3
Acculturation, the Minority Ethnic Group and Ethnic Consumer Behaviour
The previous chapters sought to ascertain the underlying foundations of ethnic marketing, and to some extent to ethnic entrepreneurship, reaching a suitable conceptualization that can be used to assess the requirements for ethnic marketing and its potential effectiveness. Two critical concepts were identified in Chapter 2: the ethnic group and ethnic identity. The two concepts are closely interlinked with the strength of ethnic identity of individual group members, and that strength may influence the coherence and importance of the group to its individual members, as well as these members’ dependence on the group, including that of associated ethnic minority businesses.
Even in an economically and socially stable, multicultural society with no population growth through immigration, the group’s collective values, beliefs and behaviours can change as a result of changes in the individual ethnic identities of its members as their social identities develop through the acculturation process. If there are large migrant inflows from countries with cultures very different from the dominant host culture, the acculturation processes of the new arrivals and of their children born in the host country are likely to have significant impact on the group that can influence the value that can be expected from the implementation of an ethnic marketing strategy.
In order to pave our way to better understanding when the necessary conditions exist, and how to implement an ethnic marketing strategy, which are issues discussed later in this text, we need to consider how acculturation patterns can impact on a person’s ethnic identity and thus on the ethnic group. From the perspective of group stability and whether groups may converge, perhaps stimulating ethnic entrepreneurship and/or enabling pan ethnic groups for marketing purposes, it is necessary to know how individual acculturation affects the consumer behaviour of consumers with a common ethnic background, and whether the individual acculturation paths of consumers from different ethnic backgrounds are likely to differ.
This chapter has a focus on the social construction of ethnic groups and on the dynamics of changes that ensue through group interactions. A summary of the various definitions of acculturation is discussed including the different schools of thought on acculturation and the different acculturation strategies that may be employed by an ethnic individual. Given that there is an acculturation process over time when persons from different cultures interact, the impact of acculturation on an individual’s ethnic identity and consumer behaviour is examined to address inter-generational and inter-group differences that may arise.
What Is Acculturation?
There are many definitions for acculturation. The definitions below highlight the varying points of view on how acculturation is perceived by different researchers. A number of researchers discuss acculturation in terms of migration from an old culture to a country or region with a different culture and the processes of either assimilation, adaptation, maintenance or resistance to the new culture or country by the migrating group. Other researchers discuss acculturation in terms of the change in values and behaviours of one group or more, or the sense of belonging and or conformance to the host culture. Table 3.1 compiles alternative perspectives of acculturation covering its conceptualization, what it involves and its consequences.
Considerable diversity is evident in these various definitions, some with troubling implications. For example:
- Levels of acculturation (Kara and Kara, 1996) treat acculturation as both a process and an outcome, with high acculturation implying a continuum of either closer movement to what Berry and Sam (1997) would describe as assimilation or retention of the home culture values, neither which are necessary outcomes.
- Consumer acculturation (Ogden, Ogden and Schau, 2004) separates consumer behaviour from the overall behaviour and social identity of the consumer. It also treats acculturation as a learning process of a new culture, assuming that will be the host culture, as per Gordon (1964), excluding a multicultural environment and thus a wider range of options.
More general definitions are offered by Peñaloza (1994, 2006), referring to acculturation as involving interaction and adaptation, as well as Berry and Sam (1997), who focus on a process of learning about other cultural groups when exposed to each other and the need to interact. But acculturation definitions increasingly reflect a movement to a social constructivist perspective of ethnicity and ethnic identity, referring to acculturation as a process of social and psychological change that arises from intercultural contact both at an individual and group level (Berry et al., 2006), which can arise through migration and/or colonization.
Group and individual processes should be separated, Berry and Sam (1997, p. 298) using the term psychological acculturation to refer to an
Table 3.1 Illustrative Perspectives on Acculturation
| Acculturation | ||
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|
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| Involves | A general term that encompasses intercultural interaction and adaptation and includes assimilation of a new culture, maintenance of the old culture and resistance to both new and old culture. | Peñaloza(1994), Quester, Karunaratna and Chong (2001) |
| The exposure of the individual to a new culture through migration or colonization to another culture. | Berry and Sam (1997) and Sam and Berry (1995) | |
| A sense of self–identification with either the host culture or to their ethnic origin, including the extent of the conformance of the individual to the host culture. | Gordon (1964) Hui, Laroche and Kim (1998) Kim, Laroche and Joy (1990) Yinger(1976) |
|
| Is a process | Of adapting to the cultural environment in the host country by an individual from a different country. | Peñaloza (2006) |
| Of learning a culture that is different from the one in which a person was raised. | Valencia (1985) Dublish (2001) |
|
| Causes | A change in values and behaviours in one or more cultural groups. | Berry (1997, 1980) Dublish (2001) Jamal and Chapman (2000) Laroche, Kim and Hui (1997c) |
| Laroche, Kim and Tomiuk (1998) and Laroche, Pons and Richard (2009) Schiffman et al. (2009) | ||
| Can be | High: if an individual has progressed towards the values and attitudes of the host culture. Low: if an individual has maintained the values and attitudes of their ethnic origin. | Kara and Kara (1996) |
| Applied to consumption | Is a socialization process of learning values, attitudes and behaviours of a culture that is different from the individual’s culture of origin. | Ogden, Ogden and Schau (2004) |
individual’s response resulting from this encounter. For most individuals, adaptation to the new cultural context is dependent upon a variety of factors and can take many different forms ranging from assimilation or integration into the dominant culture to extreme marginalization or segregation. Understanding the process at both individual and group levels is essential if marketers are to develop ethnic marketing strategies based on sound segmentation principles.
Acculturation Phases
Berry (1980) first argued the need to focus on an individual migrant’s links to both their culture of origin as well as to their society of settlement to understand the process of acculturation. Likewise, Phinney (1990) has also argued that there are two independent dimensions underlying people’s cultural identity. The implication is that an individual can have an independent identity with respect to their culture of origin and to the culture where they have settled. Berry and Sam (1997) have used these two dimensions to construct a framework of four possible alternative acculturation strategies, shown in Table 3.2.
Integration involves individuals seeking to maintain the cultural identity of their ethnic heritage while embracing part of the cultural identity of the host culture. Assimilation involves individuals seeking to adopt the cultural identity of the host culture by rejecting the cultural identity of their ethnic heritage. Separation or Rejection involves individuals seeking to maintain the cultural identity of their ethnic heritage by rejecting the cultural identity of the host culture. Marginalization or de-culturation involves individuals rejecting the cultural identity of the host culture and also rejecting the cultural identity of their cultural heritage.
Manifestation of these strategies can be expressed in terms of acculturation attitudes, such as preferences for involvement in one or both cultures or none, as well as behaviours engaged in by the individual, including preferred language use, music preferences, food preferences as well as social relationships.
Table 3.2 Alternative Acculturation Strategies
| Issue | Is it considered of value to maintain one’s cultural identity and values? Yes No | |
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| Is it considered of value to maintain | Yes | Integration assimilation |
| relationships with the dominant society? | No | Separation marginalization |
Adapted from Berry and Sam (1997).
While depicted as a rational choice in terms of an end state, the use of the term strategy is perhaps unfortunate. Berry and Sam (1997) note constraints can be related to context, with the host country conditions influencing the ability to follow a particular path. Further, individuals may explore various options rather than a linear acculturation path. In short, there is no predetermined age or stage in life that these acculturation methods are employed and nor are they employed sequentially. Indeed, as discussed in Chapter 2, individuals may opt for a strategy-outcome of self-disidentification—an active negation of any association with a group (Becker and Tausch, 2014; McCall, 2003), and rejection-identification is also possible—when people perceive that they are rejected because of a group membership, identification with that group can increase (Wiley, 2013). Ultimately, different strategies may be tried before an individual decides upon one that works best for her or him.
Ethnic groups, as the collective entity of similar self-ascribed individuals, can therefore follow similar individual acculturation paths (Berry and Sam, 1997, p. 297):
- Integration: ethnic groups members maintain their cultural identity yet also seek interaction with other cultures;
- Assimilation: ethnic groups members abandon their cultural identity and seek interaction with other cultures;
- Separation: ethnic group members maintain their cultural identity and shun interaction with other cultures;
- Segregation: when the host culture or dominant group rejects the cultural identity of ethnic minority groups and their members and avoid interaction.
Indicators of Acculturation
Acculturation can be observed through behavioural and socio-cultural changes. Behavioural changes include:
- Culture Learning—learning the host language, trying local foods, dressing like the mainstream population and learning the social norms of the host culture;
- Culture Shedding—discarding the social norms associated with the culture of origin in favour of the social norms of the host culture; and
- Culture Conflict—the individual perceives the norms, attitudes and values of the host culture to be incompatible with the norms, attitudes and values of her (or his) culture of origin.
(Berry and Sam, 1997, pp. 301–302)
Behavioural indicators of individual acculturation used by researchers include changing language, music and media and communication preferences, food preferences and participation in cultural events (Laroche, Kim and Tomiuk, 1998; Laroche, Pons and Richard, 2009).
Socio-cultural changes include adapting one’s cultural knowledge, social skills and relationships with family, friends and the community to integrate into mainstream culture (Berry and Sam, 1997, pp. 301–302). For example, the ethnic background of an individual’s spouse (or partner) and closest friends provides an indication of her (or his) acculturation level (Garcia, 1982; Laroche, Pons and Richard, 2009). A less acculturated individual is more likely to have a social and personal network from within their own ethnic community, whereas a highly acculturated individual is more likely to have a social and personal network of friends from outside their ethnic community, in particular from the mainstream culture (Xu et al., 2004).
Acculturation Forces
Acculturation cannot be investigated in isolation from the influence of home and host country links. From the home country, these may include its language, arts, religion, values, political and economic situation, as well as support and services provided to emigrants. For example, Portugal currently seeks to reinvigorate the actual connection of its citizens living abroad by implementing a variety of measures that may include financial incentives for return migration, advertising online of job opportunities “at home”, sponsored tertiary education in the home country for descendants of emigrants and similar appellative tactics (ACM, 2015).
From the host country perspective, the host culture’s immigration history and settlement policies, including societal attitudes towards immigration, as well as the contrasts and similarities between home and host countries also influence chosen acculturation paths as do the demographic characteristics (e.g. age, gender, education) of the individual or group undergoing the acculturation process (Berry, 1997).
Clearly, following Aronowitz (1992)’s recommendation, the objective in the present discussion is to understand how these different factors impact upon the migration process to affect how people adapt to their new settlement society. The process of acculturation is potentially influenced and moderated by many possible variables. Berry and Sam (1997) organized these into five categories, identified in Table 3.3.
The diverse influences that shape individual acculturation paths suggest that such paths are basically unpredictable. The link between migrant inflows and the size and growth of ethnic groups, and hence their relevance for ethnic entrepreneurship and for marketing purposes, cannot be based on a person’s ethnic origin because of the contextual influences that will shape their ethnic identity and thus their identification, if any, with a particular ethnic group.
Acculturation is also influenced by a number of factors such as a person’s age, the age they were when they migrated to the host country, the level of education achieved in their country of origin versus the level of education achieved in the host country, the individual’s social and informal business networks and the host country’s immigration policy.
All the noted factors affect how individuals adapt to the host country. For example, age at time of migration is relevant because older migrants are assumed to have a stronger sense of the cultural values of their country of origin and therefore may reject, resist, or take time to adapt or adopt the host culture. In comparison, younger migrants are assumed to be too young to have fully embraced the cultural values of their parents’ country of origin—exposure to the host culture through school and peers from outside their ethnic group therefore may cause conflicting identity issues (Berry, 1989; Berry and Sam, 1997; Phinney, 1992; Phinney, 1990; Lee and DeVos, 1981). Costigan, Su and Hua (2009) agree saying that children adjust and settle to the host environment and therefore acculturate at a faster rate than their migrant parents.
Table 3.3 Influencers/Moderators on the Acculturation Process
| Sources | Examples of Variables |
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| Society of origin (alias home country and country of provenance) | Ethnographic such as language, values; Political such as instability, oppression; Demographic such as population pressures; Economic such as poverty, inequality. |
| Society of settlement (alias host country) | Immigration policy; Attitudes to immigration; Attitudes to particular ethnic groups or phenotypes. |
| Group acculturation | Changes occurring in the acculturating group. |
| Moderating factors prior to acculturation | Demographic—age; gender; education; Economic—status; expectations; Personal—health, motives driving migration; expectations. |
| Moderating factors during acculturation | Acculturation strategies; Contact and participation; Social support sources. |
Adapted from Berry and Sam (1997), Table 8.1.
Yeh and Huang (1996) provide another perspective and assert that the development of ethnic identity is a unique process that is influenced by external factors, such as the perceptions of the host culture towards Asians and the social interactions that are encountered. Costa and Bamossy (1995) expand on this view, affirming that culture is dynamic, constantly evolving and adapting to external influences. Interaction between groups may induce more change in one group than in another.
Choice of Acculturation Path
There are different schools of thought on the direction of acculturation by different groups. One school of thought follows the belief that as ethnic minorities adopt the traits, values and norms of the host culture, aspects of their culture of origin is lost (Keefe and Padilla, 1987; Nwankwo and Lindridge, 1998; Laroche, Kim and Tomiuk, 1998; Phinney, 1990), implying an assimilation or integration path. Acculturation is seen as lessening an individual’s ties to his or her ethnic identity (Dublish, 2001; Deshpandé, Hoyer and Donthu, 1986; O’Guinn and Faber, 1985). For example, some American research findings have concluded Asian-Americans were “… well assimilated in the [host] culture” from their desire to achieve success in mainstream society (Dublish, 2001, p. 26; Delener and Neelankavil, 1990; Faulkner, 1998). These findings imply that, for well-assimilated Asian-Americans, there may be very little disparity between their consumption behaviour and that of individuals from the host culture (Dublish, 2001). Kara and Kara (1996) used the term “highly acculturated” to describe Hispanic-Americans who displayed similar purchase behaviour to Anglo-Americans.
Another school of thought on acculturation proposes the opposite outcomes. Researchers (Jamal and Chapman, 2000; Laroche, Kim and Hui, 1997b) argue that ethnic identity can remain unaltered despite social interactions with, and adoption of the values and norms of the dominant culture—a view supported by Miller’s study that “… immigrants are increasingly trying to maintain their cultural identities” (Miller, 1993; Rajagopalan and Heitmeyer, 2005, p. 84). Solomon (1996) concurs that as a result of progressive learning, “… people gradually learn a new culture as they increasingly come in contact with it” (p. 479), yet still maintain their ethnic identity. Therefore, it can be conjectured that consumption behaviour for these individuals will remain distinct from those of the host culture.
Both schools of thought support Berry and Sam (1997)’s idea that two independent dimensions influence the acculturation path: the value of maintaining ethnic traditions and the value of learning the traditions and values of the host culture (Dohrenwend and Smith, 1962; Laroche, Kim and Tomiuk, 1998).
Individual Acculturation
Acculturation paths vary between ethnic groups and within these ethnic groups its members also vary in their acculturation paths. For example, although the ethnic group to which the individual identifies with may be integrating the host culture, within the ethnic group itself there may still be some individuals who seek to maintain their ethnic identity by wearing their ethnic dress, conversing in their native tongue, consuming ethnic food and upholding their ethnic customs, traditions and beliefs, some much more strongly than others (Rajagopalan and Heitmeyer, 2005). An individual’s acculturation can also be affected by other factors such as the place of residence and the amount of contact the individual has with the host culture. Context impacts on acculturation, thereby accounting for differences within the ethnic group or its heterogeneity (Ogden, Ogden and Schau, 2004).
Other studies support this view that the process of acculturation is individualistic in nature as people “… vary greatly in the degree to which they participate in these community changes” (Berry and Sam, 1997, p. 294). The behaviour of those who identify strongly with their ethnic group or community will reflect those values and social mores representative of their ethnic group or community such as “… customs, language, dress, foods, religion, product use …” (Appiah, 2004, p. 314). Indeed, the mitigating factor of acculturation on ethnic identity is such that a number of researchers (Berry and Sam, 1997; Laroche, Kim and Tomiuk, 1998; Verbeke and López, 2005) use it to measure the maintenance and/or retention “… of the culture of origin” (Verbeke and López, 2005, p. 836). Thus, it can be argued that differences in psychological acculturation impact on the accuracy (Chattalas and Harper, 2007) of measuring the effects of one’s ethnicity on her (or his) consumption behaviour. This difference is likely to be evident, especially in the consumption behaviour of the younger generation moving away from the more “… traditional norms of their parents’ culture” (Chattalas and Harper, 2007, p. 353), but following Berry and Sam (1997) this is but one of several possible paths.
A number of researchers agree that language, food, media preferences (O’Guinn and Faber, 1985), participating in cultural events and having friends of various cultural backgrounds, in particular from the mainstream culture (Laroche, Kim and Tomiuk, 1998; Laroche, Pons and Richard, 2009; Phinney, 1990) within an individual’s close circle of friends, are good indicators of their acculturation path (Garcia, 1982; Laroche, Kim and Tomiuk, 1998). Further, an individual’s acculturation path can also be explained by the ethnic background of their spouse/partner and their closest friends. An individual less integrated in the host society than another is more likely to have a social and personal network from within their own ethnic community, whereas a more highly integrated (to the host culture) individual is more likely to have a social and personal network of friends from outside their ethnic community (Quester, Karunaratna and Chong, 2001, p. 16; Montero, 1981).
Inter-Generational Differences
Both inter-generational similarities and differences have been found in consumer behaviour. Kim and Kang (2001) found inter-generational similarities in consumer behaviour amongst consumers from the same ethnic background in their use of information sources, product selection and in the frequenting of particular stores. However, as a result of the individual nature of the acculturation process, inter-generational differences in consumer behaviour between members within an ethnic group are probably more likely (Chung and Fischer, 1999a; Chung and Fischer, 1999b; Rajagopalan and Heitmeyer, 2005; Jimenez et al., 2013; Kizgin, 2016). These differences may not transpose into consistent directions of acculturation between generations. For example, Kizgin (2016) has found third generations born to original Turkish migrants had a stronger ethnic identity than the second generation. A very large, cross-sectional Canadian survey (Statistics Canada, 2003) across ethnic groups revealed something similar. While the first generation had a much higher percentage of respondents holding a strong sense of belonging to their ethnic group than subsequent generations, the second generation fell away while the third generation was slightly higher.
Inter-generational differences in consumer behaviour cannot be looked at in isolation of the acculturation process because these differences are influenced by the forces of acculturation (Berry, 1997; Berry, 1980; Chae and Foley, 2010). Each individual within the ethnic group may have a different acculturation path, or may have undertaken different acculturation strategies (Ozcaglar-Toulouse et al., 2009) which may influence their consumer behaviour accordingly. Following Quester, Karunaratna and Chong, 2001), differences in inter-generational consumer behaviour may be attributed to:
- an individual’s country of birth,
- language,
- amount of time spent overseas versus in the host country,
- ethnic identity,
- the frequency of travels to the homeland,
- the ethnicity or ethnic background of the individual’s spouse and three closest friends and
- the individual’s residential status in the host country.
But other influencers have been identified. Also observed is the important role of the family unit (Huijnk, Verkuyten and Coenders, 2013) with family life in the country of residence and in the host country either encouraging socio-cultural maintenance or influencing attitudes towards social-cultural adaptation. For example, Myers and Lumbers’ (2008, p. 297) study of older shoppers found “inherent differences across [and within] generations” that impact upon the generation’s consumer behaviour. Other supporting literature from various researchers (Lumpkin, 1985; Lumpkin and Greenberg, 1982; Martin, 1976; Pingol and Miyazaki, 2005; Seock and Bailey, 2009) highlight notable differences between age groups in terms of their preferred information source. The younger generation displayed a preference for friends as their main information source for service and product choices in comparison to the older generation who relied on family, relatives and respected members of their community as their main information source. Inter-generational differences in acculturation paths therefore reflect consumer choices.
Acculturation and Ethnic Identity
Acculturation influences an individual’s ethnic identity. A number of researchers concur that ethnic identity varies “… with development and experience, and with changes in the social and historical context” (Phinney, 1992. p. 160). Due to the dynamic nature of ethnic identity, the process and impact of acculturation may influence decision-making and therefore consumer behaviour. Studies of Asian-Americans revealed a circular link between an individual’s cultural adjustment and the strength of their ethnic identity (Chae and Foley, 2010). Moreover, Ogden, Ogden and Schau (2004) state that the strength of an individual’s feelings towards their ethnic identity may influence their acculturation level, thus shaping their ethnic identity.
Studies show that children and young adults of parents less acculturated to the host culture have a stronger sense of their ethnic identity than children and young adults of parents more highly acculturated to the host culture, the latter being more inclined to adopt the culture of the host country and less likely to inform their children of their ethnic heritage. The strength of a child’s and young adult’s ethnic identity is developed and strengthened through parental influence from parents who have maintained close ties to their ethnic roots. Moreover, children and young adults who have friendships with peers from their own ethnic background have also been shown to have positive feelings towards their ethnic identity (Hui, Laroche and Kim, 1998; Phinney, 1992; Phinney, 1990; Xu et al., 2004).
Individuals are more likely to perceive their ethnic identity differently once they “… adopt the cultural traits of the host culture during the acculturation process” (Hui, Laroche and Kim, 1998, p. 872). By understanding how acculturation may change the way individuals perceive their ethnicity and ethnic identity, marketers can make an informed decision to aggregate ethnic groups where there are significant similarities in consumption pattern or segment ethnic groups where there are significant differences in consumption pattern (Pires and Stanton, 2000).
Acculturation and Consumer Behaviour
According to Quester, Karunaratna and Chong (2001, p. 8), “… a consumer’s degree of acculturation to a host culture may be a[n] … important predictor of purchase behaviour”. Leo, Bennett and Hartel (2005) found that the host culture may influence the consumer behaviour of individuals via acculturation. This view is reinforced by Kwok and Uncles (2005, p. 170) who maintain that consumer behaviour is influenced by “… cultural differences at national and ethnic-group levels …” As shown in some studies, individuals who did not identify with their ethnic heritage often displayed similar consumer behaviour patterns to those from the host culture (Kara and Kara, 1996) whilst other studies revealed there were marked differences in the consumption behaviour of ethnic minorities (e.g. Hispanics) and individuals from the host culture (e.g. Anglo-Saxon-Celtics) towards product attributes (O’Guinn and Faber, 1985).
Although an individual (or a group) maintains aspects of their ethnic origin, with time and increased exposure to a different culture the individual (or group) undergoes some alteration to their consumption behaviour (Palumbo and Teich, 2004; Chattalas and Harper, 2007). Over time, the acculturation of an ethnic consumer will impact on their “… consumption and buying patterns” (Khairullah and Khairullah, 1999; Rajagopalan and Heitmeyer, 2005, p. 85). A study on the food consumption behaviour of Hispanics living in Belgium found the process of acculturation on one’s dietary behaviour and attitude a slow process of change (Verbeke and López, 2005).
Acculturation “… affects a variety of marketing behaviors including consumption and buying patterns …” (Dublish, 2001, p. 24). A study on the consumption behaviour of Chinese-Australians found that acculturation affected “… the decision-making processes …” (Quester, Karunaratna and Chong, 2001, p. 8) with differences in acculturation resulting in different purchase behaviour patterns. Ogden, Ogden and Schau, 2004, p. 4) describe this process of acculturation as consumer acculturation—a socialization process that “… is specific to the consumption process … in which an immigrant consumer learns the behaviors, attitudes and values of a culture that are different from their culture of origin”. Through the process of socialization between immigrants and the host culture, the mutual influence between both will likely cause changes in consumption behaviour for both immigrants and the host (Luna and Gupta, 2001), thus highlighting the importance of the role played by acculturation on an individual’s consumption behaviour.
A study into the differences in acculturation levels of Chinese-Australians and its influence on their decision-making process was carried out by Quester, Karunaratna and Chong (2001). The study sample of Chinese-Australian consumers was categorized into high acculturated, medium acculturated and low acculturated (to the host culture). Using Kara and Kara’s classification (1996), high acculturated consumers were defined as those consumers who demonstrated greater adoption of the attitudes and values of the Australian culture (Quester, Karunaratna and Chong, 2001, p. 8). Conversely, low acculturated consumers were defined as consumers who maintained the values, beliefs and behaviour of their ethnic origin. The authors argued that the ethnic group an individual self-identifies with determines the degree of commitment and influence exerted by that ethnic group, resulting in differences in consumer patterns and decision-making. Similarly, another study of Chinese-Americans and Filipino-Americans found “… significant differences between high and low acculturation groups” and the influence that acculturation has on “… the shopping behaviour of ethnic minority groups” (Ownbey and Horridge, 1997).
By understanding how the process of psychological and socio-cultural acculturation affects an individual, we learn how consumer acculturation may influence an individual’s consumer behaviour (Berry, 1997). Peñaloza (1994) links ethnic identity, acculturation and consumer behaviour by segmenting consumers into three consumer acculturation groups (earlier identified as acculturation indicators):
- Consumers who assimilate into the mainstream culture (Berry and Sam’s Assimilation) by adopting the norms of the host society. This is also known as culture shedding (Berry, 1997);
- Consumers who maintain their heritage culture yet do not adopt the mainstream culture (Berry and Sam’s Separation). These consumers may develop culture conflict (Berry, 1997); and,
- Consumers who adopt elements of mainstream culture but also retain their heritage culture (Berry and Sam’s Integration). This involves culture learning (Berry, 1997).
Hui, Laroche and Kim (1998) sought to explain the relationship between acculturation and consumer behaviour through a typology of consumption based on two ethnicity indicators of a person’s ethnic origin, indicative of their likely consumption preferences; and actual media usage, indicative of their consumed media and information preferences (refer to Table 3.4).
Table 3.4 Typology of Consumption Based on Two Ethnicity Indicators
| Product or Lifestyle Consumption a Function of | Yes | No | |
| Ethnic origin (a reflective ethnicity indicator) | Yes | Cultural incorporation | Cultural shift OR cultural transmutation |
| Media usage (a formative ethnicity indicator) | No | Cultural resistance | Non–cultural |
Adapted from Mendoza (1989) cited in Hui, Laroche and Kim (1998, p. 874).
The five alternative acculturation strategies bear similarities to prior literature:
- Cultural incorporation involve ethnic minorities adopting the “… consumption or lifestyle patterns … of the host group” while retaining their cultural customs (Mendoza, 1989; Hui, Laroche and Kim, 1998, p. 874). This is akin to Berry and Sam’s integration strategy.
- Cultural transmutation involves ethnic minorities avowing their cultural heritage but also adopting mainstream culture, resulting in “… a unique subcultural entity” (Mendoza, 1989; Hui, Laroche and Kim, 1998, p. 875).
- Cultural shift is the process of assimilation whereby ethnic minorities modify their “… consumption behavior and lifestyle …” to mirror the behaviour and lifestyle of the host culture (Mendoza, 1989; Hui, Laroche and Kim, 1998, p. 874).
- Cultural resistance is the process whereby ethnic minorities maintain their ethnic customs while refusing to acquire the customs of the host group. Consumer behaviour in this instance is “… a function of ethnic origin …” as there are no changes to consumer behaviour regardless of increased contact with mainstream culture (Mendoza, 1989; Hui, Laroche and Kim, 1998, p. 874). This is akin to Berry and Sam’s separation strategy.
- Consumer behaviour is considered non-ethnic or non-cultural when “… there is no difference in … consumption …” (Mendoza, 1989; Hui, Laroche and Kim, 1998, p. 875).
Some aspects of consumer behaviour exhibited by ethnic minorities are so “… ingrained in the minority culture …” (Hui, Laroche and Kim, 1998, p. 873) that they are not as easily changed. Culture-specific activities such as attending ethnic festivals are unlikely to be as amenable to acculturation as cultural-irrelevant activities that are highly utilitarian or functional in their intent (Lee and Tse, 1994). Research findings (Hui, Laroche and Kim, 1998) support this assertion that there are: (1) certain cultural-specific consumption behaviours where there is very little difference between acculturated ethnic groups versus un-acculturated ethnic groups; and (2) non-cultural consumption behaviours where there is little to no difference between ethnic minority groups and the host group.
Acculturation and Ethnic Group Dynamics
The process of acculturation suggests the possibility that in a multicultural society new arrivals can form their ethnic identity in the context of exposure and interaction to different ethnic groups, eventually identifying with one particular ethnic group. The strength of ethnic identity of new and existing group members changes over time due to the forces influencing acculturation, indicating a particular process of acculturation. Consideration of where alternative paths lead provides guidance to marketers in their assessment of the potential closeness between some groups, with that assessment leading to the consideration of pan ethnic groups, a focus of Chapter 4.
The Acculturation Process in a Culturally Diverse Country
Figure 3.1 below provides a diagrammatic approach to understanding the acculturation alternatives: Assume two possible home or source countries (A′ and B′), one host country (C) and two minority ethnic groups (A and B), residing in the host country. (A) is the expatriate group of (A′). (B) is the expatriate group of (B′).
Focusing on migrants from A′, depending on their strength of ethnic identity, the new arrivals may acculturate towards the dominant host culture (C) (assimilate), effectively merging into the host culture. They may acculturate to their home country minority ethnic group whilst seeking to minimize interaction with the host group, represented by the light area A (separation). Alternatively, some may seek to learn and adapt to the host culture while retaining their ethnic identity and group links, effectively bi-cultural, shown by the area AC (an integration strategy). Marginalization, the process rejecting both cultures, is not shown.
Migrants from B′ have similar options. Also possible is that if migrants from A′ and B′ have close cultural proximity the acculturation path may lead to either A or B or an emerging AB group. The broken lines reflect the possibility that the sets of values in each area change over time, towards (cross-acculturation) or apart from each other. Each area represents a potentially unique and homogeneous segment.
Figure 3.1
The Acculturation Process in a Culturally Diverse Country
A range of acculturation paths and possible outcomes may result from the settlement of new arrivals in an advanced, culturally diverse country. Depending on personal and environmental circumstances a new arrival will acculturate into one of a variety of different ethnic groups or to the dominant host culture. It follows that descriptors such as country of origin, birthplace or nationality are likely to be poor measures of the size of an ethnic group and poor indicators of its potential for segmentation
A minority ethnic group may maintain its identity because new arrivals perceive greater value from acculturating to an ethnic group that is closer to their culture of origin than to the dominant host culture. Arguably, adjusting to a culture in close proximity to one’s own can reduce stress (Mendenhall and Oddou, 1985) arising from psychological uncertainty engendered by a new learning situation (Black, Mendenhall and Oddou, 1991). Learning is facilitated if an experienced person can guide a neophyte in the new environment (Mendenhall and Oddou, 1985), but such a relationship is more likely if there is cultural proximity. Thus, acculturating towards an ethnic group closer to their own culture of origin can provide the new arrival with a network of communications and a frame of reference for behaviour within the host country that fosters a relationship with the group.
The identification of similarities and differences between ethnic groups within a culturally diverse nation, and how these change over time, is important in making a segmentation decision in the context of ethnic marketing. The three-dimensional framework developed in this chapter illustrates how group boundaries can be defined, some of the dynamics that may cause changing ethnic boundaries over time as well as the interrelationship between ethnicity and the acculturation process in culturally diverse countries.
An evaluation of the ethnic marketing relevance of ethnic groups requires an analysis that is dynamic and involves assessment of ethnic identity and ethnic intensity, variables themselves influenced by acculturation. The rationale for the framework is that ethnic identity is socially constructed and shaped through interactions. The manner in which that ethnic identity evolves, and the importance or strength of that identity to an individual, will be reflected in the ethnic group.
Summary
Ethnic marketing strategies are predicated on a strong understanding of the values, attitudes and behaviours of each ethnic group, especially in terms of distinguishing their significant commonalities and differences. The social construction of ethnic groups and the dynamics of changes that ensues through group interactions were the focus of this chapter.
The chapter outlined different viewpoints and definitional differences in explaining acculturation, necessitating selection of a preferred approach based on acculturation as a social construction process. Groups and individuals may seek to choose acculturation strategies that may accentuate their differences and isolation from other groups over time, to strategies that eventually lead to the loss of group identity and marketing relevance. Examination of these strategies reveals a complex interaction between groups, as well as between the group and the interactions of those identifying with that group.
Corroborating the conclusion in Chapter 2, an ethnic group will consist of individuals with varying strengths of ethnic identity as well as having varying strengths of ties to other group members and those external to this ethnic group. Groups that retain a strong and salient identity over time are likely to offer more opportunities for ethnic entrepreneurship such that, as discussed in Chapters 6 and 7, Groups can convert into incubators for ethnic minority businesses, positively influencing ethnic networks as well as the acculturation process of individuals and groups.
The forces that help to shape alternative acculturation strategies needed to be examined in order to understand the choice by either an individual or group towards a particular acculturation path. Complicating our understanding of any particular group will be the need to understand that inter-generational differences will exist within any group in terms of their interaction within the group and perhaps their strength of ethnic identity. Differences in acculturation strategies at both group and individual level will give rise to differences in information and consumption preferences that also need to be understood. In short, an understanding of the acculturation process is important to understanding ethnic group dynamics and the case for aggregating ethnic groups for marketing purposes, discussed in Chapter 4.
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