Index
Please note that index links point to page beginnings from the print edition. Locations are approximate in e-readers, and you may need to page down one or more times after clicking a link to get to the indexed material.
References to figures are in italics.
555 timer circuits, 237–239
AA cell batteries, 7
converting into a penlight, 16–21
See also batteries
AAA cell batteries, 8
See also batteries
AC, converting to DC for power supplies, 107–113
AC circuits, analysis, 416–423
AC resistance, 121
acid core solder, 64
air dielectric variable capacitors, 266–267
aliasing, 338
See also resolution
alkaline batteries, 10
See also batteries
AM. See amplitude modulation
AM radios, compared to FM radios, 301–303
AM signals, 251–256
mixing and beating signals, 278–279
single sideband signals (SSBs), 265–266
suppressed carrier AM signals, 258–263
vestigial sideband (VSB) AM signals, 256–258
American Wire Gauge (AWG), 5
AM/FM radios
hacking, 465–469
using to sense whether an oscillator is working, 504–505
automatic level control (ALC) amplifiers, 174–176
building the LM386 audio amplifier on a vector board, 71–74
common-emitter amplifiers, 39, 288, 443–447
common-mode, 191–192
emitter-follower amplifiers, 40, 438–443
integrated circuits as, 44–45
inverting-gain video amplifiers, 447–451
linear amplifiers, 380
low-voltage vacuum tube amplifiers, 212–213
microphone preamplifier circuits, 195–200
nonlinear amplifiers, 381
polynomials used in determining distortion effects of negative feedback in amplifiers, 395–401
voltage-controlled common emitter amplifiers, 177–178
what to do if an amplifier oscillates, 497
See also op amps
amplitude modulation, 251
AM signals, 251–256
vestigial sideband (VSB) AM signals, 256–258
analog TV signals, 292
angular frequency, 416
antennae, 302
artifacts, 344
aspect ratio, 337–338
using to determine the number of scanning lines, 340–344
assembling circuits, 493
audio signal levels
controlling, 174–176
for microphones, phono cartridges, line inputs and loudspeakers, 189–191
See also AM signals
audio signal tracers, 506
audio signals, balanced or differential-mode, 191–195
automatic level control (ALC) amplifiers, 174–176
automatic-gain-control (AGC) system, 223–224
Wein bridge oscillators with AGC to provide nonclipped sine waves, 229–232
auto-ranging, 78
AWG. See American Wire Gauge (AWG)
AWG number, 5
axial-lead capacitors, 30
back porch level, 356
back porch sampling pulse (BPSP), 368
balanced audio signals, 191–195
bandgap voltage, 88
bandwidth, using to determine the number of scanning lines, 340–344
batteries, 7–11
carbon-zinc batteries, 16–21
connecting in parallel, 15
converting a AA cell into a penlight, 16–21
CR2016, 16
CR2032, 16
removing casing, 11–12
series circuit connections, 13–15
battery holders, 13–15
battery testers, 74–78
using standard VOMs as, 78–81
beat-frequency oscillators (BFO), 123
Bessel functions, 292
binding-post connectors, 59
bipolar transistors, 39–41
as current sources, 133–135
as voltage-controlled resistors, 158–159
boundary conditions, 434
The Boys’ Book of Radio and Electronics (Morgan), 3
The Boys’ Second Book of Radio and Electronics (Morgan), 3
BPSP. See back porch sampling pulse (BPSP)
breadboards, attaching circuits to a wooden breadboard, 56–58
brightness, 330–332
adding a brightness circuit, 351–354
video processor circuit to adjust for, 361–373
buffering, 39
Build Your Own Transistor Radios (Quan), 54, 282
CAD programs, 48
capacitance, stray capacitance, 58
capacitors, 28–31
air dielectric variable capacitors, 266–267
decoupling, 496–497
polyvaricon variable capacitors, 268
two-gang variable capacitors, 279–280
wiring in the correct polarity, 493–494
carbon-zinc batteries, 16–21
See also batteries
Carson’s rule, 292
ceramic filter oscillator for wider frequency deviation, 470–476
chips. See integrated circuits
circuit assembly, 493
circuit testing, 493–494
class AB output stage with quiescent bias using a servo control, 481–486
coaxial cable, 6
coherers, 56
coils, 31–35
cold solder joints, 66
collector currents, measuring due to changes in input signals, 135–138
color encoding, linear equations for, 384–387
color TV signals, 347–350
Colpitts oscillators, 31, 240, 241, 243
common-emitter amplifiers, 39, 288
using emitter output resistance to determine characteristics of, 443–447
common-mode audio signals, 191–192
computer-aided design (CAD) programs, 48
conductance, 177
constant current “diodes” using JFETs, 131–133
constant current source, 129–130
using to provide low ripple at the power supply’s output, 141–145
See also current sources
contrast, 328–330
adding a contrast circuit, 354–357
video processor circuit to adjust for, 361–373
converter circuits, 304
converting AC to DC, 107–113
CR2016 batteries, 16
CR2032 batteries, 16
crossover distortion, 457
Curl, John, 494
current, defined, 22
bipolar transistors as, 133–135
JFETs used as, 145–146
MOSFETs used as, 146–147
vacuum tubes used as, 147–149
DC, converting AC to, 107–113
DC bias conditions, 494–495
DC open-loop gain, 154
DC restoration circuits, 114–117, 331–332
De Forest, Lee, 42
deadband distortion, 457
de-emphasis, 295–297
defined, 297
effect, 298
filter, 295
See also pre-emphasis
degrees Kelvin (K), 83–84
demodulators, 302
depletion mode FETs, 131–132
design patents, 469
desolder pump, 65
detectors, 302
differential peak detectors, 322–323
phase-lock loop detectors, 317–319
single-slope detectors, 319–322
stagger-tuned detectors, 323–324
deviation ratio, 291
dielectric, 29
differential equations, 423
differential gain method, 457–459
differential peak detectors, 322–323
differential-mode audio signals, 191–195
digital signal processing (DSP), 466
diode-rectifiers, 105
diodes, 35–38
characteristics of, 105–107
as gain-control circuits, 121–122
logic circuits using, 124–125
radiofrequency (RF) mixing with, 123–124
Schottky diodes, 106
as switches and gain-control devices, 117–120
vacuum-tube diodes, 42
variable-capacitance diodes, 125–126
See also zener diodes
distortion effects
polynomials used in determining distortion effects of negative feedback in amplifiers, 395–401
See also harmonic distortion
distortion tests, 216–220
dithered effect, 349
Doppler effect, 290
DVM, 505
dynamic resistance, 121
Edison, Thomas, 42
Edison effect, 42
electrolytic capacitors, 29–30
decoupling, 496–497
wiring in the correct polarity, 493–494
emitter output resistance, 443–447
emitter-base-collector pin-outs, 41
emitter-follower amplifiers, 40, 438–443
external noise, 503
Faraday, Michael, 28
farads, 28
FETs, 131
depletion mode FETs, 131–132
See also JFETs
field-effect transistors. See FETs
fields, 341
flip-flop circuits, 238, 367–368
FM oscillators, using voltage-controlled capacitance diodes, 292–308
FM radios, 301–308
FM tuner project with ceramic filter and resonator, 308–313, 452
with Silicon Labs 4836 chip, 313–325
FM signals, defined, 289–292
forward voltage drop VF, 105–106
frame rate, using to determine the number of scanning lines, 340–344
frames, 341
frequency response, 202–203, 344–347
frequency-modulated signals. See FM signals
full-wave rectifier bridge circuits, 110–113
function generators, 506
gain bandwidth product. See GBWP
gain-control circuits, diodes as, 121–122
gain-control devices, diodes as, 117–120
galena crystals, 56
increasing, 200–201
governors, 163–164
H. See henries (H)
hacking, 461–469
half-wave rectifier circuits, 108–110, 112–113
harmonic distortion, 454–456
using differential gain to determine, 457–459
harmonics, 216
HBI. See horizontal blanking interval
henries (H), 32
Henry, Joseph, 32
heptodes, 42
heterodyning, 278–279
hexagrid converters, 42
horizontal blanking interval, 368
hysteresis oscillators, 487
I channel, 264–266
ideal voltage source, 99
IF, 278
IF transformers, 281–285
imaginary numbers, 417
impedance, 419
See also I channel
incandescent lamps, 83–84
vs. LEDs, 92
inductors, 31–35
See also wires
integrated circuits, as amplifiers and logic gates, 44–45
interlaced scanned format, 341
intermediate frequency. See IF
intermodulation distortion products, 217
invention, 461
types of, 469
See also patent examples; patents
inverting-gain configuration, 168–172
inverting-gain video amplifiers, analyzing, 447–451
JFETs
constant current diodes using, 131–133
used as current sources, 145–146
as voltage-controlled resistors, 158–159
junction field effect transistors. See JFETs
Kell factor, 338–340
using to determine the number of scanning lines, 340–344
See also resolution
Kirchoff’s laws, limitations of for analyzing circuits via loop and node equations, 403–404
Laplace transforms, 423
LC RF matching network, 488–491
LED keychain light, hacking, 462–465
LEDs, 87–90
driving, 90–91
experiments with, 92–95
vs. incandescent lamps, 92
light output specifications for, 91–92
low-power nightlight using, 150–152
using as reference voltages, 138–141
light measurement. See degrees Kelvin (K)
light-emitting diodes. See LEDs
line inputs, audio signal levels for, 189–191
linear amplifiers, 380
linearly proportional current, 86
See also batteries
lithium-ion batteries, 9
See also batteries
LM386 audio amplifier, 71–74
load, 74
logic circuits, using diodes, 124–125
logic gates, 496
integrated circuits as, 44–45
loop equations, 404
defining the direction of the current and voltage drops, 405–407
deriving the voltage divider formula using positive-charged currents, 407–408
entering the zero-voltage source, 405
node equations to determine parallel resistances, 408–411
loss of shadow detail, 330
loudspeakers, audio signal levels for, 189–191
low-dropout voltage regulators, 505
low-frequency oscillation, 497–500
low-pass filters, 112
low-side tap, 243
magnets, 3
mathematics
equation of a line, 375–379
linear equations for color encoding, 384–387
negative-feedback systems with a (linear) first-order-term polynomial, 393–395
offset voltages described by the Y intercept b, 379–382
polynomials, 387–393
polynomials used in determining distortion effects of negative feedback in amplifiers, 395–401
systems of linear equations used in FM stereo, 382–384
Meyer, Robert G., 457
mhos, 177
microfarads, 28
microhenries, 32–33
microphones
audio signal levels for, 189–191
preamplifier circuits, 195–200
millihenries, 32–33
mixing
in a linear manner, 123
radiofrequency (RF) mixing with a diode, 123–124
MK484/TA7642 chip, 285–287, 451–452
modulation frequency, 291
modulation index, 291
Morgan, Alfred P., 3
MOSFETs, used as current sources, 146–147
motor-boating, 497–500
nanohenries, 34
negative feedback
circuits, 146
polynomials used in determining distortion effects of negative feedback in amplifiers, 395–401
to stabilize or self-bias collector currents, 178–181
systems, 163–165
systems with a (linear) first-order-term polynomial, 393–395
nightlight, 150–152
See also batteries
noise
decoupling sources from injecting noise into power rails, 500–501
reducing external noise, 503
non-inverting-gain op amps, 166–168
nonlinear amplifiers, 381
nonpolarized electrolytic capacitors, 30
nonrechargeable batteries, 8–9
See also batteries
nonvaractor electronic variable capacitor, 476–481
NTSC standard, 348
Ohm’s laws, 101, 168, 406, 409, 410
online learning resources, 513
op amps, 152–158
choosing the correct op amps, 495–496
considerations when choosing, 188
non-inverting-gain op amps, 166–168
positive feedback, 185
operational amplifiers. See op amps
ORCAD Capture Lite, 48
oscillation frequency, 226, 227, 228
oscillators, 221
beat-frequency oscillators (BFO), 123
Colpitts oscillators, 31, 240, 241, 243
FM oscillators using voltage-controlled capacitance diodes, 292–308
hysteresis oscillators, 487
low-frequency oscillation, 497–500
modulating the power-supply pin of an oscillator to provide FM, 487–488
overview, 222–224
phase-shift oscillators, 225–229
radiofrequency (RF) oscillators, 240–247
relaxation oscillators, 224–225, 233–237, 239–240
sine-wave oscillators, 222
using an AM/FM radio to sense whether an oscillator is working, 504–505
Wein bridge oscillators, 223, 229–232
when an oscillator does not oscillate, 501–503
oscilloscopes, 506
out of phase, 136
PAL standards, 349
parasitic oscillation, 244
parts suppliers, 509–511
patent examples
ceramic filter oscillator for wider frequency deviation, 470–476
class AB output stage with quiescent bias using a servo control, 481–486
nonvaractor electronic variable capacitor, 476–481
patents, 469
See also invention
peak inverse voltage (PIV), 37–38
peak reverse voltage (PRV), 37
penlight bulb, experiment with, 84–87
pentagrid converters, 42
pentodes, 42
perforated boards, 70–71
persistence, 342–343
phase shift, 416
phase-angle delay, 416
phase-lock loop detectors, 317–319
phase-shift oscillators, 225–229
See also oscillators
phono cartridges
audio signal levels for, 189–191
moving-magnet or magnetic high-output phono-cartridge preamps, 202
phono preamp, 434–437
photodiode sensors, 172–174
experiment with, 99–101
listening to a remote control’s signals, 101–103
photoreceivers, 96–99
phototransistors, 97
picofarads, 28
plant patents, 469
plate currents, 42
polynomials, 387–393
negative-feedback systems with a (linear) first-order-term polynomial, 393–395
used in determining distortion effects of negative feedback in amplifiers, 395–401
polyvaricon variable capacitors, 268
positive feedback, 185–187, 276
power, defined, 23–24
power detector crystal radio, 270–271
power detectors, 271
power output stages, 182–184
power resistors, 26
preamplifiers
Dynaco preamplifiers, 212
microphone preamplifier circuits, 195–200
power supplies for preamplifier circuits, 213–216
RIAA equalization phono preamplifier projects, 203–211
precharged batteries, 8
See also batteries
precut wires, 59
See also wires
pre-emphasis, 295–297
defined, 297
effect, 298
FM and a pre-emphasis network, 299–301
pre-tinning wires, 65–66
product detectors, 261–263
progressively scanned format, 341
prototype circuits, via soldering, 67–70
pulsed waveforms, 423–427
Q channel, 264–266
quadrature, 264
See also Q channel
quadrature detectors, 308, 311, 312
radial-lead capacitors, 30
radio circuits
basic radio circuits, 266–271
TRF radio project, 273–285
tuned radio-frequency (TRF) circuits, 266–268, 271–273
radio-frequency (RF) mixing, with diodes, 123–124
radio-frequency (RF) oscillators, 240–247
ratio detectors, 305
rechargeable batteries, 8–10
See also batteries
Recording Industries Association of America (RIAA), 202–203
equalization phono preamplifier projects, 203–211
phono preamp revisited, 434–437
RIAA equalization curves, 210
records (LPs), 202–203
characteristics of, 105–107
reference voltages
defined, 138
using LEDs as, 138–141
relaxation oscillators, 224–225, 233–237
modulating the power-supply pin of an oscillator to provide FM, 487–488
using a 74HC14 or 74AC14 chip, 239–240
See also oscillators
relays, 39
removing solder, 65
resistance
AC resistance, 121
defined, 22–23
dynamic resistance, 121
measuring DC resistance of back-to-back batteries, 120
resistance values, 24
self-biasing resistors, 133
typical values for, 25
resolution, 332–337
See also aliasing; Kell factor
reversed collector and emitter leads, 503–504
RF amplifiers, 302
RF matching network, 488–491
RF signal generators, 506
RIAA. See Recording Industries Association of America (RIAA)
ripple voltage, 113
using constant current source to provide lower ripple at the power supply’s output, 141–145
RMS (root-mean-squared) voltage, 108
rosin-core flux solder, 64
scanning lines, determining the number of, 340–344
schematic diagrams, overview, 45–51
Schottky diodes, 106
SECAM standard, 349
second-order interaction term, 401
self-biasing resistors, 133
self-discharged batteries, 8
See also batteries
semiconductors
amplifiers, 38–39
bipolar transistors, 39–41
diodes, 35–38
rectifiers, 35–38
vacuum tubes, 42–44
sharpness, 344–347
adding a sharpness circuit, 358–360
video processor circuit to adjust for, 361–373
siemens, 177
Silicon Labs 4836 chip, 313–325
sine waves, 108
sine-wave oscillators, 222
See also oscillators
single sideband signals (SSBs), 265–266
See also AM signals
single-slope detectors, 319–322
single-stranded wire, 6
small-signal devices, 105
See also diodes
SMPTE, 219
SMPTE IM distortion test, 219
Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE), 219
software
computer-aided design (CAD) programs, 48
ORCAD Capture Lite, 48
Spectran, 515
Winrad, 515
software-defined radio (SDR), 466
solar cells, 96–97
solder joints, 66–67
soldering pencil, 63
soldering prototype circuits, 67–70
soldering tools, 62–65
solderless breadboards. See superstrip protoboards
solderless circuits
attaching circuits to a wooden breadboard, 56–58
twisting wires to build circuits, 53–56
solid-state regenerative radio, 276–278
vs. TRF radio, 278
See also wires
Spectran, 515
stagger-tuned detectors, 323–324
steady-state AC analysis, 417
stereo subcarrier channel, 382
See also wires
stray capacitance, 58
Super Wick, 65
superheterodyne circuits, 301
superheterodyne radio, 278–279
using the MK484/TA7642 chip, 285–287, 451–452
superstrip protoboards, 4, 58–62
suppliers, 509–511
suppressed carrier AM signals, 258–263
See also AM signals
switches, diodes as, 117–120
Taylor series expansion, 292
test equipment, 505–506
test pattern, 334–335
testing circuits, 493–494
tetrodes, 42
THD. See total harmonic distortion (THD)
Thevenin equivalent circuits, 54, 234, 312–313, 411–413
analyzing via, 413–416
time constants, 203
total harmonic distortion (THD), 216–220
Tr.2, 304
transconductance, 177
transient response, 423–427
transistor amplifiers, low-power nightlight using, 150–152
transistors, 41
achieving low noise with added transistors, 200–201
characteristics of a blown transistor, 494–495
transresistance, 177
transresistance transfer function, 171–172
TRF circuits. See tuned radio-frequency (TRF) circuits
triangular-noise spectrum, 295, 296
triodes, 42
tuned radio-frequency (TRF) circuits, 266–268
projects, 271–273
TRF radio project, 273–285
turn-on voltages, 147
twisting wires to build circuits, 53–56
two-gang variable capacitors, 279–280
utility patents, 469
vacuum tubes, 42–44
low-voltage vacuum tube amplifiers, 212–213
used as current sources, 147–149
vacuum-tube diodes, 42
variable-capacitance diodes, 125–126
VBE (voltage) multiplier circuits, 181, 182–184
vector boards, 70–71
building the LM386 audio amplifier on, 71–74
vestigial sideband (VSB) AM signals, 256–258
See also AM signals
video bandwidth low-pass filter, 46, 47, 48
video processor circuits, adjusting for brightness, contrast and sharpness, 361–373
virtual short circuits, 156
voltage
converting AC to DC for power supplies, 107–113
defined, 22
forward voltage drop VF, 105–106
ideal voltage source, 99
ripple voltage, 113
turn-on voltages, 147
zener diodes for voltage regulation, 126–128
zener voltage, 126
voltage gain, measuring due to changes in input signals, 135–138
voltage multipliers, 114–117
voltage ranges, 76–78
voltage-controlled common emitter amplifiers, 177–178
voltage-controlled current-source devices, 129–131
voltage-controlled resistors, JEFTs and bipolar transistors as, 158–159
voltmeters, battery testers, 74–78
volt-ohm-milliamp meters. See VOMs
Wein bridge oscillators, 223
with automatic gain control to provide nonclipped sine waves, 229–232
RC feedback network, 429–434
universal Wein oscillator circuits, 232–233
See also oscillators
Winrad, 515
wire tools, 7
wires, 5–6
pretinning, 65–66
twisting wires to build circuits, 53–56
zener diodes, for voltage regulation, 126–128
zener voltage, 126