Jonathan Bartlett

Electronics for Beginners

A Practical Introduction to Schematics, Circuits, and Microcontrollers

1st ed.
Jonathan Bartlett
Tulsa, OK, USA
ISBN 978-1-4842-5978-8e-ISBN 978-1-4842-5979-5
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-5979-5
© Jonathan Bartlett 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
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This book is dedicated to Forrest M. Mims III, whose Engineer’s Mini-Notebook series of books I read endlessly as a youth and whose work as a citizen scientist has been an inspiration to me and to many others.

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank, first and foremost, my homeschool co-op community. This book originally started from a series of classes that I taught in our local co-op, and my students were the guinea pigs for this content. I received a lot of encouragement from that class, with both the students and the parents enjoying the material. I want to thank my wife who put up with me always typing on my computer to put this together. I also want to thank the Tulsa Open Source Hardware community (as well as the larger Tulsa WebDevs community), who gave me a lot of encouragement while putting together this book and who also sat through many presentations based on this material.

Table of Contents
Chapter 1:​ Introduction 1
1.​1 Working the Examples 2
1.​2 Initial Tools and Supplies 3
1.​3 Safety Guidelines 5
1.​4 Electrostatic Discharge 7
1.​5 Using Your Multimeter Correctly 7
Chapter 2:​ Dealing with Units 9
2.​1 SI Units 9
2.​2 Scaling Units 12
2.​3 Using Abbreviations 14
2.​4 Significant Figures 15
Apply What You Have Learned 18
Part I: Basic Concepts21
Chapter 3:​ What Is Electricity?​ 23
3.​1 Charge 23
3.​2 Measuring Charge and Current 26
3.​3 AC vs.​ DC 28
3.​4 Which Way Does Current Flow?​ 30
Review 31
Apply What You Have Learned 32
Chapter 4:​ Voltage and Resistance 35
4.​1 Picturing Voltage 35
4.​2 Volts Are Relative 36
4.​3 Relative Voltages and Ground Potential 37
4.​4 Resistance 38
Review 41
Apply What You Have Learned 42
Chapter 5:​ Your First Circuit 45
5.​1 Circuit Requirements 45
5.​2 Basic Components 47
5.​3 Creating Your First Circuit 49
5.​4 Adding Wires 52
5.​5 Drawing Circuits 53
5.​6 Drawing the Ground 56
Review 57
Apply What You Have Learned 58
Chapter 6:​ Constructing and Testing Circuits 61
6.​1 The Solderless Breadboard 61
6.​2 Putting a Circuit onto a Breadboard 64
6.​3 Using Fewer Wires 69
6.​4 Testing Circuits with a Multimeter 72
6.​5 Using a Multimeter with a Breadboard 75
6.​6 Measuring Current with a Multimeter 77
6.​7 Using a Power Regulator 78
Review 80
Apply What You Have Learned 83
Chapter 7:​ Analyzing Series and Parallel Circuits 85
7.​1 Series Circuits 85
7.​2 Parallel Circuits 87
7.​2.​1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law 88
7.​2.​2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law 90
7.​3 Equivalent Parallel Resistance 93
7.​4 Wires in a Circuit 97
7.​5 Wiring Parallel Circuits onto a Breadboard 99
Review 100
Apply What You Have Learned 102
Chapter 8:​ Diodes and How to Use Them 105
8.​1 Basic Diode Behavior 105
8.​2 Circuit Calculations with Diodes in Series 107
8.​3 Circuit Calculations with Diodes in Parallel 109
8.​4 Diode Short Circuits 113
8.​5 Nonconducting Diodes 115
8.​6 Usage of Diodes 115
8.​7 Other Types of Diode Protection 120
8.​8 Zener Diodes 122
8.​9 Schottky Diode 123
8.​10 Diode-Like Behavior in Other Components 123
Review 123
Apply What You Have Learned 126
Chapter 9:​ Basic Resistor Circuit Patterns 129
9.​1 Switches and Buttons 129
9.​2 Current-Limiting Resistor Pattern 131
9.​3 Voltage Divider Pattern 132
9.​3.​1 Calculating the Voltages 134
9.​3.​2 Finding Resistor Ratios 135
9.​3.​3 Finding Resistor Values 136
9.​3.​4 General Considerations 138
9.​4 The Pull-Up Resistor 138
9.​5 Pull-Down Resistors 141
Review 141
Apply What You Have Learned 143
Chapter 10:​ Understanding Power 145
10.​1 Important Terms Related to Power 145
10.​2 Power in Electronics 147
10.​3 Component Power Limitations 149
10.​4 Handling Power Dissipation with Heatsinks 150
10.​5 Transforming Power 151
10.​6 Amplifying Low-Power Signals 153
Review 154
Apply What You Have Learned 156
Chapter 11:​ Integrated Circuits and Resistive Sensors 159
11.​1 The Parts of an Integrated Circuit 159
11.​2 The LM393 Voltage Comparator 163
11.​3 The Importance and Problems of Datasheets 164
11.​4 A Simple Circuit with the LM393 167
11.​5 Resistive Sensors and Voltages 169
11.​6 Sensing and Reacting to Darkness 170
Sources and Sinks 172
Review 173
Apply What You Have Learned 175
Part II: Digital Electronics and Microcontrollers177
Chapter 12:​ Using Logic ICs 179
12.​1 Logic ICs 179
12.​2 Getting a 5 V Source 185
12.​3 Pull-Down Resistors 187
12.​4 Combining Logic Circuits 190
12.​5 Understanding Chip Names 193
Review 196
Apply What You Have Learned 197
Chapter 13:​ Introduction to Microcontrollers​ 201
13.​1 The ATmega328/​P Chip 203
13.​2 The Arduino Environment 204
13.​3 The Arduino Uno 206
13.​4 Programming the Arduino 207
Review 210
Apply What You Have Learned 211
Chapter 14:​ Building Projects with Arduino 213
14.​1 Powering Your Breadboard from an Arduino Uno 213
14.​2 Wiring Inputs and Outputs to an Arduino Uno 214
14.​3 A Simple Arduino Project with LEDs 216
14.​4 Changing Functionality Without Rewiring 219
Review 220
Apply What You Have Learned 221
Chapter 15:​ Analog Input and Output on an Arduino 223
15.​1 Reading Analog Inputs 223
15.​2 Analog Output with PWM 226
Review 229
Apply What You Have Learned 231
Part III: Capacitors and Inductors233
Chapter 16:​ Capacitors 235
16.​1 What Is a Capacitor?​ 235
16.​2 How Capacitors Work 237
16.​3 Types of Capacitors 241
16.​4 Charging and Discharging a Capacitor 243
16.​5 Series and Parallel Capacitances 245
16.​6 Capacitors and AC and DC 248
16.​7 Using Capacitors in a Circuit 249
Review 251
Exercises 253
Chapter 17:​ Capacitors as Timers 255
17.​1 Time Constants 255
17.​2 Constructing a Simple Timer Circuit 258
17.​3 Resetting Our Timer 263
Review 265
Apply What You Have Learned 267
Chapter 18:​ Introduction to Oscillator Circuits 269
18.​1 Oscillation Basics 269
18.​2 The Importance of Oscillating Circuits 271
18.​3 Building an Oscillator 273
18.​4 Calculating On and Off Times with the 555 279
18.​5 Choosing the Capacitor 283
Review 284
Apply What You Have Learned 287
Chapter 19:​ Producing Sound with Oscillations 289
19.​1 How Sound Is Produced by Speakers 289
19.​2 Graphing Electricity 290
19.​3 Outputting a Tone to Headphones 292
19.​4 AC vs.​ DC 294
19.​5 Using Capacitors to Separate AC and DC Components 295
19.​6 Speaker Wattage 297
19.​7 Sound Control 298
Review 300
Apply What You Have Learned 302
Chapter 20:​ Inductors 303
20.​1 Inductors, Coils, and Magnetic Flux 303
20.​1.​1 What Is an Inductor?​ 303
20.​1.​2 What Is Magnetic Flux?​ 304
20.​1.​3 What Is the Difference Between Electric and Magnetic Fields 304
20.​2 Induced Voltages 306
20.​3 Resisting Changes in Current 307
20.​4 Analogy from Mechanics 308
20.​5 Uses of Inductors 308
20.​6 Inductive Kick 309
Review 311
Apply What You Have Learned 312
Chapter 21:​ Inductors and Capacitors in Circuits 315
21.​1 RL Circuits and Time Constants 315
21.​2 Inductors and Capacitors as Filters 317
21.​3 Parallel and Series Capacitors and Inductors 318
Review 319
Apply What You Have Learned 320
Chapter 22:​ Reactance and Impedance 323
22.​1 Reactance 323
22.​2 Impedance 326
22.​3 RLC Circuits 329
22.​4 Ohm’s Law for AC Circuits 331
22.​5 Resonant Frequencies of RLC Circuits 334
22.​6 Low-Pass Filters 335
22.​7 Converting a PWM Signal into a Voltage 336
Review 337
Exercises 339
Chapter 23:​ DC Motors 343
23.​1 Theory of Operation 343
23.​2 Important Facts About Motors 344
23.​3 Using a Motor in a Circuit 345
23.​4 Attaching Things to Motors 347
23.​5 Bidirectional Motors 348
23.​6 Servo Motors 349
23.​7 Stepper Motors 350
Review 350
Apply What You Have Learned 352
Part IV: Amplification Circuits353
Chapter 24:​ Amplifying Power with Transistors 355
24.​1 An Amplification Parable 356
24.​2 Amplifying with Transistors 357
24.​3 Parts of the BJT 358
24.​4 NPN Transistor Operation Basics 361
Rule 1:​ The Transistor Is Off by Default 361
Rule 2: V BE Needs to Be 0.6 V to Turn the Transistor On 361
Rule 3: V BE Will Always Be Exactly 0.6 V When the Transistor Is On 361
Rule 4:​ The Collector Should Always Be More Positive Than the Emitter 362
Rule 5: When the Transistor Is On, I CE Is a Linear Amplification of I BE 362
Rule 6:​ The Transistor Cannot Amplify More Than the Collector Can Supply 362
Rule 7:​ If the Base Voltage Is Greater Than the Collector Voltage, the Transistor Is Saturated 363
24.​5 The Transistor as a Switch 364
24.​6 Connecting a Transistor to an Arduino Output 367
24.​7 Stabilizing Transistor Beta With a Feedback Resistor 368
24.​8 A Word of Caution 370
Review 370
Apply What You Have Learned 372
Chapter 25:​ Transistor Voltage Amplifiers 375
25.​1 Converting Current into Voltage with Ohm’s Law 375
25.​2 Reading the Amplified Signal 378
25.​3 Amplifying an Audio Signal 380
25.​4 Adding a Second Stage 385
25.​5 Using an Oscilloscope 387
Review 388
Apply What You Have Learned 390
Chapter 26:​ Examining Partial Circuits 391
26.​1 The Need for a Model 391
26.​2 Calculating Thévenin Equivalent Values 393
26.​3 Another Way of Calculating Thévenin Resistance 396
26.​4 Finding the Thévenin Equivalent of an AC Circuit with Reactive Elements 397
26.​5 Using Thévenin Equivalent Descriptions 398
26.​6 Finding Thévenin Equivalent Circuits Experimentally 399
Review 403
Apply What You Have Learned 404
Chapter 27:​ Using Field Effect Transistors for Switching and Logic Applications 407
27.​1 Operation of a FET 408
27.​2 The N-Channel Enhancement Mode MOSFET 410
27.​3 Using a MOSFET 410
27.​4 MOSFETs in Logic Circuits 414
Review 415
Apply What You Have Learned 416
Chapter 28:​ Going Further 417
Appendix A:​ Glossary 419
Appendix B:​ Electronics Symbols 435
Appendix C:​ Integrated Circuit Naming Conventions 439
C.​1 Logic Chip Basic Conventions 439
Appendix D:​ More Math Than You Wanted to Know 443
D.​1 Basic Formulas 443
D.​1.​1 Charge and Current Quantities 443
D.​1.​2 Volt Quantities 444
D.​1.​3 Resistance and Conductance Quantities 444
D.​1.​4 Ohm’s Law 445
D.​1.​5 Power 445
D.​1.​6 Capacitance 445
D.​1.​7 Inductance 446
D.​2 Semiconductors 447
D.​2.​1 Diodes 447
D.​2.​2 NPN BJT 448
D.​3 DC Motor Calculations 448
D.​4 555 Timer Oscillator Frequency Equation 450
D.​5 Output Gain Calculations in BJT Common Emitter Applications 452
D.​6 The Thévenin Formula 461
D.​7 Electronics and Calculus 463
D.​7.​1 Current and Voltage 463
D.​7.​2 Capacitors and Inductors 464
D.​7.​3 Time Constants 465
Appendix E:​ Simplified Datasheets for Common Devices 467
E.​1 Batteries 468
E.​1.​1 Overview 468
E.​1.​2 Variations 468
E.​1.​3 Notes 469
E.​2 Resistors 469
E.​2.​1 Overview 469
E.​2.​2 Finding a Resistor Value 470
E.​3 Diodes 471
E.​3.​1 Overview 471
E.​3.​1 Variations 472
E.​3.​3 Forward Voltage Drop 472
E.​3.​4 Usages 473
E.​4 Capacitors 473
E.​4.​1 Overview 473
E.​4.​2 Variations 474
E.​4.​3 Finding Capacitance Values 475
E.​5 Inductors 475
E.​5.​1 Overview 475
E.​5.​2 Uses 476
E.​5.​3 Inductive Kick 476
E.​5.​4 Inductor Color Codes 477
E.​6 NPN BJTs 477
E.​6.​1 Overview 477
E.​6.​2 Variations 478
E.​6.​3 Pin Configuration 478
E.​6.​4 Design Considerations 479
E.​7 YwRobot Power Module 479
E.​7.​1 Overview 479
E.​7.​2 Variations 480
E.​7.​3 Pin Configuration 480
E.​7.​4 Limitations 480
E.​8 555 Timer 481
E.​8.​1 Overview 481
E.​8.​2 Variations 482
E.​8.​3 Pin Configuration 482
E.​8.​4 Specifications 483
E.​8.​5 Implementation Example 483
E.​9 LM393 and LM339 Voltage Comparator 483
E.​9.​1 Overview 483
E.​9.​2 Variations 484
E.​9.​3 Specifications 484
E.​10 CD4081 and 7408 Quad-AND Gate 485
E.​10.​1 Overview 485
E.​10.​2 Variations 485
E.​10.​3 Specifications (CD4081) 486
E.​10.​4 Specifications (7408) 486
E.​11 CD4071 and 7432 Quad-OR Gate 487
E.​11.​1 Overview 487
E.​11.​2 Variations 487
E.​11.​3 Specifications (CD4071) 488
E.​11.​4 Specifications (7432) 488
E.​12 CD4001 and 7402 Quad-NOR Gate 489
E.​12.​1 Overview 489
E.​12.​2 Variations 489
E.​12.​3 Specifications (CD4001) 490
E.​12.​4 Specifications (7402) 490
E.​13 CD4011 and 7400 Quad-NAND Gate 491
E.​13.​1 Overview 491
E.​13.​2 Variations 491
E.​13.​3 Specifications (CD4011) 492
E.​13.​4 Specifications (7400) 492
E.​14 CD4070 and 7486 Quad-XOR Gate 493
E.​14.​1 Overview 493
E.​14.​2 Variations 493
E.​14.​3 Specifications (CD4070) 494
E.​14.​4 Specifications (7486) 494
E.​15 LM78xx Voltage Regulator 495
E.​15.​1 Overview 495
E.​15.​2 Variations 495
E.​15.​3 Specifications 496
E.​15.​4 Usage Notes 497
Index 499
About the Author
Jonathan Bartlett

is a senior software R&D specialist at Specialized Bicycle Components, focusing on creating initial prototypes for a variety of IoT (Internet of Things) projects. Jonathan has been educating the tech community for well over a decade. His first book, Programming from the Ground Up, is an Internet classic and was endorsed by Joel Spolsky, co-founder of Stack Exchange. It was one of the first open source books and has been used by a generation of programmers to learn how computers work from the inside out, using assembly language as a starting point. He recently released Building Scalable PHP Web Applications Using the Cloud as well as the calculus textbook Calculus from the Ground Up.  Jonathan also writes a mix of technical and popular articles for a number of websites, including the new MindMatters.ai technology blog. His other articles can be found on IBM’s DeveloperWorks website, Linux.com, and Medium.com.  He is also the head of Tulsa Open Source Hardware, a local group focusing on do-it-yourself electronics projects.

Jonathan also participates in a variety of academic work.  He is an associate fellow of the Walter Bradley Center for Natural and Artificial Intelligence. There, he does research into fundamental mathematics and the mathematics of artificial intelligence. He also serves on the editorial board for the journal BIO-Complexity, focusing on reviewing information-theoretic papers for the journal and assisting with LaTeX typesetting.

Additionally, Jonathan has written several books on the interplay of philosophy, math, and science, including Engineering and the Ultimate and Naturalism and Its Alternatives in Scientific Methodologies.  Jonathan served as editor for the book Controllability of Dynamic Systems: The Green’s Function Approach, which received the RA Presidential Award of the Republic of Armenia in the area of “Technical Sciences and Information Technologies.”

Jonathan serves on the board of Homeschool Oklahoma along with his wife, Christa, of 20 years. They inspire their community in several ways including writing educational material, creating educational videos, tutoring students through Classical Conversations, and sharing their own stories of tragedy and success with others.

 
About the Technical Reviewer
Mike McRoberts

is the author of Beginning Arduino by Apress. He is the winner of Pi Wars 2018 and a member of Medway Makers. He is an Arduino and Raspberry Pi enthusiast.

Mike McRoberts has expertise in a variety of languages and environments, including C/C++, Arduino, Python, Processing, JS, Node-RED, NodeJS, Lua.

 
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