions relies mainly on an intuitive accomplishment, which has its origins in almost dreamlike perfection. And it may be quite detrimental to ask such a high-performer about the particular way of his execution because the mere reflection and reasoning will decelerate and prohibit the intuitive execution and may cause stumbling and spluttering.

This amazing performance of skilled human actors is often attributed to a special state of mind called flow, that is, a simultaneous harmonization of the situation and the participation in its progression [133]. In Chinese tradition, this state of mind is known as Wu-Wei, literally meaning intentional nonaction or unintentional action, respectively. Within such a state of mind a rather similar ability is achieved as by dreaming. Hence, there is a scientific quest for the techniques to effectuate this.

For example, a mental training contains a deliberate rest from bodily activities, just to exercise a prescribed sequence of movements by mere imagination time and again. Martial arts, gymnastics or musical exercises resort generally to this kind of training in order to enhance attention, competence and self-efficacy of the performers. Within the train of actions an appropriate behavior is performed intuitively with a stunning rapidity and reliability.

Immanuel Kant is known to have exercised a particular form of focusing by firmly staring at the tip of a tower at Königsberg for some minutes—in order to train his ability for intuition. His perseverance became legendary when he asked, after years, a farmer to cut down the poplars that had grown in the direction of his view because they compromised his cognitive skills. When the farmer was instructed about the particular ingenuity of this strange inquirer, he finally conceded.

In a similar way, Isaac Newton is reported to have discovered the law of gravitation by sitting moonily under a tree and watching an apple fall. By considering the probable force to cause this movement, he constituted intuitively a general attraction of masses, which even keeps the moon on a path around the earth and the earth around the sun.

This particular technique has also been adopted as a therapeutic treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). A trauma is a drastic experience, which exceeds the limits of sustainable stress of a person’s body and soul. Consequently, the victims of military or of civil violence are incapable for a long time to return to the normal balance of their life. But imagery rehearsal, that is, induced dreaming situations has turned out to be a promising way to support these people in finding a way out. Obviously, many victims can then manage to work on the suffered trauma and elaborate a tolerable way of living within the framework of a dream. Indeed, a supervised guidance yields clear improvements and continued coverage.

In general, a controlled situation of recreation, relaxation, and imagination can be described as meditation, literally standing for musing, reflection, and cognition. Meditation is an unconscious state of mind, which spurs intuition by imagination and by pure fantasy. It contains a work on and a treatment of one’s own thoughts and ideas by a particular dozing alertness. In this way an innate capability to find out, imagine or invent new concepts for an innovative reality becomes intuitively available.

There are countless forms of meditation. Probably, the meditative state is somehow unique in any case, because it is experienced by each person in quite a different way. And meditation varies certainly individually, because it is influenced by the very own personality and the character of each individual. Further, meditation is maybe an exclusive event, because personal experiences and situational circumstances merge in any moment of a human life to some kind of singularity. Therefore, meditation is a basic state of human creativity. And the approaches toward meditations are manifold.

For example, meditation can be actively induced during a recreation, by music, dancing, playing, partying, hiking, bathing, and many other forms of wellness. Then there are concentrative forms to induce meditation, for example, by yoga, tai chi, qigong, or autogenic training. Further there are religious contemplations, which bear out meditation, for example, zen, mantra, pilgrimage, or rosary prayers. And then there are many suggestive therapies for meditation, for example, by fairy tales, koans, or hypnoses.

These different approaches are not just manifold but somewhat comprehensive, too. A spiritual sinking by religious contemplation goes along with certain recreation as well as a concentrative training. Inversely, a concentrative exercise entails a new understanding, as well as a relaxation occasionally accompanied by spiritual impressions. And creative enlightenment is generally accompanied by easing, happiness, and an enhanced attitude to life. In consequence, meditation is not an item apt for scientific objectivation, but it is mainly a personal and subjective experience. So, it appears quite difficult to realize meditation epistemologically.

However, the process of meditation follows generally a certain pattern, which can be structured again by an entelechy of four subsequent phases:

At the beginning, all exterior impulses and interior needs have to be excluded, which is called deprivation. According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs several levels may be distinguished. At the bottom there are physiological needs to satisfy, like breathing, thirst, hunger, defecation, fatigue, wellness, and sexuality. Then there a safety needs, like security, health, peace, and justice. On the next level there are social needs, like love, intimacy, friendship, and belonging to a family or to another community. Further there is a certain need for esteem, like equality, acceptance, and acknowledgment. And on the top there are further needs for the human self, like self-actualization, self-content, mission, or self-transcendence.

For example, an extreme way to exclude all impulses and needs can be established during isolation by a floating tank of a Samadhi bath. Salt water at skin temperature provides a weightless floating of the body within an enclosed space without light and any sound. Almost all human senses are thereby deprived from any impressions. And within an hour the state of mind begins to doze and to daydream as desired, eventually.

The next step of meditation can be described by asceticism, literally meaning an exercise of an inner attitude and an outer attitude of countenance. In order to sustain the state of deprivation for a longer time, a posture is adopted corresponding to the mindset.