Reference Glossary

Using the Reference Glossary

The Reference Glossary is designed and written to help writers and editors answer routine, yet important, questions about the preparation of business and technical documents. The alphabetical arrangement of the entries allows writers to answer questions easily and rapidly, often without having to search through the Index. The many illustrative phrases, words, and sentences make the various rules and suggestions practical and applicable to real-world situations.

Still, as with any reference book, users need to become familiar with what the Reference Glossary covers and what it doesn’t cover. To assist new users, we make the following suggestions about using the Reference Glossary.

• Use the alphabetical arrangement to help you find where a specific topic is addressed. As with any alphabetical list, you may have to try a couple of titles before you find the information you want. If you cannot find a topic, refer to the Index (p. 421).

• After you have found the relevant entry, survey the listed rules or headings previewed in the shaded box at the beginning of the entry. Then turn to the rule or heading that appears to answer your question.

• Read the rule and accompanying text. Be sure to review any illustrative phrases or sentences because they will often help clarify the rule. Remember, also, that many of the rules are suggestions rather than legal requirements.

• Check to see if any notes follow the rule and its examples. Notes begin with the word NOTE and are numbered if there are several notes. Notes often include information about exceptions or options to the stated rule.

• Turn to other entries that are cross-referenced, especially if you still have questions that the entry has not answered. Cross-references have this format: See LETTERS and MEMOS.

• Don’t be disappointed if you cannot find the answer to a question. No reference book can answer every question. To help answer difficult or obscure questions, experienced writers and editors usually have several recent references available. For a list of other references, see the entry entitled REFERENCES.

Abbreviations

Abbreviations allow writers to avoid cumbersome repetition of lengthy words and phrases. They are a form of shorthand and are appropriate in technical and business writing, particularly in lists, tables, charts, graphs, and other visual aids where space is limited. See ACRONYMS.

1. Eliminate periods in and after most abbreviations.

Formerly, most abbreviations required periods. Today, the trend is to eliminate periods in and after abbreviations, especially in the abbreviated names of governmental agencies, companies, private organizations, and other groups:

NOTE 1: The abbreviations covered by this rule do not include informal ones such as Dept. and Mgt., which use a final period but no periods between letters.

NOTE 2: By convention, some abbreviations still require periods:

Retain the period, too, in abbreviations that spell normal words:

in., inches (not in)

no., number (not no)

A recent dictionary, such as Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary, is the best resource for determining if an abbreviation requires periods. See REFERENCES.

NOTE 3: Abbreviations with periods should be typed without spaces between letters and periods:

e.g. (not e. g.)

U.K. (not U. K.)

2. Use the same abbreviation for both singular and plural units of measurement.

When you abbreviate a unit of measurement, use the same symbol for both the singular and the plural forms:

6 lb  and 1 lb

3 m   and 1 m

20 ft and 1 ft

23.5  cm and 1.0 cm

If you spell out the abbreviated word, retain the plural when the number is greater than one:

15 kilometers and 1 kilometer

6.8 meters and 1 meter

3. Clarify an unfamiliar abbreviation by enclosing its unabbreviated form within parentheses following its first use in a document:

The applicant had insurance through CHAMPUS (Civilian Health and Medical Program of the Uniformed Services).

The alloy is hardened with 0.2 percent Np (neptunium). Adding Np before cooling alters the crystalline structure of manganese host alloys.

NOTE 1: Some writers and editors prefer to cite the unabbreviated form of the word or words before the abbreviation. We believe that this practice can inhibit, rather than enhance, the reader’s comprehension of the abbreviation:

The applicant had insurance through the Civilian Health and Medical Program of the Uniformed Services (CHAMPUS).

The alloy is hardened with 0.2 percent neptunium (Np). Adding Np before cooling alters the crystalline structure of manganese host alloys.

NOTE 2: Do not use an unfamiliar abbreviation unless you plan to use it more than once in the same document.

4. Do not abbreviate a unit of measurement unless it is used in conjunction with a number:

Pipe diameters will be measured in inches.

but

Standard pipe diameter is 3 in.

______________

The dimensions of the property were recorded in both meters and feet.

but

The property is 88 ft by 130 ft.

The southern property line is 45.3 m.

5. Do not abbreviate a title unless it precedes a name:

The cardiac research unit comprises five experienced doctors.

but

Our program director is Dr. Royce Smith.

6. Spell out abbreviations that begin a sentence (except for abbreviated words that, by convention, are never spelled out, like Mr. and Mrs.):

Oxygen extraction will be accomplished at high temperatures.

not

O₂ extraction will be accomplished at high temperatures.

but

Ms. Jean MacIntyre will be responsible for modifying our subsea sensors.

7. Spell out rather than abbreviate words that are connected to other words by hyphens:

6-foot gap (not 6-ft)

12-meter cargo bay (not 12-m)

3.25-inch pipe (not 3.25-in.)

NOTE: The spelled-out form is preferred. The abbreviated form (as in 6-ft) is common in some engineering documents, especially those with many numerical values. The hyphen is retained in the abbreviated form. See HYPHENS and FRACTIONS.

8. Do not abbreviate the names of months and days within normal text. Use the abbreviations in chronologies, notes, tables, and charts:

The facilities modernization plan is due January 1985. (not Jan 1985 or 1/85)

9. Avoid the symbol form of abbreviations except in charts, graphs, illustrations, and other visual aids:

55 percent (not 55%)

15 ft (not 15’)

32.73 in. (not 32.73”)

10. Use a single period when an abbreviation ends a sentence:

To head our laser redesign effort, we have hired the 1994 Nobel prize winner from the U.S.A. (not U.S.A..)

NOTE: If the clause or sentence ends with something other than a period, (e.g., comma, semicolon, colon, question mark, exclamation mark), then the other mark of punctuation follows the period at the end of the abbreviation:

Have we hired the 1994 Nobel Prize winner from the U.S.A.?

If you plan to arrive by 6 p.m., you will not need to guarantee your reservation.

List of Abbreviations

Following is a short list of many common abbreviations for words and common measurements. For more complete lists of abbreviations, refer to The Chicago Manual of Style and to Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary. See REFERENCES.

In this listing, some abbreviations appear with periods, although the trend is to eliminate the periods (see rule 1). For example, Ph.D. appears with periods to assist writers and typists who wish to retain the periods, although many writers today prefer the increasingly more common PhD without periods.

In this listing, abbreviations printed without periods are ones that customarily appear without periods—for example, HF or log.

Abbreviations List

AA, Alcoholics Anonymous

A.B. or B.A., bachelor of arts

abbr., abbreviation

abs., absolute; absent; absence; abstract

acct., account; accountant

A.D. (anno Domini), in the year of the Lord

ADP, automated data processing

A.H. (anno Hegirae), in the year of the Hijra

a.k.a., also known as

A.M. (anno mundi), in the year of the world

A.M. or M.A., master of arts

a.m. (ante meridiem), before noon

A/P, accounts payable

app, application

approx., approximately

A/R, accounts receivable

Ave., avenue

a.w.l., absent with leave

a.w.o.l., absent without official leave

BAFO, best and final offer

B.C., before Christ

Bcc: blind courtesy copy

B.C.E., before the common era

bf., boldface

Bldg., building

B.Lit(t). or Lit(t).B., bachelor of literature

Blvd., boulevard

b.o., buyer’s option

BPS, basis points

B.S. or B.Sc., bachelor of science

ca. (circa), about

c. and s.c., caps and small caps

cc:, courtesy copy

c.b.d., cash before delivery

C.E., common era

cf. (confer), compare or see

Co., company; country

c.o.d., cash on delivery; collect on delivery

COGS, cost of goods sold

COLA, cost-of-living adjustment

con., continued

Conus, continental United States

Corp., corporation

c.p., chemically pure

C.P.A., certified public accountant

CPI, consumer price index

cr., credit; creditor

Ct., court

d.b.a., doing business as

D.D., doctor of divinity

D.D.S., doctor of dental surgery; doctor of dental science

DII, days in inventory

Dist. Ct., District Court

D.Lit(t). or Lit(t).D., doctor of literature

do. (ditto), the same

DP, displaced person

D.P.H., doctor of public health

DPO, days payable outstanding

dr., debtor

Dr., doctor; drive

DSO, days sales outstanding

DVD, digital video disc

D.V.M., doctor of veterinary medicine

DVR, digital video recorder

E., east

EBITDA, earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation, and amortization

EDP, electronic data processing

e.g. (exempli gratia), for example

EOM, end of message

e.o.m., end of month

EPS, earnings per share

et al. (et alii), and others

et seq. (et sequentia), and the following one

etc. (et cetera), and others

EU, European Union

EVA, economic value added

F., Fahrenheit, farad

f., female, force, forte, frequency

f., ff., and following page (pages)

f.o.b., free on board

GAAP, generally accepted accounting standards

GAAS, generally accepted auditing standards

GDP, gross domestic product

GI, general issue; government issue

G.M.&S., general, medical, and surgical

Gov., governor

Govt., government

gr. wt., gross weight

HD, high definition

HE, high explosive

HF, high frequency

i, interlaced

ibid. (ibidem), in the same place

id. (idem), the same

ID, identification

i.e. (id est), that is

IF, intermediate frequency

Insp. Gen., Inspector General

IOU, I owe you

IP, intellectual property

IQ, intelligence quotient

J.D. (juris doctor), doctor of laws

Jr., junior

Lat., latitude

LC, Library of Congress

lc., lowercase

liq., liquid

lf., lightface

LF, low frequency

LL.B., bachelor of laws

LLC, limited liability corporation

LL.D., doctor of laws

loc. cit. (loco citato), in the place cited

log, logarithm

long., longitude

Ltd., limited

Lt. Gov., lieutenant governor

M, money supply: M1; M1B; M2

M., monsieur; MM., messieurs

m. (meridies), noon

M.D., doctor of medicine

memo, memorandum

MF, medium frequency

MIA, missing in action (plural, MIAs)

Mlle., mademoiselle

Mme., madam; Mmes., Mesdames

mo., month

MP, member of Parliament

Mr., mister (plural, Messrs.)

Mrs., mistress

Ms., feminine title (plural, Mses.)

M.S., master of science

MS., manuscript; MSS., manuscripts

Msgr., monsignor

m.s.l., mean sea level

N., north

NA, not available; not applicable

NE, northeast

n.e.c., not elsewhere classified

n.e.s., not elsewhere specified

net wt., net weight

No., number; Nos., numbers

n.o.i.b.n., not otherwise indexed by name

n.o.p., not otherwise provided (for)

n.o.s., not otherwise specified

n.s.k., not specified by kind

n.s.p.f., not specifically provided for

NW, northwest

OK, OK’d, OK’ing, OK’s

op. cit. (opere citato), in the work cited

p, progressive

PA, public address system

PAC, political action committee (plural, PACs)

Ph.B. or B.Ph., bachelor of philosophy

Ph.D. or D.Ph., doctor of philosophy

Ph.G., graduate in pharmacy

PIN, personal identification number

Pl., place; plural

P&L, profit-and-loss statement

p.m. (post meridiem), afternoon

P.O. Box (with number), but post office box (in general sense)

POW, prisoner of war (plural, POWs)

Prof., professor

pro tem (pro tempore), temporarily

P.S. (postscriptum), postscript; public school (with number)

QA, quality assurance

QOQ, quarter over quarter

RAM, random-access memory

R&D, research and development

Rd., road

RDT&E, research, development, testing, and evaluation

Rev., reverend

RF, radio frequency

RIF, reduction(s) in force; RIF’d, RIF’ing,

RIF’s R.N., registered nurse

ROA, return on assets

ROE, return on equity

ROI, return on investment

ROIC, return on invested capital

RR.,railroad

RSS, rich site summary

Rt. Rev., right reverend

Ry., railway

S., south; Senate bill (with number)

S&L(s), savings and loan(s)

sc. (scilicet), namely (see also ss)

s.c., small caps

s.d. (sine die), without date

SE, southeast

2d, second; 3d, third

SG&A, sales, general, and administrative expenses

SHF, superhigh frequency

sic, thus

SMS, short messaging service

SOP, standard operating procedure

SOS, distress signal

sp. gr., specific gravity

Sq., square (street)

Sr., senior

SS, steamship

ss (scilicet), namely (in law) (see also sc.)

St., Saint; Ste., Sainte; SS., Saints

St., street

STP, standard temperature and pressure

Supt., superintendent

Surg., surgeon

SW, southwest

T., Tbsp., tablespoon

T., township; Tps., townships

t., tsp., teaspoon

Ter., terrace

t.m., true mean

TQM, total quality management

TV, television

uc., uppercase

UHF, ultrahigh frequency

U.S.A., United States of America

USA, U.S. Army

U.S. 40; U.S. No. 40; U.S. Highway No. 40

v. or vs. (versus), against

VAR, value-added reseller

VAT, value-added tax

VHF, very high frequency

VIP, very important person

viz (videlicet), namely

VLF, very low frequency

W., west

w.a.e., when actually employed

wf, wrong font

w.o.p., without pay

YOY, year over year

ZIP Code, Zone Improvement Plan Code (Postal Service)

ZIP+4, 9-digit ZIP Code

Abbreviations of Units of Measurement

A, ampere

Å, angstrom

a, are

a, atto (prefix, one-quintillionth)

aA, attoampere

abs, absolute (temperature and gravity)

ac, alternating current

AF, audiofrequency

Ah, ampere-hour

A/m, ampere per meter

AM, amplitude modulation

asb, apostilb

At, ampere-turn

at, atmosphere

atm, atmosphere

at wt, atomic weight

au, astronomical unit

avdp, avoirdupois

b, born

B, bel

b, bit

bbl, barrel

bbl/d, barrel per day

Bd, baud

bd. ft., board foot

Bé, Baumé

Bev (obsolete); see GeV

Bhn, Brinell hardness number

bhp, brake horsepower

bm, beam

bp, boiling point

Btu, British thermal unit

bu, bushel

c, ¢, ct; cent(s)

c, centi (prefix, one-hundredth)

C, coulomb

c, cycle (radio)

°C, degree Celsius

ca, centiare (1 square meter)

cal, calorie (also: cal_IT, International Table; cal_th, thermochemical)

cc. (obsolete), use cm³

cd, candela (obsolete: candle)

cd/in², candela per square inch

cd/m², candela per square meter

c.f.m. (obsolete), use ft³/min

c.f.s. (obsolete), use ft³/s

cg, centigram

Ci, curie

cL, centiliter

cm, centimeter

c/m, cycles per minute

cm², square centimeter

cm³, cubic centimeter

cmil, circular mil

cp, candlepower

cP, centipoise

cSt, centistokes

cu ft (obsolete), use ft³

cu in (obsolete), use in³

cwt, hundredweight

D, darcy

d, day

d, deci (prefix, one-tenth)

d, pence

da, deka (prefix, 10)

dag, dekagram

daL, dekaliter

dam, dekameter

dam², square dekameter

dam³, cubic dekameter

dB, decibel

dBu, decibel unit

dc, direct current

dg, decigram

dL, deciliter

dm, decimeter

dm², square decimeter

dm³, cubic decimeter

dol, dollar

doz, dozen

dr, dram

dwt, deadweight tons

dwt, pennyweight

dyn, dyne

EHF, extremely high frequency

emf, electromotive force

emu, electromagnetic unit

erg, erg

esu, electrostatic unit

eV, electronvolt

°F, degree Fahrenheit

f, farad

f, femto (prefix, one-quadrillionth)

F, fermi (obsolete); use fm, femtometer

fc, footcandle

fL, footlambert

fm, femtometer

FM, frequency modulation

ft, foot

ft², square foot

ft³, cubic foot

ftH²O, conventional foot of water

ft-lb, foot-pound

ft-lbf, foot pound-force

ft/min, foot per minute

ft²/min, square foot per minute

ft³/min, cubic foot per minute

ft-pdl, foot poundal

ft/s, foot per second

ft²/s, square foot per second

ft³/s, cubic foot per second

ft/s², foot per second squared

ft/s³, foot per second cubed

G, gauss

G, giga (prefix, one billion)

g, gram; acceleration of gravity

Gal, gal cm/s²

gal, gallon

gal/min, gallons per minute

gal/s, gallons per second

GB, gigabyte

Gb, gilbert

g/cm³, gram per cubic centimeter

GeV, giga-electron-volt

GHz, gigahertz (gigacycle per second)

gr, grain; gross

h, hecto (prefix, 100)

H, henry

h, hour

ha, hectare

HF, high frequency

hg, hectogram

hl, hectoliter

hm, hectometer

hm², square hectometer

hm³, cubic hectometer

hp, horsepower

hph, horsepower-hour

Hz, hertz (cycles per second)

id, inside diameter

ihp, indicated horsepower

in., inch

in², square inch

in³, cubic inch

in/h, inch per hour

inH²O, conventional inch of water

inHg, conventional inch of mercury

in-lb, inch-pound

in/s, inch per second

J, joule

J/K, joule per kelvin

K, kayser

K, Kelvin (degree symbol improper)

k, kilo (prefix, 1,000)

k, thousand (7k = 7,000)

kc, kilocycle; see also kHz (kilohertz), kilocycles per second

kcal, kilocalorie

keV, kilo-electron-volt

kG, kilogauss

kg, kilogram

kgf, kilogram-force

kHz, kilohertz (kilocycles per second)

kl, kiloliter

klbf, kilopound-force

km, kilometer

km², square kilometer

km³, cubic kilometer

km/h, kilometer per hour

kn, knot (speed)

k, kilohm

kt, kiloton; carat

kv, kilovolt

kVa, kilovoltampere

kvar, kilovar

kw, kilowatt

kwh, kilowatt-hour

L, lambert

L, liter (also l)

lb, pound

lb ap, apothecary pound

lb avdp, avoirdupois pound

lbf, pound-force

lbf/ft, pound-force foot

lbf/ft², pound-force per square foot

lbf/ft³, pound-force per cubic foot

lbf/in², pound-force per square inch

lb/ft, pound per foot

lb/ft², pound per square foot

lb/ft³, pound per cubic foot

lct, long calcined ton

ldt, long dry ton

LF, low frequency

lin ft, linear foot

l/m, lines per minute

lm, lumen

lm/ft², lumen per square foot

lm/m², lumen per square meter

lm•s, lumen second

lm/W, lumen per watt

l/s, lines per second

l/s, liter per second

lx, lux

M, mega (prefix, 1 million)

M, million (3M = 3 million)

m, meter

m, milli (prefix, one-thousandth)

M¹, monetary aggregate

m², square meter

m³, cubic meter

μ, micro (prefix, one-millionth)

μ, micron (obsolete); use μm, micrometer

mA, milliampere

μA, microampere

mbar, millibar

μbar, microbar

Mc, megacycle; see also MHz

(megahertz), megacycles per second

mc, millicycle; see also mHz (millihertz),

millicycles per second

mcg, microgram (obsolete); use μg

mD, millidarcy

meq, milliquivalent

MeV, mega electron volts

mF, millifarad

μF, microfarad

mG, milligauss

mg, milligram

μg, microgram

Mgal/d, million gallons per day

mH, millihenry

μH, microhenry

mho, mho (obsolete); use S, siemens

MHz, megahertz

mHz, millihertz

mi, mile (statute)

mi², square mile

mi/gal, mile(s) per gallon

mi/h, mile per hour

mil, mil

min, minute (time)

μin, microinch

ml, milliliter

mm, millimeter

mm², square millimeter

mm³, cubic millimeter

mμ, (obsolete); see nm, nanometer

μm, micrometer

μm², square micrometer

μm³, cubic micrometer

μμ, micromicron (use of compound prefixes is obsolete); use pm, picometer

μμf, micromicrofarad (use of compound prefixes is obsolete); use pF

mmHg, conventional millimeter of

mercury

μmho, micromho (obsolete); use μS,

microsiemens

MW, megohm

mo, month

mol, mole (unit of substance)

mol wt, molecular weight

mp, melting point

ms, millisecond

μs, microsecond

Mt, megaton

mV, millivolt

μV, microvolt

MW, megawatt

mW, milliwatt

μW, microwatt

MWd/t, megawatt-days per ton

Mx, maxwell

n, nano (prefix, one-billionth)

N, newton

nA, nanoampere

nF, nanofarad

nm, nanometer (millimicron, obsolete)

N-m, newton meter

N/m², newton per square meter

nmi, nautical mile

ns, nanosecond

N-s/m², newton second per square meter

Od, outside diameter

Oe, oersted (use of A/m, amperes per meter, preferred)

oz, ounce (avoirdupois)

p, pico (prefix, one-trillionth)

P, poise

Pa, pascal

pA, picoampere

PB, petabyte (1 million gigabytes)

pct, percent

pdl, poundal

pF, picofarad (micromicrofarad, obsolete)

pF, water-holding energy

pH, hydrogen-ion concentration

ph, phot; phase

pk, peck

p/m, parts per million

ps, picosecond

pt, pint

pW, picowatt

qt, quart

quad, quadrillion (10¹⁵)

°R, degree rankine

R, roentgen

rad, radian

rd, rad

rem, roentgen equivalent man

r/min, revolutions per minute

rms, root mean square

r/s, revolutions per second

s, second (time)

s, shilling

S, siemens

sb, stilb

scp, spherical candlepower

s•ft, second-foot

shp, shaft horsepower

slug, slug

sr, steradian

stdft³, standard cubic foot (feet)

Sus, saybolt universal second(s)

T, tera (prefix, 1 trillion)

Tft³, trillion cubic feet

T, tesla

t, tonne (metric ton)

TB, terabyte (1,000 gigabytes)

tbsp, tablespoonful

thm, therm

ton, ton

tsp, teaspoonful

Twad, twaddell

u, (unified) atomic mass unit

UHF, ultrahigh frequency

V, volt

VA, voltampere

var, var

VHF, very high frequency

V/m, volt per meter

W, watt

Wb, weber

Wh, watt-hour

W/(m•K), watt per meter kelvin

W/sr, watt per steradian

W/(sr•m²), watt per steradian square meter

x, unknown quantity

yd, yard

yd², square yard

yd³, cubic yard

yr, year

Acronyms

Acronyms are abbreviations that are pronounced as words:

ALGOL (ALGOrithmic Language)

ARAMCO (ARabian AMerican oil COmpany)

ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)

BIT or bit (BInary digiT)

BAC (blood alcohol content)

CAD (Computer-Aided Design)

CAM (Computer-Aided Manufacturing)

COAD (chronic obstructive airways disease)

FASB (Financial Accounting Standards Board)

FIFO (first in, first out)

GUI (Graphical User Interface)

IMAP (Internet message access protocol)

LAN (Local Area Network)

loran (LOng-RAnge Navigation)

MIPS (million instructions per second)

Nasdaq (National Association of Securities Dealers Automated Quotations)

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)

NAV (net asset value)

NSAID (non-steroid anti-inflammatory drug)

OEM (original equipment manufacturer)

PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique)

radar (RAdio Detecting And Ranging)

RAM (Random Access Memory)

secant (SEparation Control of Aircraft by Nonsynchronous Techniques)

SEO (search engine optimization)

sonar (SOund NAvigation Ranging)

TIFF (tagged image file format)

UNICEF (United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund)

ZIP (Zone Improvement Plan)

Acronyms may be written in all capitals if they form proper names. However, some acronyms are conventionally uppercase and lowercase:

Amtrak        Nasdaq

The most common acronyms, those representing generic technical concepts rather than organizations or programs, are typically all lowercase:

laser         radar      sonar

Some acronyms appear either in capitals or in lowercase:

BIT or bit

See ABBREVIATIONS.

1. When you introduce new or unfamiliar acronyms, use the acronym and then, in parentheses, spell out the name or expression:

Our program fully complies with the provisions of STEP (the Supplemental Training and Employment Program). To implement STEP, however, we had to modify subcontracting agreements with four components suppliers.

NOTE: Some writers and editors prefer to introduce unfamiliar acronyms by first spelling out the component words and then placing the acronym in parentheses. We believe that readers should see the acronym first because that is how they will see it on later pages. See ABBREVIATIONS.

2. Avoid overusing acronyms, especially if your readers are unlikely to be very familiar with them.

Until readers learn to recognize and instantly comprehend an acronym (like laser), the acronym hinders reading. It creates a delay while the reader’s mind recalls and absorbs the acronym’s meaning. Therefore, you should be cautious about using acronyms, especially unfamiliar ones. Overloading a text with acronyms makes the text unreadable, even if you have previously introduced and explained the acronyms.

Acronyms are good shorthand devices, but use them judiciously. See SCIENTIFIC/TECHNICAL STYLE.

Active/Passive

Active- and passive-voice sentences each convey actions. They differ in how they convey these actions by their different grammatical structures. Both types of sentences are good sentences, but you should use active-voice sentences when you can. Passive-voice sentences can seem weak-willed, indecisive, or evasive.

Active- and passive-voice sentences usually have three basic elements:

• The actor—the person or thing performing the action

• The action—the verb

• The receiver—the person or thing receiving the action

When the structure of the sentence has the actor in front of the action, the sentence is in the active voice:

Australian companies manufacture millions of precision machine tools.

Companies is the actor; manufacture is the action; and tools receives the action. Because the actor comes before the action, the sentence is active. The subject of the sentence performs the action.

When the structure of the sentence has the receiver in front of the action, the sentence is in the passive voice:

Millions of precision machine tools are manufactured by Australian companies.

In this sentence, the subject (tools) is not doing the manufacturing. The tools are being manufactured. They are being acted upon; they are receiving the action. Therefore, the subject—and the sentence—is passive.

1. Prefer active sentences.

Active sentences are usually shorter and more dynamic than passive sentences. They generally have more impact and seem more “natural” because readers expect (and are accustomed to) the actor-action-receiver pattern. Active writing is more forceful and more self-confident.

Passive writing, on the other hand, can seem weak-willed, indecisive, or evasive. In passive sentences, the reader encounters the action before learning who performed it. In some passive sentences, the reader never discovers who performed the action. So passive sentences seem static.

Passive sentences are useful—even preferable—in some circumstances, but you should prefer active sentences.

When to Use Passives

2. Use a passive sentence when you don’t know or don’t want to mention the actor:

The failure occurred because metal shavings had been dropped into the worm-gear housing.

Clearly, the site had been inspected, but we found no inspection report and could not identify the inspectors.

In the first example above, a passive sentence is acceptable because we don’t know who dropped the metal shavings into the housing. In the second example, we might know who inspected the site but don’t want to mention names because the situation could be sensitive or politically charged.

3. Use a passive sentence when the receiver is more important than the actor.

The strongest part of most sentences is the opening. Therefore, the sentence element appearing first will receive greater emphasis than those elements appearing later in the sentence. For this reason, a passive sentence is useful when you wish to emphasize the receiver of the action:

Cross-sectional analysis techniques—the most important of our innovations—are currently being tested in our Latin American Laboratory.

Minimum material size or thickness requirements will then be established to facilitate recuperator weight, size, and cost estimates.

In both examples, we wish to emphasize the receiver of the action. Note how emphasis changes if we restructure the first example:

The most important of our innovations (cross-sectional analysis techniques) is currently being tested in our Latin American Laboratory.

Our Latin American Laboratory is currently testing the most important of our innovations—cross-sectional analysis techniques.

Our Latin American Laboratory is currently testing cross-sectional analysis techniques—the most important of our innovations.

The emphasis in each sentence differs, depending on sentence structure. The first revision emphasizes innovations, and it is still a passive sentence. The last two revisions are active, and both stress our Latin American Laboratory.

The ending of a sentence is also emphatic (although not as emphatic as the beginning), so the sentence ending with techniques does place secondary emphasis on techniques. However, the best way to emphasize cross-sectional analysis techniques is by opening the sentence with that phrase.

4. Use a passive sentence when you need to form a smooth transition from one sentence to the next.

Occasionally, writers must arrange sentence elements so that key words appearing in both sentences are near enough to each other for readers to immediately grasp the connection between the sentences. In the example below, for instance, the writer needs to form a smooth transition between sentences by repeating the key words work packages:

We will develop a simplified matrix of tasks that will include all budgetary and operational work packages. These work packages will be scheduled and monitored by individual program managers.

The second sentence is passive. It would be shorter and stronger as an active sentence:

Individual program managers will schedule and monitor these work packages.

However, the active version does not connect as well with the previous sentence:

We will develop a simplified matrix of tasks that will include all budgetary and operational work packages. Individual program managers will schedule and monitor these work packages.

For a brief moment, the second sentence seems to have changed the subject. Not until readers reach the end of the second sentence will they realize that both sentences deal with work packages. Therefore, making the second sentence passive creates a smoother transition and actually improves the passage. See TRANSITIONS.

Passives and First Person

5. Do not use passive sentences to avoid using first person pronouns.

Some writers use passives to avoid using first person pronouns (I, me, we, or us). These writers mistakenly believe that first person pronouns are inappropriate in business or technical writing. In fact, the first person is preferable to awkward or ambiguous passive sentences like the example below:

It is recommended that a state-of-the-art survey be added to the initial redesign studies.

Who is recommending it? You? The customer? Someone else? And who is supposed to add the survey?

In the following sentences, things seem to be happening, but no one seems to be doing them:

Cost data will be collected and maintained to provide a detailed history of the employee hours expended during the program. This tracking effort will be accomplished by the use of an established employee-hour accumulating system.

Writers who overuse the passive to avoid first person pronouns convey the impression that they don’t want to accept the responsibility for their actions. This implication is why passive sentences can seem evasive even when the writer doesn’t intend them to be.

Passive sentences allow you to eliminate the actor. In some cases, eliminating the actor is appropriate and desirable. In other cases (as in the previous examples), eliminating the actor creates confusion and doubt. Active versions of these examples, using first person pronouns, are much better:

We recommend that the initial redesign studies include a state-of-the-art survey.

Using our employee-hour accumulating system, we will collect and maintain cost data to provide a detailed history of the employee hours expended during the program.

How to Convert Passives

Technical and scientific writers generally use too many passives. They use them unnecessarily, often more from habit than choice. Converting unneeded passives to actives will strengthen the style of the document, making it appear crisper and more confident. The following guidelines present three techniques for converting passives to actives.

6. Make sentences active by turning the clause or sentence around:

These methods are described in more detail in section 6.

Section 6 describes these methods in more detail.

______________

A functional outline of the program is included in the Work Breakdown Structure (figure 1.1–2).

The Work Breakdown Structure (figure 1.1–2) includes a functional outline of the program.

______________

Brakes on both drums are activated as required by the control system to regulate speed and accurately position the launcher.

The control system activates brakes on both drums as required to regulate speed and accurately position the launcher.

______________

After these requirements are identified, we will develop a comprehensive list of applicable technologies.

After identifying these requirements, we will develop a comprehensive list of applicable technologies.

7. Make sentences active by changing the verb:

The solutions were achieved only after extensive development of fabrication techniques.

The solutions occurred only after extensive development of fabrication techniques.

______________

The Gaussian elimination process can be thought of as a means of “decomposing” a matrix into three factors.

The Gaussian elimination process “decomposes” a matrix into three factors.

______________

The Navy recuperator requirements are expected to bring added emphasis to structural integrity.

The Navy recuperator requirements will probably emphasize structural integrity.

______________

Coalescence was always observed to start at the base of the column.

Coalescence always started at the base of the column.

8. Make sentences active by rethinking the sentence:

Special consideration must be given to structural mounting, heat exchanger shape, ducting losses, and ducting loads.

Structural mounting, heat exchanger shape, ducting losses, and ducting loads are especially important.

______________

To ensure that a good alternate design approach is not overlooked, a comparison between plate-fin and tubular designs will be made during the proposed study program.

Comparing plate-fin and tubular designs during the proposed study program will ensure that we thoughtfully consider alternate design approaches.

______________

This study will show what can be done to alleviate technology failure by selectively relaxing requirements.

This study will show how selectively relaxing requirements can alleviate technology failure.

______________

It must be said, however, that while maximum results are gained by a design-synthesis approach such as we propose, the area to be covered is so large that it will still be necessary to concentrate on the most important technologies and their regions of interest.

Our proposed design-synthesis approach will yield maximum results. Nevertheless, the area of interest is very large. Concentrating on the most important technologies and their regions of interest will still be necessary.

Adjectives

Adjectives describe or modify nouns or pronouns. They typically precede nouns or follow either verbs of sense (feel, look, sound, taste, smell) or linking verbs (be, seem, appear, become):

The slow process . . . (or The process is slow.)

Warm weather . . . (or The weather seems warm.)

The cautious superintendent . . . (or The superintendent became cautious.)

The news seemed bad. (not badly, which is an adverb)

Adjectives also tell which one, what kind, or how many people or things are being discussed.

NOTE: As in the preceding examples, most adjectives potentially occur between an article and a noun (a bad message) or following a linking verb (the message is bad). In both of these positions, adjectives are describing a noun. Adjectives can also describe a pronoun:

He is slow.

They are ignorant.

Or less likely, but still possible:

An arrogant somebody decided to speak up before the meeting ended.

Finally, an adjective may seem to describe a following adjective rather than the main noun in a phrase:

low moral character

pale yellow flowers

We consider low and pale to be adjectives that are describing or modifying moral and yellow. Optionally, low and pale might functionally be labeled adverbs. Native users of English still intuitively know that low and moral work together to describe character. For such users, the grammatical terminology is unimportant.

Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives and adverbs are similar. They both describe or modify other words, and they both can compare two or more things. Sometimes they appear in similar positions in sentences:

Harry felt cautious. (adjective)

Harry felt cautiously along the bottom of the muddy stream. (adverb)

______________

The guard remained calm. (adjective)

The guard remained calmly at his post. (adverb)

______________

The car was close to the building. (adjective)

The car came close to me. (adverb)

The corporal watched the prisoner closely. (adverb)

NOTE: Not all adverbs end in –ly (for example, the adverbs deep, fair, fast, long, wide). Some forms can be both an adjective or an adverb (for example, early or monthly). Other adverbs have two forms: an –ly form and another form that is identical to the adjective (deep/deeply, fair/fairly, hard/hardly, wide/widely). You can determine whether most words are adjectives by trying to put them in front of a noun. In the previous examples, cautious Harry and the calm guard both make sense, so cautious and calm are adjectives. In the third example, close is an adverb in the second context, but in the phrase a close friend, the word close is an adjective. See ADVERBS.

1. Use adjectives, not adverbs, following verbs of sense (feel, look, sound, taste, smell) and linking verbs (be, seem, appear, become):

The engine sounded rough. (not the adverb roughly)

The surface of the mirror felt smooth. (not the adverb smoothly)

The programmer was cautious about saving each new electronic file.

but

The programmer cautiously saved each new electronic file. (adverb preceding the verb saved)

The auditor appeared eager to assist our division.

but

The auditor volunteered eagerly to assist our division. (adverb following the verb volunteered)

See ADVERBS.

NOTE: Harold felt badly because of the flu. This use of badly is currently acceptable, especially in spoken English. The older parallel form with bad is still correct and widely used. Harold felt bad because of the flu. See bad/badly in WORD PROBLEMS.

Comparatives and Superlatives

Adjectives have different forms for comparing two objects (the comparative form) and comparing more than two objects (the superlative form):

Our networking system is slower than the new WebWare system. (Slower is the comparative form.)

The Gemini software package was the slowest one we surveyed. (Slowest is the superlative form.)

Stocks are a likelier investment than bonds if long-term growth is the goal. (or more likely)

Nissan’s likeliest competitor in the suburban wagon market is General Motors. (or most likely)

The 2011 budget is more adequate than the 2010 budget.

The cooling provisions are the most adequate feature of the specifications.

NOTE: One-syllable words use –er/–est to form comparatives or superlatives. Two-syllable words use either –er/–est or more/most. Three-syllable words use more/most. A few adjectives have irregular comparative forms: good (well), better, best; bad, worse, worst; many, more, most.

2. Use the comparative (–er/more) forms when comparing two people or things and the superlative (–est/most) forms when comparing more than two:

Of the two designs, Boeing’s seems more efficient.

The Pinnacle Finance proposal is the most attractive. (More than two options are implied, so the superlative is proper.)

Weekly deductions are the best method for financing the new hospital insurance plan.

Weekly deductions are better than any other method for financing the new hospital insurance plan. (The comparative better is used because the various options are being compared one by one, not as a group.)

Nouns Used as Adjectives

Nouns often behave like adjectives, especially in complex technical phrases. Turning nouns into adjectives can reduce verbiage:

percentage of error
error percentage (the noun error becomes an adjective)

reduction in weight
weight reduction

function of the liver
liver function

Such nouns are useful because English often does not have an adjective form with the same meaning as the noun.

3. Avoid noun strings unless you are sure your readers know what each string means.

You should beware of noun strings, which are groups of nouns strung together as adjectives. Here is an example from an aircraft manual: C-5A airframe weight calculation error percentage. The first five words in this phrase are a noun string.

Such strings often cloud meaning. Breaking up noun strings clarifies the meaning: percentage of error in calculating C-5A airframe weight.

Although useful and often necessary, nouns used as adjectives in a noun string may be clear only to technically knowledgeable people:

aluminum honeycomb edge panels

What is aluminum—the honeycomb, the edges, or the panels? Only a knowledgeable reader can tell for sure. Sometimes, the order of the words suggests an interpretation:

aluminum edge honeycomb panels

From this phrase, we may expect the edges, and not the honeycomb, to be aluminum, but we still can’t know for sure if aluminum edge and honeycomb equally modify panels, or if aluminum edge and honeycomb combine to become a single modifier of panels, or if aluminum modifies something called edge honeycomb:

(aluminum + edge) + honeycomb panels

or

(aluminum + edge + honeycomb) panels

or

aluminum + (edge + honeycomb) panels

In alphabetical lists of parts, the main noun being modified must be listed first. Therefore, the modifying words appear afterwards, usually separated by commas. The modifying words are typically listed in reverse order, with the most general modifiers closest to the main noun:

panels, honeycomb, aluminum edge

or

panels, edge, aluminum honeycomb

or

panels, aluminum edge honeycomb

A helpful technique for discovering or clarifying the structure of noun strings is to ask the question, What kind? Begin with the main noun being modified and proceed from there to build the string of modifying nouns:

panels

What kind of panels?

honeycomb

What kind of honeycomb?

aluminum edge

In this case, we have assumed that aluminum edge describes a particular type of honeycomb. Because aluminum and edge jointly modify honeycomb, they act as one word. We usually show that two or more words are acting together as joint or compound modifiers by hyphenating them:

aluminum-edge honeycomb panels

See HYPHENS.

4. Arrange nouns used as adjectives in technical expressions so that the more general nouns are closest to the word they are modifying:

semiautomatic slat worm gear

automatic slat worm gear

semiautomatic strut backoff gear

automatic strut backoff gear

NOTE 1: The structure of such phrases (as well as the logic behind this rule) appears in catalogued lists. You can display the structure by reversing the order of the noun string and using indentation to show levels of modification:

gear

backoff

automatic strut

semiautomatic strut

worm

automatic slat

semiautomatic slat

NOTE 2: Some technical writers and editors rarely use internal punctuation (either hyphens or commas) to separate nouns in noun strings. In many scientific and technical fields, hyphens that would normally connect parts of a unit modifier are eliminated:

methyl bromide solution (not methyl-bromide solution)

black peach aphid (not black-peach aphid or black peach-aphid)

grey willow leaf beetle

swamp black currant seedlings

Hyphens in many technical words are, however, very hard to predict: horse-nettle vs. horseradish or devilsclaw vs. devils-paintbrush. In instances where the first word is capitalized, the compound is often hyphenated: China-laurel, Queen Anne’s-lace, Australian-pea, etc. See HYPHENS.

NOTE 3: Commas are not used to separate nouns in noun strings. However, we use commas to separate true adjectives when the adjectives equally modify the same noun:

grey, burnished, elliptical sphere

sloppy, poorly written, inadequate proposal

See COMMAS.

5. For the names of an organization or a company modifying a noun, choose to use either a possessive form (with an apostrophe) or an unchanged descriptive form. Once you choose, stay with your choice throughout a document.

For most organizations or companies, you can choose between two types of phrases:

Possessive form

Shell’s corporate benefit package

General Motors’ financial officer

The Fitness Committee’s recommendations

Descriptive (noun used as an adjective)

The Shell corporate benefit package

A General Motors financial officer

The Fitness Committee recommendations

Both the possessive and the descriptive versions are acceptable. Some companies, however, have firm policies about which version to use in their documents. When a policy exists, a company frequently chooses to avoid the possessive form on the grounds that the company does not possess or own something.

NOTE 1: As in the descriptive phrases above, a common sign that the possessive is not appropriate is the use of a, an, or the before the organizational or company name. This practice is not 100 percent reliable as a sign because, as in the Fitness Committee example, an organization may have an attached the or a/an and still use the possessive.

NOTE 2: Deciding which form to use is especially difficult when the organizational or company name looks like a collection of individuals.

Green, Hancock, Blaine, and Jestor

Goodmark Consultants

In cases like the preceding, choose one pattern for your correspondence and stay with your choice:

Green, Hancock, Blaine, and Jestor’s acquittal rate is . . .

Goodmark Consultants’ fee structure is . . .

or

The Green, Hancock, Blaine, and Jestor acquittal rate is . . .

The Goodmark Consultants fee structure is . . .

See AGREEMENT and APOSTROPHES.

Adverbs

Adverbs are modifiers that give the how, where, when, and extent of the action within a sentence. Most adverbs end in –ly, but some common adverbs do not: so, now, later, then, well, etc. Adverbs often modify the main verbs in sentences:

The engineer slowly prepared the design plan. (How?)

The supply ship moved close to the drilling platform. (Where?)

They later surveyed all participants in the research project. (When?)

The abdominal pain was clearly evident in all treatment groups. (Extent?)

Adverbs can also modify adjectives or other adverbs:

Their proposal was highly entertaining.

Costs were much lower than expected.

The well was so deep that its costs became prohibitive.

The board of directors cut costs more severely and more rapidly than we anticipated.

1. Place the adverbs only, almost, nearly, merely, and also as close as possible to the word they modify:

The bank examiners looked at only five accounts. (not The bank examiners only looked at five accounts.)

The engineer had almost finished the specifications. (not The engineer almost had finished the specifications.)

Adverbs and Adjectives

Adverbs and adjectives are quite similar. They each modify or describe other words, and they often appear in similar positions in sentences, but they have quite different meanings:

The lab technician carefully smelled the sample. (adverb)

The cheese smelled bad. (adjective)

The Internet connection worked badly the first day. (adverb)

Not knowing the language, they stayed close to the interpreter. (adverb)

We closely studied the blueprints. (adverb)

The election was so close that no one was a clear winner. (adjective)

2. Choose adverbs, not adjectives, to modify main verbs:

Our accountants predicted accurately that cash flow would be a problem.

The manager asked quickly for the up-to-date estimates.

The test engineers calculated roughly the expected power.

NOTE 1: Some adverbs have two forms, one without the regular –ly and one with it: close/closely, deep/deeply, late/lately, loud/loudly, quick/quickly, slow/slowly, wide/widely. Sometimes the two adverbial forms have different meanings:

We submitted the invoice late.

We were involved lately in some takeover discussions.

The loose flywheel moved very close to its housing.

The flywheel is monitored closely during the trial run.

In other instances, the two forms mean almost the same thing, so the choice depends on personal preference or individual idiom (based on the surrounding words):

Go slow. vs. Go slowly. (Either form is correct.)

The evaluation team wanted to play fair. (The phrase play fairly means the same but sounds a little stiff and overly formal.)

The evaluation team wanted to respond fairly. (Fair would sound awkward with the verb respond.)

See ADJECTIVES.

NOTE 2: Adjectives, not adverbs, follow verbs of sense (feel, look, sound, taste, smell) and linking verbs (be, seem, appear, become):

The adhesive felt cool and rubbery when dry.

The surface of the wing appeared uneven.

See bad/badly in WORD PROBLEMS.

Comparative and Superlative Forms

Adverbs, like adjectives, have different forms to show comparison of two things (the comparative form) and comparison of more than two things (the superlative form). The comparative uses an –er form or more, but not both; the superlative uses an –est or most, but not both.

The counselor left sooner than expected. (comparative)

The fluid returned more slowly to its original level. (comparative)

They debated most successfully the wisdom of expanding into the West Coast market. (superlative)

The most rapidly moving car turned out to be the new Ford high-performance model. (superlative)

NOTE 1: Some adverbs have irregular comparative and superlative forms: well, better, best; badly, worse, worst; little, less, least; much, more, most.

NOTE 2: See ADJECTIVES for a discussion of using –er or more for comparatives and –est or most for superlatives. The rules for adverbs are similar to those for adjectives.

Agreement

Agreement is a basic grammatical rule of English. According to this rule, subjects of sentences must agree in number with their verbs:

The proposal was finished. (not the plural were finished)

She is the engineer who designed the valve. (not the plural are)

The boilers have become corroded. (not the singular has become)

They are our competitors on most major procurements. (not the singular is)

This rule also includes gender agreement (between pronouns and the persons or objects to which they refer):

Jane Swenson submitted her report. (The pronoun her agrees with its antecedent Jane Swenson.)

See NOUNS, PRONOUNS, and VERBS.

1. The subject of a sentence (nouns or pronouns) should agree in number with the sentence verb:

The investigator is analyzing the analgesic efficacy. (singular noun and singular verb)

The employees are discussing the benefit package. (plural noun and plural verb)

I am going to attend the international conference in June.

We are designing a light-sensitive monitoring system.

The Elements of Geometry is the basic textbook.

Our textbooks are usually translated into Russian, French, and German.

Midwest states normally include Kentucky and Missouri.

A list of Midwest states normally includes Kentucky and Missouri.

NOTE: A noun ending with an –s or –es is usually plural. A verb ending with an –s or –es is usually singular. Employees is plural. The verbs is and includes are both singular.

Some verbs do not change their form to reflect singular and plural: will include, included, had included, will have included, etc. See NOUNS and VERBS.

Agreement problems sometimes occur because the subject of the sentence is not clearly singular or plural:

None of the crew is going to take leave.

or

None of the crew are going to take leave.

Both versions are correct. Some writers become confused, too, when the subject is separated from the verb by words or phrases that do not agree in number with the subject:

Only one of the issues we discussed is on the agenda for tomorrow’s meeting.

Few aspects of the problem we are now facing are as clear as they should be.

The availability of rice, as well as of medical supplies, determines the life expectancy of a typical adult in Hong Kong.

Normal wear and tear, along with planned obsolescence, is the reason most automobiles provide only an average of 6.5 years of service.

The number of the subject must still agree with the verb even when following the verb:

What are your arguments for creating online access to the database?

There are five new pumps in the warehouse.

Discussed are the basic design flaws in the preliminary specifications and the lack of adequate detail in the drawings.

Finally, some noun subjects look plural because they end in –s or –ics, but they are still singular:

Politics has changed drastically with the advent of television.

The news from Algeria continues to be discouraging.

Measles rarely occurs in adults.

2. Subjects connected by and require a plural verb:

The ceiling panels and the fasteners have been fabricated.

The software designer and the graphic artist agree that we should market the new instructional manual immediately.

A personal computer and a photo copier are essential business tools today.

NOTE: Sometimes words connected by and become so closely linked that they become singular in meaning, thus requiring a singular verb:

Bacon and eggs is my favorite breakfast.

My name and address is on the inside cover.

Simon & Schuster is an excellent publishing firm.

3. Singular subjects connected by either . . . or, neither . . . nor, and not only . . . but also require a singular verb:

Either the post-operative therapy or the inflammation is causing the acute pain.

Neither the district engineer nor the superintendent has approved the plans.

Not only the cost but also the design is a problem.

NOTE: When one of a pair of subjects is plural, the verb agrees with the subject closest to it:

Either the tail assembly or the wing struts are causing excessive fuel consumption.

Either the wing struts or the tail assembly is causing excessive fuel consumption.

4. When used as a subject or as the modifier of the subject, each, every, either, neither, one, another, much, anybody, anyone, everybody, everyone, somebody, someone, nobody, and no one require singular verbs:

Every proposal has been evaluated.

Each engineer is responsible for the final proofing of engineering proposals.

Everyone has received the pension information.

Somebody was responsible for the drop in production.

No one but the design engineer knows the load factors used in the calculations.

NOTE: Although words ending with –one and –body require a singular verb, sentences with such words often become awkward when a pronoun refers to those words:

Everyone turns in his report on Monday.

Using the singular pronoun his maintains the agreement with the subject, but if the everyone mentioned includes women, the expression may be considered sexist. Some writers and editors argue that male pronouns (he, his, him, himself) are generic, that they refer to both males and females. Others maintain that this convention discriminates against women. Writers and editors who share this view prefer to include both men and women in their sentences:

Everyone turns in his or her report on Monday.

Finally, some liberal editors argue that everyone implies a plurality, so the plural their becomes the acceptable pronoun. For example:

Everyone turns in their reports on Monday.

The sexism problem is avoidable in most sentences simply by making the subject plural and eliminating such troublesome words as everyone:

All engineers turn in their reports on Monday.

See PRONOUNS and BIAS-FREE LANGUAGE.

5. When used as a subject or as the modifier of a subject, both, few, several, many, and others require plural verbs:

Both proposals were unsatisfactory.

Several were available earlier this month.

Few pipes were still in service.

6. All, any, more, most, none, some, one-half of, two-thirds of, a part of, and a percentage of require either a singular or a plural verb, depending upon the noun they refer to:

All of the work has been assigned. (singular)

All of the trees have been removed. (plural)

______________

Most sugar is now made from sugar beets.

Most errors were caused by carelessness.

______________

Some of the report was written in an ornate style.

Some design features were mandatory.

______________

One-half of the project has been completed.

One-half of the pages have been proofed.

______________

A percentage of the room is for storage.

A percentage of the employees belong to the company credit union.

7. Collective nouns and expressions with time, money, and quantities take a singular or a plural verb, depending upon their intended meaning:

The committee votes on pension policy when disputes occur. (Committee, a collective noun, is considered singular. In British English committee is often used as a plural.)

The committee do not agree on the interpretation of the mandatory retirement clause. (Committee, a collective noun, is considered plural.)

______________

The audience was noisy, especially during the final act.

The audience were in their seats by 7:30 p.m.

______________

Two years is the usual waiting period. (Two years is an expression of time considered as a single unit.)

The 2 years were each divided into quarters for accounting purposes. (Two years is an expression of time considered as a plural of year.)

______________

Six dollars is the fee.

Six dollars were spread out on the counter.

______________

Five liters is all the tank can hold.

Five liters of wine were sold before noon.

NOTE: Sometimes sentences with collective nouns become awkward because they seem both singular and plural. In such cases, rephrasing often helps:

Audience members were in their seats by 7:30 p.m.

8. Choose either a singular or plural verb for subjects that are organizational names, and then be consistent in all other contexts with the name.

Problems arise because organizational names often look plural even though they are the names of single organizations:

Kraus, Jones, and Blackstone

FranklinCovey

The Money Group

Thomas & Sons, Inc.

These names take a plural verb if you intend to stress the individual members or partners:

Kraus, Jones, and Blackstone have their law offices in the Tower Center Building.

FranklinCovey present training courses throughout the world.

The Money Group are uniquely qualified to advise you on your investments.

Thomas & Sons have been in business since 1950, and their reputation is unexcelled.

Otherwise, use a singular verb, which is the preferred pattern in business writing, probably because readers usually view an organization as a single entity:

Kraus, Jones, and Blackstone has signed a lease for a suite in the Tower Center Building.

FranklinCovey is a leading training firm, and its materials have won national awards.

The Money Group is licensed in Michigan, and its corporate offices are in Detroit.

Thomas & Sons has the city contract for all plumbing work.

NOTE 1: As in two of the examples with plural verbs, sentences with an organizational name often include a pronoun that refers back to the organization. If you have chosen a plural verb, this pronoun will be they or them. See NOUNS.

As in two of the examples with singular verbs, sentences often contain the singular pronoun its to refer back to the organization. See PRONOUNS.

NOTE 2: Often you must decide whether to use an apostrophe with an organizational name, as in contexts such as these:

Kraus, Jones, and Blackstone’s personnel policy requires . . .

FranklinCovey’s proposal includes . . .

The Money Group’s line of credit exceeds . . .

Thomas & Sons’ vans have . . .

An apostrophe is more common if you are considering the names plural. If you choose to make the names singular, then an apostrophe is usually unnecessary, especially if you precede the name with a, an, or the:

The Kraus, Jones, and Blackstone personnel policy requires . . .

A FranklinCovey proposal includes . . .

The Money Group line of credit exceeds . . .

The Thomas and Sons vans have . . .

Again, be consistent within a single document. Either use the possessive forms with their apostrophes or use descriptive forms without apostrophes. See ADJECTIVES, APOSTROPHES, and POSSESSIVES.

Apostrophes

Apostrophes signal omitted letters, possession, and the plural of letters and symbols. In possessive forms, an apostrophe (’) can appear with or without a following –s.

1. Use apostrophes to signal omitted letters in a contraction:

It’s not going to be easy. (It is not going to be easy.)

It won’t be easy. (It will not be easy.)

We will coordinate with the manufacturer who’s chosen to supply the semiconductors. (who is chosen)

NOTE: Use contractions in letters and memos to help establish an informal tone. Avoid contractions in more formal, edited documents. See CONTRACTIONS.

2. Use apostrophes to show possession:

Microsoft’s design capabilities are world-renowned.

The unit’s most unique capability is its amplification of weak echoes.

• When the possessive word is singular, the apostrophe comes before the –s:

Rockwell International’s process for budgeting is one of the most progressive in the industry.

The circuit’s most unusual capability is its error detection and correction function.

• When the possessive word is singular and already ends with an –s, the apostrophe follows the –s and may itself be followed by another –s (although most writers prefer the apostrophe alone):

General Dynamics’ (or Dynamics’s) management proposal is very project-specific.

Our project manager will be Dr. Martin Jones. Dr. Jones’ (or Jones’s) experience with laser refractors has made him a leader in the field.

• When the possessive word is plural and ends in –s, the apostrophe follows the –s:

The suppliers’ requests are not unreasonable considering the amount of time required for fabrication.

We consider the states’ environmental quality offices to be our partners in reclamation.

NOTE 1: Irregular plurals that do not end in –s require an ’s:

The report on women’s status in the executive community is due next Friday.

Materials for children’s toys must conform to Federal safety standards.

NOTE 2: The possessive form of the pronoun it is its, not it’s (it’s is the contraction of it is or it has):

Possessive: Its products have over 10,000 hours of testing behind them.

Contraction: It’s (It is) in the interests of economy and efficiency that we pursue atmospheric testing as well.

Similarly, the possessive form of who is whose, not who’s. Who’s is a contraction for who is or who has. See POSSESSIVES and who’s/whose in WORD PROBLEMS.

3. Use apostrophes to show the passage of time in certain stock phrases:

a month’s pay

an hour’s time

4 days’ work

3 years’ study

5 years’ experience

NOTE: Distinguish between the preceeding examples with apostrophes and the following unit modifiers with hyphens:

a 4-day work week

his 3-year study

See HYPHENS.

4. Use only the –s to form the plural of letters, signs, symbols, figures, acronyms, and abbreviations, unless the absence of the apostrophe would be confusing.

As in the following examples, the forms without apostrophes are preferred, but forms with apostrophes are acceptable:

The Xs indicate insertable material. (or x’s or X’s but not xs)

All of our senior staff have PhDs. (or Ph.D.’s or Ph.D.s)

Simplex Pharmaceuticals coded all experimental drug runs with A’s and I’s. (not As or Is nor as or is)

Symmetek began making microchips in the 1990s. (or 1990’s)

The tracer tests will be run on all APOs in Europe. (or APO’s)

The Bureau of Land Management has prepared three EAs (Environmental Assessments) for those grazing allotments. (or EA’s)

In the following instances, the absence of the apostrophe produces confusing forms:

The manufacturer indicates fragile material by placing #’s in any of the last three positions in the transportation code.

Our risk management process is designed to eliminate the if’s and but’s.

5. Distinguish between true possessives and merely descriptive uses of nouns (especially with company names):

Exxon’s response (possessive) an Exxon response (descriptive)

General Motors’ news release (or a General Motors news release)
The General Motors sales staff

FranklinCovey’s proposal
FranklinCovey Style Guide

Verdi’s first opera an early Verdi opera

The teachers’ testimony
A teacher guide
Teachers Guide
(or Teacher’s Guide)
(or Teachers’ Guide)

As in these examples, competing forms are common. The traditional use of the possessive (with an apostrophe) is less common today, especially with corporate names. See ADJECTIVES and AGREEMENT.

As in the examples with teachers’/teacher/teachers, a number of options are possible. In the teachers’ testimony, the possessive signals testimony from several different teachers.

The name for a guide for teachers is open to all sorts of possibilities. In the teacher guide, the noun teacher functions as an adjective, not a possessive. When both nouns are capitalized, the most common form is Teachers Guide. This form, without the apostrophe, would appear in titles and in news headlines (which often omit apostrophes). But notice that other options are possible (and correct).

The best advice is to decide for a single document whether you want to use a descriptive or possessive. Then be consistent throughout that document.

Appendices

Appendices (often informally referred to as attachments) are more and more common in documents, especially those intended for busy peers, supervisors, and managers who do not have time to wade through pages of data and analysis. Appendices and attachments are acceptable (often desirable) in letters and memos as well as in reports.

The following types of information can and often do appear in appendices or attachments:

—Background data

—Case studies

—Computations

—Derivations

—Detailed component descriptions

—Detailed test results

—Excerpts from related research

—Histories

—Lengthy analyses

—Parts lists

—Photographs

—Raw data

—Sources of additional information

—Supporting letters and memos

—Tables of data

The word appendix has two acceptable plurals: appendices and appendixes. Appendices is still widely used by educated speakers and writers, but appendixes is growing in popularity because it follows the regular method for making English words plural. The style used by the U.S. Government is appendixes.

1. Use appendices to streamline reports and memos that would otherwise be too lengthy.

In business and technical reports and memos, assess your readers’ need to know the background and analysis behind the relevant conclusions and recommendations.

Relevant conclusions and recommendations should appear very early in most business and technical reports, often as part of an executive summary. Busy readers can therefore receive a streamlined report of 8 to 10 pages (instead of the traditional formal report of 30 to 50 pages) with appendices containing appropriate background information, detailed results, and lengthy analyses. See SUMMARIES.

2. Avoid making appendices a dumping ground for unnecessary information.

Because the appendices are not part of the body of the report, some writers believe they have the license to include in the appendices every scrap of information they know about the subject. This practice leads to massive, often confusing appendices that discourage readers.

Would a knowledgeable reader need the information in the appendices to interpret the conclusions and recommendations? If so, then the appendices are justified. In writing your document, determine who the readers will be and ask yourself what additional information these readers will need to better understand your approach, analysis, results, conclusions, and recommendations.

One rule of thumb is that appendices should contain only information prepared for the project in question. Background information from files and tangential reports (general background information) should not appear in appendices. Often readers know such background information anyway.

To summarize, if a reader needs certain information to understand a report, this information belongs in the body of a report. All other information belongs either in appendices or in backup files.

3. Number or letter appendices and attachments sequentially.

Sequential numbering or lettering is essential: Appendix A, Appendix B, etc.; or Attachment 1, Attachment 2, etc. Numbers and letters are both correct, so either is acceptable. In longer documents, your choice may depend upon whether you have numbered or lettered the sections or chapters. If your sections or chapters are numbered, then use letters to label appendices. Conversely, if your sections or chapters are lettered, use numbers for the appendices. The system you use to label appendices should indicate a clear distinction between the appendices and the body of the document.

Typically, appendices are numbered in the order in which the references to them appear in the body of the report. So the first appendix mentioned in the report becomes appendix A (or appendix 1), the second one mentioned is appendix B (or appendix 2), and so on.

NOTE 1: As in the preceding sentence, you need not capitalize the initial A in appendix in ordinary text. Some authorities, however, prefer a capital: Appendix A. Choose one pattern and be consistent. See CAPITALS.

NOTE 2: Give each appendix or attachment a title. Referring to appendices or attachments only by number is not informative and can be confusing. In the text, refer to the appendix or attachment by both number and title.

4. Refer to all appendices and attachments in the body of the document.

Refer to all appendices or attachments in the body of the document so that readers know that the information within them is available.

Your references should be informative rather than cryptic. A cryptic reference (such as See appendix C) does not tell readers enough about the appended information. The following references are informative:

Particulate counts from all collection points in the study area appear in appendix C, Particulate Data.

______________

Attachment 5, A Report on Reserve Faulting in the Boling Dome, provides further evidence of the complex faulting that may control production.

______________

See appendix A (Prescription Trends Since the 1970s) for further analysis of Valium use and abuse since its introduction.

Articles

Articles are the simple structure words a, an, and the. These words always precede a following noun, but not every noun can accept both articles, and some nouns need neither of them. See NOUNS.

Common nouns that name countable things can use both a/an and the and have both a singular and a plural form:

a book (singular indefinite)

the book (singular definite)

the books (plural)

not

a books

Common nouns that name uncountable things are mass nouns. They have no plural forms, and they don’t commonly accept a or an:

the rice/rice

the gold/gold

not

the rices

a rice

the golds

a gold

Some common nouns are both countable and uncountable (mass):

cake (mass)

a cake (countable)

the cake (either mass or countable)

cakes (countable)

______________

milk (mass)

a milk (countable)

the milk (mass)

milks (rare use—as in milk from cows,

goats, horses, humans, etc.)

Proper nouns usually do not require articles:

Susan B. Anthony

Senator Robert Dole

Kansas City

Stone Mountain

but

The Mississippi River

The Great Lakes

A/An is the indefinite article because it points toward a single indefinite (unspecified) object:

A candle (meaning “any single candle”)

An elephant (meaning “any single elephant”)

The is the definite article because it points toward a definite (specified) object, either singular or plural:

The candle (meaning “one specific candle”)

The candles (meaning “more than one specific candle”)

The elephant (meaning “one specific elephant”)

The elephants (meaning “more than one specific elephant”)

1. Choose indefinite a or an to precede a singular countable noun:

a tube

a leaf

a ring

an ear

an apple

an owl

NOTE 1: As in the above examples, the choice between a and an is based on the initial sound—not spelling—of the noun (or word) that follows the article. Words pronounced with a vowel sound require an (pronounced as in the initial sound of ant). Words pronounced with a consonant sound require a (pronounced as in the hesitation sound uh).

an amber leaf

an emerald ring

a good apple

a tiny owl

NOTE 2: Nouns beginning with h can potentially have either a or an. If the h is pronounced, as in heap or hair, a is correct:

a heap

a hair

If the h is silent (unpronounced), as in honor or hour, an is correct:

an honor

an hour

The word history has competing options. Most editors would routinely choose a history (not an history) as the written form. But speakers often use an, as in an historical event, perhaps because this h is nearly silent.

NOTE 3: A/an has an implied meaning of “one,” so a/an could not precede the plurals of countable nouns. The plurals do not need any article, or the can precede them:

tubes/the tubes

ears/the ears

leaves/the leaves

apples/apples

2. Use definite the to precede (point out) either countable or mass nouns, both singular and plural:

the engineer (singular countable)
the bee (singular countable)

the engineers (plural countable)
the bees (plural countable)

______________

the butter (mass)

the air (mass)

Note 1: Although the in the above examples does not change its spelling, its pronunciation often changes just as a/an changes. Note, however, that native speakers of English do not always choose pronunciations that follow these rules. Sometimes they even reverse the rules, for emphasis.

When a vowel begins the following word, the is usually pronounced as the word thee:

the elevator

the almond tree

When a consonant begins the following word, the is pronounced as in the beginning of the word thus:

the director

the symposium

For emphasis, either the director or the symposium could begin with a the pronounced like thee.

As with a/an, in some words beginning with h, as with historical, either pronunciation of the is correct:

the historical profile (with either pronunciation)

Note 2: In all the above examples, using the points to a definite object or thing. This pointing function is, however, not as strong as in some other structure words—for example, in the demonstrative pronouns this, that, these, and those. See Pronouns. Using the points back to a prior sentence or phrase where the object or objects have been identified.

3. Choose a/an and the (different pronunciations) to match the way an acronym is pronounced, not how it is spelled:

a NEPA requirement

the NEPA requirement (with the pronounced as in the beginning of thus)—for the National Environmental

Policy Act (NEPA), which is pronounced as in a word, not by separate letters an NFL player

the NFL player (pronounced as in thee)—for National Football League (NFL), which is pronounced letter by letter, not as a word

an/the AFL-CIO publication

a/the DoD proposal

an/the MIS supervisor

a/the KUED television program

NOTE: Pronunciation also influences whether the article is needed or not. For example, with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), the article the often drops when NEPA (pronounced as a word) appears in sentences:

NEPA requires that each agency . . .

A provision of NEPA is . . .

In either of these cases, the written-out version would include the article: the National Environmental Policy Act.

4. Alphabetize acronyms without using the customary article that would appear in the written-out titles:

CIA

NAFTA

NASA

SOP

NOTE 1: Each of these abbreviations would ordinarily use an article if written out:

the Central Intelligence Agency

the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

the North American Free Trade Agreement

NOTE 2: SOP illustrates the principle discussed in rule 3. The acronym—read letter by letter—begins with a vowel sound, so it would require an if an article is used with it. But the written-out version opens with a consonant sound, so it uses a:

a/the standard operating procedure

As in this example, the original words for an acronym may not require capitalization. See CAPITALS.

5. For English as a Second Language (ESL) questions regarding articles, use a dictionary designed for ESL users.

Articles are some of the most unpredictable words in English, despite their frequency. Most native speakers of English choose articles without thinking. A nonnative English speaker has to work with rules. Unfortunately, the rules presented above have innumerable exceptions.

We recommend, therefore, the most current version of A.S. Hornby’s Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English, (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press). See REFERENCES.

This excellent dictionary is designed especially for non-English-speaking users. As such, it has a wealth of examples and, in the case of articles, it marks nouns as countable (marked with a [C]) or uncountable (marked with a [U]).

For example, the simple noun cover, as discussed in this dictionary, has a variety of uses, some as a countable noun; others as an uncountable (mass) noun.

a cover on a typewriter [C]

design a front cover for the book [C]

provide cover from a storm [U]

a spy’s cover (assumed identity) [U]

This dictionary also identifies special uses when a noun is only plural:

The covers on the bed [Plural only]

Finally, this dictionary lists special idioms, many of which either use or avoid articles, often without apparent logic:

under cover of darkness (No article is used before cover.)

Bias-Free Language

Bias-free language is an increasingly important issue for business and technical writers and speakers. The list of forbidden words and phrases grows longer each week, and the legal penalties for violations are increasingly severe.

United States Federal laws and many state regulations mandate that an employee may not be discriminated against based on race, creed, sex, age, or national origin. These laws have various provisions, but penalties for violations apply both to individual employees and to their companies.

Cultural Awareness

Cultural awareness (rules 1, 2, 3, and 4), in the following discussion, covers language choices dealing with race, religion, physical status, social status, age, and national origins. Issues relating to gender are covered in a separate section (rules 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10).

Many of the cultural awareness issues are changing social conventions. Writers and speakers should be constantly alert to changes in what is acceptable because words and phrases fall in and out of favor so rapidly. Also, as appropriate, check the status of terms in up-to-date dictionaries and other references. See REFERENCES.

1. Do not use words that unnecessarily identify a person’s race, religion, physical status, social status, age, national origins, or gender.

In most instances, write documents giving people’s names and, if appropriate, their job titles. Do not include, for example, references indicating that a person is a Native American, a Methodist, a woman, the user of a wheelchair, a vegetarian, nearly 65, or born in Puerto Rico.

These categorizations are irrelevant to any serious business discussion. They are also often insulting to the person referred to, especially if the category is being used as a shorthand way of implying something about the person.

For instance, mentioning someone’s age can be a way of suggesting that the person is too close to retirement to be considered for a promotion or a special task team. This reference to the person’s age is irrelevant, unfair, and likely illegal.

The golden rule is a good rule to follow when answering questions about cultural awareness. Would you appreciate someone identifying one or more traits about you if the trait had no relevance to the topic at hand? So follow this rule: Treat others as you would want to be treated.

NOTE: In some contexts, such personal categorizations are appropriate for discussion and documentation. Census surveys routinely ask for such information. Or the Human Resources Department for a company may develop survey information about employees to comply with Federal guidelines relating to Equal Employment Opportunity or Affirmative Action programs.

Usually, personal information about any of these categories should be kept confidential.

2. Don’t rely on the stereotypes often implied by the categorizations included in rule 1.

Stereotypes are a classic fault in logic because the stereotype for any group of people always fails when matched up to the traits for a single individual. Misuse of stereotypes is the basic reason why using group or category terms about an individual is wrong (see rule 1).

An argument based on stereotypes would be, for instance, that a specific auto mechanic was cheating you because all auto mechanics are crooks and out to gouge customers. Based on this stereotype, for example, people also make supposedly innocent jokes about the typical mechanic’s shrug—a shrug implying that the mechanic doesn’t have a clue as to what might be wrong with the car.

Neither the use of the stereotype nor the joke is innocent if you happen to be the mechanic in question. No legal issues are likely involved, but using a stereotype in this manner is probably offensive to the mechanic.

On the other hand, a serious assessment of a single auto mechanic would need to use facts and data about the individual. Such topics as the mechanic’s rate of pay, quality of work, and solicitude for the customer are proper items for a company to document and discuss. They have nothing to do with the stereotype of the typical mechanic.

Stereotypes are common about any group of people who share a category or several categories:

Religion: Buddhist, Methodist, Latter-day Saint, Moslem, etc.

Race: Black, Native American, Latino, etc.

Age: retired, middle-aged, yuppie, etc.

National Origin: French, Nigerian, Peruvian, Canadian, etc.

Profession: lawyer, doctor, banker, etc.

Sectional Origin: Southerner, Down Easter, Midwesterner, etc.

Physical Features: sightless, user of a wheelchair, diabetic, anorexic, etc.

Sexual Preference: heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual

Economic Status: homeless, fixed (or limited) income, well-to-do, etc.

Gender: female, male

A single individual can share more than a single category. For example, a middle-aged Nigerian female lawyer might be diabetic and on a fixed income. Given this complexity, which stereotypes apply? Probably none of them. And as noted above, most of them are irrelevant and likely illegal to mention in any business discussion or business document.

3. When appropriate, choose terms and designations that are neutral and acceptable to the group you are discussing.

News articles, research reports, and other serious documents properly and legally analyze and discuss data for various groups. Such discussions, which would not be based on stereotypes, include terms for a group or category of persons. These terms are, however, often the problem because they carry unfortunate echoes, and these echoes change rapidly.

For example, stylebooks for both the Associated Press and the United Press identify blacks as the term to choose when you need a category term for black Americans. African-American is also common. Some people now object to its use of the hyphen, which implies less than full status as an American. Even earlier, the terms Negro and colored person had seasons of use. Each of them collected negative echoes and fell out of favor.

When you choose any term for a group of people, be careful to choose the one that is most current and acceptable. If in doubt, don’t assume that your choice makes no difference. Your choice may be insulting and even a legal issue.

For example, a recent court case on sexism included among other points, the assertion that the defendant called the women on his staff “girls.” Of course, to wind up in court, he did much more than call them names. The moral is that the wrong word or phrase can be a costly mistake, especially to your reputation, if not to your pocketbook.

A second example comes from the terms dealing with people who have disabilities. Choose terms and phrases that do not emphasize the negative features of the disabilities, nor should the features be seen as more significant than they may be.

not these

crippled

blind

mentally defective

dumb

afflicted with MS

unfortunately has a speech problem

but these

person who uses a wheelchair

person without sight/partially sighted

person with mental disability

person unable to speak

person with multiple sclerosis

person with speech impediment

4. Be sure to choose graphics—especially photographs—that fairly represent all groups and types of people within society.

Both major graphics and incidental figures need to be balanced as to their representations of typical people. The graphics should not rely on either an overt or covert use of stereotyping. (See rule 2.)

A recent court case dealt with a realty firm that consistently pictured in advertisements middle-aged Caucasians who seemed to have money. In court, the firm was challenged with sending a signal that first-time black buyers would not be welcome. The realty firm lost.

Much the same sort of problem exists in training materials or procedures that present women in secretarial roles and men in managerial roles. Again, this is a covert reliance on stereotypes.

Finally, be sure that your representations of a racial or physical appearance do not accentuate facial features or dress to the point where the picture is more parody than reality.

Gender-Neutral Language

Gender signals are an integral part of our language. English from its earliest history has often marked words as either male or female (and even sometimes neuter). Pronouns are the commonest surviving examples: he, him, his vs. she, her, hers vs. it, its. A number of nouns also have had different male and female forms: waiter/waitress, stewardess/steward, heir/heiress, countess/count, host/hostess, actress/actor, usher/usherette. And some words used for both genders seem to include only males: mankind, layman, manpower, and so on.

Many such distinctions, called gender distinctions, have become objectionable, especially in recent years with the debate about equal rights for women. So, many publishing firms and most writers routinely remove unnecessary and objectionable gender distinctions from published writing. This trend is the basis for the following rules, most of which require little effort from writers.

5. Use words that do not unnecessarily distinguish between male and female:

NOTE 1: The use of female forms such as waitress and heiress has declined. Heir now includes both male and female; waiter still has male echoes, but these may fade soon. The best advice is to be sensitive to this issue and avoid female designations.

NOTE 2: Historically the word man (especially used in compound words like chairman or layman) could include both males and females; its closest modern equivalent would be, for instance, the indefinite pronoun one or person. This historical meaning has, however, been forgotten, so much so that many women now argue that they are silently being left out when compounds with man are used.

6. Avoid unnecessary uses of he, him, or his to refer back to such indefinite pronouns as everyone, everybody, someone, and somebody.

The problem sentences are often ones where the indefinite pronouns introduce a single person and then a later pronoun refers to that person:

Everyone should take (his? her?) coat.

Someone left (his? her?) report.

Unless we clearly know who everyone and someone refer to, we cannot pick the proper singular pronoun. We thus have to choose among several options:

—Make the sentences plural, if possible:

All employees should take their coats.

—Remove the pronoun entirely:

Someone left a (or this) report.

—Use both the male and female pronouns:

Each employee should take his or her report.

Someone left her or his report.

—Use the plural pronoun their (or maybe they or theirs):

Each employee should take their coat.

Someone left their report.

NOTE: This last option is fine for informal or colloquial speech, but many editors and writers would object to the use of the plural pronouns to refer back to the singular everyone and someone. See PRONOUNS and AGREEMENT.

7. Avoid unnecessary uses of he, him, his or she, her, hers when the word refers to both males and females:

not these

An assistant should set her (his?) priorities each day.

The engineer opened her (his?) presentation with a slide presentation.

A writer should begin his (her?) outline with the main point.

As with rule 6, writers have several options:

—Change the sentences to plurals:

Assistants should set their priorities each day.

Writers should begin their outlines with the main point.

—Remove the pronouns:

The engineer began the presentation with a slide presentation.

An assistant should set firm priorities each day.

NOTE: A third option is to use the phrase his or her, but this becomes clumsy in a text of any length, so it is better to use one of the two options given above.

8. Avoid the traditional salutation Gentlemen if the organization receiving the letter includes males and females.

Omit the salutation if your letter is to an organization, not to an individual. Your letter would then have an inside address, a subject line, followed by your text. This format is called a simplified letter. See LETTERS.

Whenever writing to people whose gender you don’t know, use the title or the name without a title:

Dear Personnel Manager:

Dear G. L. Branson:

NOTE 1: We do not recommend Ladies and Gentlemen or Gentlemen and Ladies. The term Ladies (and maybe Gentlemen) seems old-fashioned. Similarly, Dear Sir or Madam is old-fashioned and overly formal.

NOTE 2: In recent years a number of unusual salutations have appeared. Avoid them:

Dear Gentlepersons:

Dear Gentlepeople:

Dear People:

Dear Folks:

See LETTERS.

9. Do not substitute s/he, he/she, hisorher, or other such hybrid forms for standard personal pronouns.

These hybrid forms are unpronounceable and are not universally accepted by English users, so avoid them. Instead, either remove pronouns or change the sentences to plurals, as suggested under rule 7.

Where you must use singular personal pronouns, use he and she, his or her, or him and her. Or as an option in longer documents, alternate between male and female pronouns.

10. Avoid demeaning or condescending gender terms for either females or males.

Gender terms such as girls/gals or boys/guys carry echoes of immaturity or irresponsibility. As such, they are condescending or, at the very least, humorous. So do not use them in a business context, either in speech or writing.

For slightly different reasons, the more formal terms ladies and gentlemen have also become questionable.

The term ladies seems to belong to another era, when ladies wore white gloves, attended garden parties, and talked about the social scene. A lady of that era did not work or worry about business.

The term gentlemen is not quite so demeaning, but it still has echoes of past formality.

Use ladies or gentlemen only in formal speech and probably only when people addressed are well over 30. Similarly, we recommend avoiding the old-fashioned letter salutation: Ladies and Gentlemen. See the note in rule 8.

The best advice is to be sensitive to the echoes or implications of your language. As a final example, the common phrase man and wife identifies only the sex of the man, but for the wife, both the sex and the marital role are marked. A better choice: man and woman, husband and wife, woman and man, or wife and husband.

Bibliographies

Bibliographies appear at the end of chapters, articles, and books. Whatever the exact format, complete bibliographic entries include the name of the author, the title, and the full publication history (including the edition, the publisher or press, the city of publication, the date of publication, and the online source, if any).

The forms of bibliographic entries vary greatly, depending on the professional background of the author, the profession’s needs and traditions, the type of publication, and the publisher. The bibliographic form that we recommend represents a standard format useful for a variety of professions and publishers.

However, we advise you to find out the specific format requirements (including bibliographic format) of the publisher or community to whom you are submitting a document.

NOTE: In the following rules, the titles of publications in bibliographic entries are italicized. Underlining replaces italics when documents are typed or when italics is not available. See UNDERLINING and ITALICS.

1. For a book, give the name of the author or authors, the date of publication, the full title, the volume number, the edition, the city of publication, the publisher, and the online format or source (if any):

Book by one author

Apter, Andrew. 2005. The Pan-African Nation: Oil and the Spectacle of Culture in Nigeria. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Kindle e-book.

Book by two authors

Gallo, George, and L. J. Lane. 2008. Paper and Paper-Making. Third Edition. Baltimore: The Freedom Press & Co. Google Book search [accessed July 31, 2009].

Book by three authors

Covey, Stephen R., Robert A. Whitman, Breck England. 2009. Predictable Results in Unpredictable Times. Salt Lake City: FranklinCovey Press. Kindle e-book.

Book by more than three authors

Nestoras, Ezequiel, et al. 2008. La Evolución del Internet. Los Angeles: The Hispanic Press.

Book by one editor

Nfusi, Claire, ed. 2008. Sourcebook of Fonts. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Book by two editors

Ibanez, Charlotte, and Fred Stein, eds. 2010. Streaming Online Media. Boston: JMap E-Publishing. E-audio book.

Two volumes by an organization

Modern Language Association of America. 2009. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, Seventh Edition.

Chapter of a book

Williams, Clive. 1979. “The Opacity of Ink.” In The Art of Printing, edited by Jason Farnsworth. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

NOTE 1: In these entries, the date directly follows the name of the author or authors. This convention complements the author/date style of citations in the text. See CITATIONS. In this style, the text of a document contains parenthetical references:

A 1981 study revealed that fleas transmit the virus (Babcock 1981). This study relied on two earlier studies (Duerdun 1976 and Abbott 1973).

or

A 1981 study revealed that fleas transmit the virus (Babcock). This study relied on two earlier studies (Duerdun 1976 and Abbott 1973).

Because the date of Babcock’s study is already in the sentence, including the date in the citation is unnecessary.

NOTE 2: Publications in the humanities usually cite the publication date following the name of the publisher:

Ke-Wen, Chung. The History of Modern China. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006.

This bibliographic form complements the footnoting pattern of citations routinely used by most scholars in the humanities. For more information on this style, see the most recent edition of The Chicago Manual of Style. See also FOOTNOTES.

NOTE 3: Bibliographic entries in the physical and biological sciences often capitalize only the first word of the title:

Ke-Wen, Chung. The history of modern china. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006.

2. For a journal or a magazine article, give the name of the author or authors, the year of publication, the full title of the article (in quotation marks), the name of the journal or magazine, the volume, the month or quarter of publication, and the pages (if available). If citing an online source, add the URL and, in brackets, the date you accessed the source:

Article by one author

Broward, Charles Evans. 1981. “Traveling the Southern California Desert.” UCLA Chronicle 15 (Spring): 45–54. http://www.uclachronicle.edu/pdfs/broward_traveling.pdf [accessed March 5, 2010].

Article by two authors

Calleston, Dwight R., and James Buchanan. 2008. “The Desert Tortoise: Its Vanishing Habitat.” The Californian 7 (April): 23–28.

For articles with multiple authors, follow the example shown of the book format that deals with two or more authors:

Article appearing in more than one issue

Mathis, Stéphanie, and Jason Okolong. 2007. “Dyslexia and Hearing.” Learning Disabilities Online Newsletter 8 (Fall) and 9 (Winter): 34–35, 28–31. http://www.ldablonline.org/article/34352822.html [accessed June 11, 2010].

Article from a popular magazine

Walt, Vivienne. 2010. “School Lunches in France: Nursery School Gourmets.” Time, February 23. http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1967060,00.html [accessed March 5, 2010].

Review of a published book

Hamash, Sorya. 2010. Review of The Coming Generational Storm by Laurence J. Kotlikoff and Scott Burns. Population Studies (July): 24–31.

See QUOTATION MARKS.

NOTE 1: As with books, these entries cite the year of publication immediately after the name of the author or authors. In publications for the humanities, the date appears (with the month) after the volume of the journal or magazine:

Stillman, Wendy. “Photographing Desert Sunsets.” Photo Chronicle 15 (Spring 2006): 4–8.

NOTE 2: Some editors, especially in the biological and physical sciences, prefer to omit the quotation marks around the title of the article and to capitalize only the first word of the title:

Stillman, Wendy. 2006. Photographing desert sunsets. Photo Chronicle 15 (Spring): 4–8.

3. For publications available only on electronic media, give the author, date, title, name of publication, URL and, in brackets, the date you accessed the site.

If the month, day, and year of distribution are available, include them. If the source is in a format other than text, provide the format, such as video file, podcast, audio recording, or electronic database. Give as much publication information as you can; because online content is transient, your goal should be to give users the best possible chance of retrieving the source.

Online article

Aziz, A., & Brooks, G. 1995. Pharmacokinetics of synthesized serotonin in fasted and non-fasted subjects. Clinical Pharmaceutics [Online serial]. synth_sero_aziz_brooks/publicfolder/ftp.clincalpharma.net. Also available http://www.clinicalpharma.org/cgi/pdf_extract/299/39299/76?ct= [accessed May 7, 2010].

Govindarajan, Vijay. “The Case for ‘Reverse Innovation’ Now.” Business Week, October 26, 2009. http://www.businessweek.com/innovate/content/oct2009/id20091026_724658.htm [accessed November 30, 2009].

Online video

Gregerson, Hal. “Innovation in the Islamic World.” INSEAD Knowledge, February 10, 2010. Windows Media Player video file. http://knowledge.insead.edu/video/index.cfm?vid=385 [accessed March 8, 2010].

The Economist. “A Brilliant Solution: Better Lighting with Quantum Dots.” Video recording. http://www.economist.com [accessed March 8, 2010].

Blog entry

Stephen R. Covey, “My New Book—How to Win, Even in Unpredictable Times.” Stephen R. Covey Community Blog, August 28, 2009. http://www.stephencovey.com/blog/?p=43 [accessed September 2, 2009].

Online database

Survey of General-Obligation Bond Ratings [Electronic database]. 2008. New York, NY: D&F Bond Clearinghouse. Available ProfNet: bndpfnt.unibas.ny Directory: /archive_bnd/2008.volume.1

Computer software

EasyChart [computer software]. 2010. Baltimore, MD: PlumStone Software.

NOTE 1: Describe the pathway to online information as precisely as possible. Indicate source or address, directory, and file or volume number if available.

NOTE 2: Do not end a pathway description with a period, which will hamper retrieval if inadvertently used. Use lowercase for pathway addresses.

4. For unpublished material, give the author or authors, the title (in quotation marks), and as much of its history as available:

Dissertation or thesis

Johnson, Dugdale. 2006. “The Habitat of the Desert Tortoise: Its Inter-Relationship with Man.” D.Sc. diss., University of Southern California.

Professional paper

Miskas, Lana, and Gullaug Nordstrand. 2009. “Applications of Quantum Dot Technology.” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Nanochemistry Society, Oslo, 24–26 May.

Personal communication

Turgott, Edward. 2005. Letter to the author, 31 May.

NOTE: The formats for other unpublished documents (television shows, radio shows, interviews, duplicated material, diaries, etc.) should supply as much bibliographic information as possible. The bibliographic form should allow readers to locate the document easily.

5. For public documents, give the country, state, county, or other government division; the full title; and complete publication information:

Ministry of Finance, Government of India. Creating an Enabling Environment for State Projects. 2008. Report to the Public-Private Partnerships Committee.

U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Ways and Means. 1945. Hearings on Import Duties on Shellfish. 79th Cong., 1st sess.

U.S. Bureau of the Census. 2004. Gross and Net Fishing Revenues, 2000. Prepared by the Commerce Division in cooperation with the Commodity Division. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office.

Boldface

Boldface type uses thicker and darker letters—for example, boldface type vs. normal type.

1. Use boldface type to emphasize key words and phrases and to complement the design and appearance of the page.

Integrate boldface into your overall design of the page or pages in your document. In particular, use boldface for the following key words and phrases:

—Titles of a book or chapter

—Headings and subheadings

—Listed items

—Steps in a procedure

—Rules or notes

—Subject lines (in letters and memos)

—Names or titles of graphics

—Titles or sections in an index

In each of these instances, the boldface type complements other emphasis techniques: placement, spacing, different type sizes, and the organization of content. See EMPHASIS and PAGE LAYOUT.

So even without boldface type, the document would already be designed to emphasize major points and key words. Boldface just makes the items even more emphatic.

2. Do not overuse boldface and do not use boldface randomly or in isolation from other emphasis techniques.

Overusing boldface destroys its value and impact. Also, several lines of boldface or even a paragraph entirely in boldface can be more difficult to read than if it were in normal type.

Random and unplanned use of boldface occurs when, for example, a writer has written a paragraph and later decides to boldface a phrase or several words in the middle of the paragraph:

not this

During our recent audit of the Production Department, we identified a major problem arising from a shortage of crucial fasteners. The vendor who supplies fasteners often takes as long as 2 days to resupply our production line. When the production line fails to project ahead, downtimes can occur, often as long as 2 days while fasteners are in transit.

The writer of the preceding paragraph should have decided what she wanted to emphasize before writing the paragraph. The following is one possible rewrite, using an initial subheading for the major ideas:

Shortage of Fasteners (2-Day Delay)

During our audit, we discovered that the vendor for certain fasteners often required 2 days to resupply our line. Such delays would occur when workers on the production line failed to project accurately when they would need more fasteners.

Or as an option, the following sentence could replace the heading in the preceding example. In this case, no boldface would be necessary, although the phrase up to 2 days might be boldfaced.

Without crucial fasteners, downtimes on the production line can last for up to 2 days.

Brackets

Brackets are a pair of marks [ ] used to set off comments, corrections, or explanatory material. Although similar to parentheses, brackets do have different uses, as the following rules indicate. See PARENTHESES.

1. Use brackets to insert comments or corrections in quoted material:

“Your quoted price [$3,750] is far more than our budget allows.”

“Our engineers surveyed the cite [site] for its suitability as a hardware assembly cite [site].”

See QUOTATIONS.

NOTE 1: In these examples, the brackets indicate that the material quoted did not have the information included within the brackets or was an error.

NOTE 2: A common use of brackets, especially in published articles, is to insert sic in brackets following an error:

“We studied the affect [sic] of the new design on production outputs.”

Sic, borrowed from Latin, means “thus” or “so.” It tells readers that the text quoted appears exactly as it did in the original, including the error. In the example above, the word preceding [sic] should have been effect.

2. Use brackets to enclose parenthetical or explanatory material that occurs within material that is already enclosed within parentheses:

We decided to reject the bid from Gulf Industries International. (Actually the bid [$58,000] was tempting because it was far below our estimate and because Gulf Industries usually does good work.)

See PARENTHESES.

NOTE: You can sometimes use dashes instead of the outer parentheses and then replace the brackets with parentheses:

this

The Board of Directors—or more accurately, a committee of the actual owners (Hyatt, Burke, and Drake)—are answerable to no one but themselves.

not this

The Board of Directors (or more accurately, a committee of the actual owners [Hyatt, Burke, and Drake]) are answerable to no one but themselves.

Some writers and editors consider the version without brackets preferable because having both parentheses and brackets in the same sentence can look clumsy and can be confusing. See DASHES.

3. For mathematical expressions, place parentheses inside brackets inside braces inside parentheses:

( { [ ( ) ] } )

See MATHEMATICAL NOTATION.

4. No other marks of punctuation need to come before or after brackets unless the bracketed material has its own mark of punctuation or the overall sentence needs punctuation:

this

The procedure was likely to be costly. (Actually, the cost [$38 per unit] included some of the research and development expenses.)

not this

The procedure was likely to be costly. (Actually, the cost, [$38 per unit], included some of the research and development expenses.)

British English

British English is standard throughout the British Commonwealth of Nations (for example, Canada, Australia, Singapore) and among most English-speaking Africans, Asians, and Europeans. In former British colonies such as India, Pakistan, and Nigeria, British English is a common standard where many languages are spoken. American English is standard in the United States and among most English-speaking Pacific Rim Asians.

Business English does not vary greatly from one country to another. However, American and British writing styles differ somewhat because of 400 years of geographical and cultural separation. Because American and British English are the main forms of English, this discussion focuses on the differences between them.

Writers addressing both cultures should avoid terms specific to each. For example, baseball terminology means little to British readers just as the language of cricket baffles Americans.

For complete guidance on British and American usage, see the most recent versions of Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, (Oxford: Oxford University Press), and The Economist Style Guide (London: The Economist Books Ltd.). For a glossary of words that differ in British and American usage, see American English/English American, (London: Abson Books).

Choose between British or American usage depending on the needs and culture of the audience you are addressing. Be consistent about your choice. The following rules present the main traits of British English.

1. Eliminate periods in and after most abbreviations.

The trend to eliminate periods in abbreviations is even more marked in British than in American usage.

See ABBREVIATIONS.

2. Take care to make subjects agree with verbs.

Some nouns that are singular in American English are often treated as either plurals or singulars in Britain:

American

the government denies the rumor
the department is changing the policy

British

the government denies/deny the rumour
the department is/are changing the policy

See AGREEMENT.

3. Do not generally use commas before and:

Please revise the deadlines, budgets and specifications of the project.

Profits exceeded expectations and employment figures are up for the first quarter.

As in American usage, commas in British English are sometimes used to separate long, complete thoughts linked by a conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, so, yet):

We had anticipated finishing product trials this month, but several important quality issues arose early and had to be dealt with.

See COMMAS.

4. Use a hyphen to separate a prefix ending with a vowel from a word beginning with the same vowel:

re-educate, pre-eminent, co-ordinate

This practice is now becoming less prevalent, but many Britons still hold to it.

See HYPHENS.

5. Use single quotation marks to mark off short quotations or sayings:

‘We can deliver,’ he said.

Double quotation marks are used to enclose quotations within quotations:

‘It was Shakespeare who said, “To thine own self be true”’.

Only the British observe this rule; in the U.S.A. and the Commonwealth, double quotation marks enclose quotations, while single quotation marks enclose quotations within quotations.

Although enclosed by quotation marks in American English, commas and periods (full stops) usually appear outside the quotation marks in British English:

‘We can deliver’, he said.

Long quotations in British usage are usually indented as a block. See QUOTATIONS and QUOTATION MARKS.

6. Take particular care to avoid gobbledygook in a British context.

The British tend to be more economical and concise in their language than Americans are. Americans who are given to gobbledygook should take a lesson in British restraint.

American

This problem is an ongoing situation.

British

The problem continues.

American

The project team is violating accepted norms.

British

The project team is breaking the rules.

Sometimes Americans lengthen words, creating a pretentious effect to a British ear: oblige becomes obligate; orient becomes orientate; need becomes necessitate. See GOBBLEDYGOOK.

7. Be aware of differences between British and American word choice, numbers, and spelling.

The British and American vocabularies differ slightly. Some examples:

Most technical terms are identical in British and American English.

Some words have different meanings: homely means “simple” or “comfortable” in British English, but “unattractive” in American English.

Some verb forms differ. Here are the main British forms for some common irregular verbs:

get, got, got (instead of gotten)

prove, proved, proved (instead of proven)

dive, dived (instead of dove), dived

British English uses –t instead of –ed with some verbs:

burn, burnt, burnt

leap, leapt, leapt

learn, learnt, learnt

spell, spelt, spelt

See VERBS.

Style

British writing and speaking style differs from American in terms of tone and pacing. Although generalizations are risky, usage experts generally agree that British style tends to be more impersonal and restrained, particularly in word choice. The American tendency to use hyperbolic language (fantastic, excellent, terrific) discomfits the British, as well as most Europeans.

Numbers

The terms for very large numbers differ in British and American usage:

Spelling

For historical reasons, many British and American spellings differ. In the early 1800s the American lexicographer Noah Webster campaigned to simplify English spelling, and his influential dictionary led to American spelling patterns:

Note that some words ending in –ise are the same for both British and Americans, for example:

advertise

compromise

exercise

premise

televise

Capitals

Capitalization follows two basic rules—the first two rules cited below. Unfortunately, these two rules cannot begin to account for the number of exceptions and options facing writers who have to decide whether a word should be capitalized.

Because of the number of exceptions and options, this section includes many minor rules that supplement the two basic rules. Together, the basic and supplementary rules provide guidance, but you should also check an up-to-date dictionary for additional guidance if the proper choice is still not clear. See REFERENCES.

Once you have decided whether to capitalize a word, record your decision in a list of editing reminders. Such a list will help you maintain consistent capitalization, especially if your document is long and complex. See EDITING AND PROOFREADING.

1. Capitalize the first letter of proper names—that is, those specific, one-of-a-kind names for a person, place, university or school, organization, religion, race, month or holiday, historic event, trade name, or titles of a person or of a document:

John F. Kennedy

Angela Merkel

Bill Gates

Michaëlle Jean

Henry Ford

Cynthia Carroll

Sally

the Far East

China

the Eastern Shore (Maryland)

Massachusetts

Grove County

Baltimore City (or Baltimore)

United States of America

Lake Baikal

the Rhine River

the University of Glasgow

Western High School

the Golden Daycare Center

Shell Oil Company

the Prudential Life Insurance Co.

the Legion of Honour

the Elks

the United Mine Workers

the Conservative Party

Baptists

Judaism

Japanese

Hindus

May

September

Fourth of July

New Year’s Day

the Reformation

World War I

Battle of Waterloo

the Crucifixion

Cyclone^® (fence)

Xerox^® copier

Band-Aid bandage^®

Kodak^®

Coca-Cola^®

Mrs. Louise Lopez

Mr. Wing Phillips

Dr. Georgia Burke

Professor Robert Borson

Lieutenant Jeb Stuart

Handbook of Chemical Terms

The New York Times

The American Heritage Dictionary

“Time-Sharing” in McLean’s magazine

See TITLES.

NOTE 1: In everyday English usage, the terms capitalization and to capitalize mean that only the initial letter of a word appears with a capital letter. So rule 1 above would usually be clear to English speakers if written as follows: “Capitalize proper names . . . .” The expanded versions of rule 1 and the other rules in this discussion of capitals are intended to remove any ambiguities as to which letters in a word should be capitalized.

NOTE 2: As the many instances of lowercase the above indicate, the is usually not capitalized unless it has become part of the full official name:

The Hague

The Johns Hopkins University

NOTE 3: In lengthy proper names, conjunctions, short prepositions, and articles (a, an, and the) are not capitalized:

the Federal Republic of Germany

Johnson and Sons, Inc.

“Recovery of Oil in Plugged and Abandoned Wells”

See rule 6 in the following discussion.

NOTE 4: Capitalize the first letter of an individual’s title only when it precedes the individual’s proper name:

Professor George Stevens (but George Stevens, who is a professor . . . )

Captain Ellen Dobbs (but Ellen Dobbs, who is the captain of our company . . . )

President Henry Johnson (but Henry Johnson, president of Johnson Motors . . . )

See TITLES.

NOTE 5: Adjectives derived from proper names are capitalized only when the original sense is maintained:

a French word (but french fries)
Venetian art (but venetian blinds)

Even in these cases, dictionaries often differ; for instance, the current American Heritage Dictionary recommends French fries rather than the form preferred above. So you often have to use your judgment. However, be consistent throughout a document.

2. Do not capitalize the first letter of common nouns—that is, those nouns that are general or generic:

a geologist

my accountant

the engineers

your secretary

a country

a planet

a river

north

the city

a trade school

college

high school

a holiday

the swing shift

a copier

the facial tissue

a foreman

my supervisor

the doctor

spring

fall

twentieth century

the thirties (however, the Gay Nineties)

See ARTICLES.

NOTE 1: One useful test to determine whether a noun is common is to ask if a or an does or can precede the noun in your context. If a or an makes sense before the noun, then the noun is common:

a pope (but the Pope)

an attorney

a U.S. senator

but

a President (referring to any President of the United States)

Because of special deference, the word President is always capitalized when it refers to any or all of the Presidents of the United States. This supersedes rule 2 above.

NOTE 2: Titles that follow a noun rather than precede it are not capitalized:

Theo Jones, who is our comptroller . . .

Betty Stevens, my assistant . . .

Rene Leon, who is a staff geophysicist . . .

NOTE 3: Common nouns separated from their proper nouns (or names) can occasionally be capitalized:

—Titles of high company officials, when the titles take the place of the officials’ names:

We spoke to the President about the new labor policy.

The State Director has to sign before the plan goes into effect.

—Names of departments when they replace the whole name of the department:

We sent the letter to Accounting.

According to Maintenance, the pump had been replaced just last month.

—Names of countries, national divisions, governmental groups when the common noun replaces the full name (often in internal government correspondence):

From the beginning of the Republic, a balance of powers was necessary.

The State submitted a brief as a friend of the court.

The Department has a policy against overtime for employees at professional levels.

The House sent a bill to the Conference Committee.

—Names of close family members used in place of their proper names, especially in direct address:

Please understand, Mother, that I intend to pay my fair share.

Before leaving I spoke to Mother, Father, and Uncle George.

NOTE 4: Capitalize plural common nouns following two or more proper nouns unless the common nouns represent topographical features (such as lakes, rivers, mountains, oceans, and so on):

West and South High Schools

the Korean and Vietnam Wars

the State and Defense Departments

but

the Fraser and Moose rivers

the Wasatch and Uinta mountains

the Pacific and Indian oceans

3. Capitalize the first letter of the first word of sentences, quotations, and listed items (either phrases or sentences):

Researchers propose to complete eight projects this year.

The technical specifications stated: “All wing strut pins should have a 150 percent load factor.”

The accountant discussed the following issues:

—Budget design

—Cost overruns

—Entry postings

NOTE: The first letter of a word following a colon or a dash within a sentence is often capitalized, although some editors prefer not to. A good rule of thumb is that full sentences and long quotations (usually sentences) begin with a capital letter after a colon or dash:

The Bible states: “The race is not to the swift.”

We followed one principle: Short-term investments must be consistent with long-term goals.

or

We followed one principle—Short-term investments must be consistent with long-term goals.

4. Capitalize the first letter of the names of directions when they indicate specific geographical areas. Do not capitalize the first letter of the names when they merely indicate a direction or a general or unspecified portion of a larger geographical area:

the Deep South

the Midwest

the Near East

the North

the Northwest

blowing from the southeast

eastern Romania

southern Italy

the northern Midwest

toward the south

traveling north

5. Capitalize the first letter of names for the Deity, names for the Bible and other sacred writings, names of religious bodies and their adherents, and names denoting the Devil:

Christ

God

He, Him

Messiah

Son of Man

the Almighty

Thee

Allah

Zeus

God’s Word

the Good Book

the Old Testament

the Word

the Koran

Baha’is

a Lutheran

an Episcopalian

Episcopal Church

Lutheran Church

a Muslim

Buddhists

Flying Spaghetti Monster

His Satanic Majesty

Satan

the Great Malevolence

Loki

Pluto

6. Capitalize the first letter of the first word and all main words of headings and subheadings and of titles of books, articles, and other documents. Do not capitalize the first letter of the articles (a, an, and the), the coordinate conjunctions (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet), or the short prepositions (to, of, etc.) unless they appear as the first word:

“An Examination of Church-State Relations”

Declaration of Independence

MacUser

The Geology of East Texas

“The Greening of Panama” in Scientific American

See HEADINGS.

7. Capitalize in titles and headings the first letters of the initial word and of all later words in a hyphenated compound except for articles, short prepositions, and short conjunctions.

See rule 6 above.

A Report on Tin-Lined Acid Converters

Up-to-Date Power-Driven Extraction Methodologies

State-of-the-Art Technology

Seventy-Five World Leaders as Voting Representatives

8. Capitalize the first letter of the geological names of eras, periods, systems, series, epochs, and ages:

Jurassic Period

Late Cretaceous

Little Willow

Paleozoic Era

Upper Triassic

NOTE 1: Unless they are part of a proper name, do not capitalize structural terms such as arch, basin, formation, zone, field, pay, pool, dome, uplift, anticline, reservoir, or trend when they combine with geological names:

Cincinnati arch

Delaware basin

East Texas field

Ozark uplift

NOTE 2: Experts disagree about the capitalization of upper, middle, lower and late, middle, early. The following list from the United States Government Printing Office Style Manual (1984) provides the best summary of the difficult capitalization conventions in this technical area. Note that both upper Oligocene and Upper Devonian are correct, although the capitalization of upper is inconsistent:

Alexandrian

Animikie

Atoka

Cambrian:

Upper, Late

Middle, Middle

Lower, Early

Carboniferous Systems

Cayuga

Cenozoic

Cincinnatian

Chester

Coahuila

Comanche

Cretaceous:

Upper, Late

Lower, Early

Des Moines

Devonian:

Upper, Late

Middle, Middle

Lower, Early

Eocene:

upper, late

middle, middle

lower, early

glacial:

interglacial

postglacial

preglacial

Glenarm

Grand Canyon

Grenville

Guadalupe

Gulf

Gunnison River

Holocene

Jurassic:

Upper, Late

Middle, Middle

Lower, Early

Keweenawan

Kinderhook

Leonard

Little Willow

Llano

Meramec

Mesozoic:

pre-Mesozoic

post-Mesozoic

Miocene:

upper, late

middle, middle

lower, early

Mississippian:

Upper, Late

Lower, Early

Missouri

Mohawkian

Morrow

Niagara

Ochoa

Ocoee

Oligocene:

upper, late

middle, middle

lower, early

Osage

Ordovician:

Upper, Late

Middle, Middle

Lower, Early

Pahrump

Paleocene:

upper, late

middle, middle

lower, early

Paleozoic

Pennsylvanian:

Upper, Late

Middle, Middle

Lower, Early

Permian:

Upper, Late

Lower, Early

Pleistocene

Pliocene:

upper, late

middle, middle

lower, early

Precambrian:

upper

middle

lower

Quaternary

red beds

Shasta

Silurian:

Upper, Late

Middle, Middle

Lower, Early

St. Croixan

Tertiary

Triassic:

Upper, Late

Middle, Middle

Lower, Early

Virgil

Wolfcamp

Yavapai

NOTE 3: Topographical terms are usually capitalized, but the general terms province and section are not:

Hudson Valley

Interior Highlands

Middle Rocky Mountains

Ozark Plateaus

Uinta Basin

but

Navajo section

Pacific Border province

9. In text, do not capitalize the first letter of a common noun used with a date, number, or letter merely to denote time or sequence:

appendix A

collection 3

drawing 8

figure 5

page 45

paragraph 2

plate VI

section c

volume III

NOTE 1: The first letter of these common nouns should be capitalized if they appear in headings, titles, or captions: Appendix A or Figure 5.

NOTE 2: In these cases, no., #, or No. (for Number) is unnecessary:

Appendix A (not Appendix No. A)

page 45 (not page no. 45)

site 5 (not site #5)

NOTE 3: Some technical and scientific fields do capitalize a common noun used with a date, number, or letter. For example, The Society of Petroleum Engineers recommends in its Style Guide that writers observe the following style or capitalization in text:

Method 3

Sample 2

Table 4

Wells A22 and B7

10. Capitalize the first letter of proper nouns combined with common nouns, as in the names of plants, animals, diseases, and scientific laws or principles:

Boyle’s law

Brittany spaniel

Cooper’s hawk

Down’s syndrome

Fremont silktassel

Gunn effect

Hodgkin’s disease

Virginia clematis

Captions

Captions for graphics include the title and any explanatory material immediately under (or sometimes over) a graphic. Readers initially identify graphics using conventional references: Figure 14, Map 3, Chart 16, etc. However, readers’ eyes need to be guided beyond mere identification.

Good captions are what guide readers not only to see but also to understand. Good captions both label graphics with titles and explain to readers what they are seeing and how to interpret the information captured in the graphic.

See GRAPHICS FOR DOCUMENTS and GRAPHICS FOR PRESENTATIONS. See also CHARTS, GRAPHS, ILLUSTRATIONS, MAPS, PHOTOGRAPHS, and TABLES.

Good captions are interpretive and informative. In some types of writing, such captions are even called “action captions” because they urge readers to make a decision or take an action.

A graphic and its caption should be clear and understandable without requiring readers to search for clarifying information in the text.

As an example, for some years now, Scientific American has used “stand alone” captions for their graphics. Scientific American has also discontinued even referencing graphics by title and number in their text. So a graphic in Scientific American does not have a label and title such as Figure 4—A Peruvian Burial Site. Instead, the caption begins by explaining and interpreting: In a typical Peruvian burial site, the funereal jewelry signified . . . .

1. Use interpretive captions whenever possible.

Interpretive captions provide both a title and explanatory information (usually expressed in a complete sentence) to help readers understand the central point(s) that you want the graphic to convey:

Figure 4. Cabin-Temperature Control System. Constant cabin-temperature control is maintained by the system’s modulated cabin sensor.

Figure 23. Check Valve. The risk of bad air entering the chamber is near zero because the check valve permits air flow in one direction only.

Table 17. Air Intersect Data. Only stations 23 and 45 experienced significant increases in CO levels during the study period.

The figure 4 interpretive caption gives the title of the figure and then emphasizes that the cabin has a constant temperature—a benefit provided by the feature (modulated cabin sensor) described in the figure. The caption states clearly what the writer wants the reader to learn from the graphic.

The figure 23 interpretive caption gives the title and then tells the reader the principal message—that the check valve provides near-zero risk. Further, it states how the check valve provides near-zero risk.

The table 17 interpretive caption names the data in the table and then highlights significant data. By pointing out what is most important in the table, the caption helps the reader interpret the table, which might be very complex, and reinforces the major points that the writer will make in the text.

The following are additional examples of interpretive captions for figures and tables:

Figure 1. Axial-Flow Design. The axial-flow design has the greatest performance potential.

Figure 2. Life-Cycle Cost Projections. General Framitz’s design-to-cost strategy will guarantee low life-cycle costs.

Figure 3. Project Management System. Our project management software ensures maximum responsiveness to user requirements at all levels.

Table 1. Population Impacts. If population redistribution trends continue, the Southwest will exceed baseline figures by 2015.

Table 2. Cost of Mitigation Measures. The socioeconomic mitigation measures proposed are effective but very costly.

Figure 4. Seasonal Streamflow Patterns. Keta River and White Creek peak in mid-October during Snow Geese migration and provide the only suitable feeding and resting habitat within a radius of 150 miles.

Table 3. Projections of New Jobs During the Next 10 Years. Contrary to media opinion, the Thunder Basin Project will create—not destroy—jobs in the Sequaw Valley: at least 500 within the next 10 years.

Figure 5. Test Results of Thermal Model 2. Flame-envelope thermal Model 2 results in lower ambient temperatures but produces diffuse radiation.

Figure 6. Limits of Multiplexer Design. The analog input multiplexer design limits components that are not included in self-testing to a few passive components.

NOTE: You can create interpretive captions without using complete sentences or a separate title—if the captions tell readers how to read and interpret the graphic:

Figure 14. Declining Production Through the 1980s

or

Figure 14. Declining production through the 1980s

In these examples (both acceptable versions of a caption), the title for the figure is combined with a phrase telling readers about the production trend during the 1980s. As the two examples illustrate, you can use either boldface type or italics to highlight the caption.

A longer version of the figure 14 caption would include a separate title and then add a complete sentence interpreting the figure:

Figure 14. Production (1980–1989). Production declined steadily through the 1980s.

Whether or not an interpretive caption is a complete sentence, it should provide a point of view on the graphic. It tells readers not only what the graphic is about but also what the graphic means.

2. Avoid using short, often ambiguous, titles to replace interpretive captions.

In the past, many technical and scientific documents used only short, simple titles (captions) for graphics.

Figure 3. A Horse

Figure 4. Schematic 23–A

In figure 3, surely a reader could see that the image was of a horse, so this title is worthless. The title should give some interpretive information: Figure 3. A typical Arabian stallion in full gallop.

Similarly, the title for figure 4 may be somewhat useful, especially if the figures include a number of different schematics. However, the writer probably should include information about how schematic 23–A relates to 23–B or how 23–A is different from 22.

Titles that provide minimum information are often so short and cryptic that they sound telegraphic:

Table 2. Problem Options

Table 14. Water and Soil Impacts

Telegraphic captions are only appropriate when the graphics are self-explanatory, thus requiring no interpretation. But even then, the telegraphic style can be confusing. In the above examples, for instance, are the table 2 options really problems, or are the options solutions to a single problem? Similarly, does table 14 include water impacts as well as soil impacts, or is the subject some sort of data about water and a separate presentation about impacts on soil types? As these examples illustrate, avoid telegraphic captions.

3. Number figures and tables sequentially throughout the document, and place the number before the caption.

Figures and tables should be numbered sequentially as they appear in the document. If you present an important figure or table twice, treat it as two separate visuals and number each according to its position in the sequence. See GRAPHICS FOR DOCUMENTS.

Figure and table numbers should be whole numbers: Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3, etc. If you are numbering graphics by chapter, then use an en dash to separate chapter number from graphics number: Figure 14–2 (chapter 14, figure 2), Table 2–8 (chapter 2, table 8). You can also use the decimal numbering system with an en dash to designate graphics numbers within a section of a report if the report’s sections have been numbered decimally: Figure 23.2–1 (section 23.2, figure 1), Table 7.4–13 (section 7.4, table 13). If the graphic has several parts and you need to identify all parts, use parentheses and lowercase alphabetical characters to designate subparts: Figure 34(a), Figure 34(b), Figure 34(c). See DASHES.

NOTE 1: The style of punctuation for captions varies. Some editors prefer a colon or a period and a dash following the number. Some editors prefer no punctuation and leave three or four spaces between the number and the caption. Each version is acceptable.

Figure 14–2: Federal Shipbuilding and Repair Budget

Figure 14–2.—Federal Shipbuilding and Repair Budget

Figure 14–2 Federal Shipbuilding and Repair Budget

NOTE 2: In captions, the words figure and table should be capitalized. However, when you are referring to graphics in the text, even if you refer to a specific graphic, do not capitalize figure or table unless it begins a sentence:

As shown in figure 33, . . .

According to table 14.2–4, . . .

however

Figure 33 shows . . .

Table 14.2–4 presents . . .

See CAPITALS.

4. Use periods following interpretive captions, but no punctuation following short captions that are not sentences.

Interpretive captions are usually complete sentences and should therefore end with a period. Short captions, on the other hand, are like titles or headings and are normally not complete sentences, so they require no punctuation.

If you mix interpretive and telegraphic captions, end all of them with periods. See LISTS and PERIODS.

5. Captions may appear below or above the visual, but be consistent throughout a document.

Some graphics specialists argue that captions should always appear above graphics because a caption (which comes from the word head) is like a title. Others argue that captions should always appear below graphics because the graphics are more important than the captions, and placing captions below their graphics is more aesthetic. Still others argue that captions for tables should appear above tables, but captions for figures should appear below figures.

When captions are used with slides and other projected visual aids, put the caption above the visual for better visibility. Captions placed at the bottom may be blocked by the heads of those seated in front. See GRAPHICS FOR PRESENTATIONS.

Be consistent. Treat tables no differently from figures. If you’re going to place captions above or below graphics, then do so throughout your document.

Charts

Charts are some of the most valuable and frequently used types of graphics. Unfortunately, the term chart has different meanings for different people.

Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary defines chart as a map, table, graph, or diagram. That definition is why people are confused over the names of different types of graphics. Originally, chart meant a document, although most charts were maps. When maps were combined with tabular data (e.g., the mileage charts on modern road maps), chart came to mean a table or matrix display.

In this Style Guide, charts are graphics that do not rely on numerical interpretations. These include organizational charts, flow charts, and schedule charts.

In contrast to charts, graphs are graphics that do rely on numerical interpretations, especially showing how one variable (such as time) relates to another variable (e.g., production or dollars). The graphics discussed in the GRAPHS entry include line (or coordinate) graphs, bar graphs, and circle (pie) graphs. In everyday language, however, bar graphs and pie graphs are often called bar charts and pie charts. Graphics software usually includes all of these graphics in a “charts” menu.

Don’t let confusion between the terms chart and graph bother you. The best graphics are those that rapidly and effectively communicate their central ideas, regardless of what they are called. See GRAPHS, GRAPHICS FOR DOCUMENTS, and GRAPHICS FOR PRESENTATIONS.

1. Use an organizational chart, a flow chart, or a schedule chart to help readers visualize easily the major points in a document.

These charts should not be mere decoration. If they capture for readers the major points or themes in a document, they will serve their intended purpose.

Remember that a chart is only as good as the story it tells. Charts should communicate quickly and simply. They should be integrated with the text and should convey information more forcefully or dramatically than is possible in text.

In many documents, using one of these three charts will allow you to replace unnecessary text. A flow chart, for example, can help readers visualize the steps in a manufacturing process or in a political negotiation. A chart can replace text or provide a visual road map that can help readers with dense and complicated text. A chart also helps readers recall or review what the document said.

Let your purpose, readers, medium, data, and ideas dictate the form of chart (or other graphics) that would be most effective.

2. Orient horizontally all letters, numbers, words, and phrases in headings, legends, and labels.

All of the letters, numbers, and words on a chart should be readable from one reading perspective. Readers should not have to rotate the page to read different parts of a chart.

See the figures later in this discussion for examples of how to present letters, numbers, and words.

3. Number each chart sequentially, provide a title, and then add an informative caption to identify the purpose of the chart.

Charts and all other graphics are sequentially numbered and labeled as figures, so the numbering would be Figure 1, Figure 2, etc. Or, if the document has chapters, Figure 1–1, Figure 1–2, Figure 1–3, where the first number is the chapter number.

Figure 1. Engineering Department Organization. Besides those who report directly to her (shown in the boxes connected with solid lines), the Vice President oversees the Division Liaison office (shown in the boxes connected with dashed lines) to ensure that all lobbying in Washington, D.C., complies with Federal Acquisition Regulations.

Figure 2. Ore Processing. The quality and quantity of the ore is checked at three decision points, indicated by blue diamonds and Y (yes) and N (no) labels. Customers can opt to receive raw (semifinished) ore directly without additional refining or extra packaging.

Following Figure and the number comes the title of the chart:

Figure 3–1. Organizational Structure of the Finance Department

Then, provide an informative or interpretive caption to help readers understand the message of the chart:

Figure 3–1. Organizational Structure of the Finance Department. Following the 2010 reorganization, all accounting personnel report to a single assistant departmental manager.

See CAPTIONS.

4. Place footnotes and source information below charts.

Footnotes typically explain or clarify the information appearing in the entire chart or in one small part of it. Often footnotes tell what the data apply to, where they came from, or how accurate they are:

¹ All project times are rounded up to full days.

² For the two regional offices only; the head office uses a different support organization.

³ According to the Food and Agricultural Organization. The solid lines reflect the current policy for who reports to whom. The dotted lines reflect the earlier lines of authority, which still are important even though outdated.

The footnotes for each chart are numbered independently from footnotes in the text and from footnotes in other graphics. Begin with footnote 1 and proceed sequentially for that single graphic; for the next graphic, start the numbering again. Within the body of the chart, use superscripted footnote numbers. Place the footnote explanations (in numerical order) immediately below the chart and flush with the left margin. Repeat the superscripted footnote number and then provide the appropriate explanation, followed by a period.

If the chart covers more than one page, place the appropriate footnotes with each page. If both a caption and footnote appear below a chart, place the footnotes below the caption.

If footnote numbers would be confusing in the body of the chart, use letters (a, b, c, d, etc.), asterisks (*, **, ***), or other symbols.

Source information may appear in footnotes if the referenced source provides only the data indicated by the footnote and not the data for the rest of the chart:

⁴ From The Wall Street Journal, May 14, 2010.

⁵ Source: International Union of Geological Sciences.

Source information may also appear within parentheses in the caption (regardless of where the caption appears) or within brackets under the caption if the caption appears ahead of the chart:

Figure 1. U.S. Aerospace Mergers and Acquisitions, 1960–2010 (U.S. Department of Commerce)

Figure 1. U.S. Aerospace Mergers and Acquisitions, 1960–2010

[U.S. Department of Commerce]

See CITATIONS, FOOTNOTES, and INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY.

Organizational Charts

Organizational charts depict the structure of an organization. These charts typically show the divisions and subdivisions of the organization; the hierarchy and relationship of the groups to one another; lines of control (responsibility and authority); and lines of communication and coordination. Organizational charts help readers visualize the structure of an organization and the relationships within it. Figure 1 is an example of an organizational chart showing how an engineering department is organized.

Software templates make it easy to create organizational charts (often called “hierarchy charts”). Make sure the template you use serves your purpose and aligns with these guidelines.

5. Use squares or rectangles to indicate divisions and subdivisions within the organization.

Indicate divisions, subdivisions, groups, project teams, functional areas, etc., by enclosing the name of the organizational unit within a square or rectangle. Optionally, the squares can also contain the names of people filling the positions, but such a person-by-person chart for large organizations can be too long and complex, and it is quickly out of date because of transfers and reassignments.

You might distinguish between higher and lower units by changing the size of the rectangle or by changing its border (from boldface or thick lines representing upper-level units to thinner, normal lines representing lower-level units). In figure 1, for example, the box around the V.P. rectangle is a heavier ruled line.

6. Structure an organizational chart from the top down.

This rule reflects the way we read and our perception and understanding of typical organizational structure.

Readers of English read from left to right and from top to bottom. Therefore, an organizational chart should be structured from left to right and top to bottom. The left-to-right progression might be useful in depicting a flat organizational structure. However, the top-to-bottom progression is typical, simply because most organizations are based on a hierarchy.

In this case, you should display the structure of the organization in descending order of authority—with the highest authority or level at the top of the chart and the lowest authorities or levels at the bottom of the chart. This structure reflects the metaphor of top-down management and thus reinforces the readers’ expectations about organizational structure.

If the organization you are describing does not operate on a top-down basis, be inventive and create an organizational display that does reflect the organization’s operational style and structure. To depict an organizational structure based on teams, you might want to use a radial chart with lines showing how these teams interact (see rule 7).

7. Use solid lines between boxes to indicate direct relationships and dotted or dashed lines to indicate indirect relationships.

Solid lines usually show direct lines of control. Dashed or dotted lines usually indicate lines of communication or coordination. Keep this in mind when using templates.

In figure 1, the dashed lines through the rectangles along the right side of the chart indicate that the Vice President for Engineering coordinates with the Division Liaison office and has lines of communication and coordination down through the Division Liaison organization, but the Vice President’s direct authority extends only through Systems Engineering, Product Engineering, and Electronics.

Flow Charts

Flow charts depict a process and are often known as process charts. They show readers the parts of a process and how those parts are related. Processes include manufacturing processes (as shown in figure 2) or procedures (as in figure 3), decision-making processes, audit processes (with checks and balances), biological or physical processes (as shown in figure 4), or any other process that moves from a start to a finish.

Figure 3. Packaging Options for Ore. Customers can choose four packaging options. Raw (semifinished) ore is shipped in bulk by railway cars. Refined ore (in varying sizes) is shipped in three ways: (1) in sealed plastic bags, (2) in cardboard boxes, and (3) in wooden crates.

Figure 4. Potential Effects of a Timber Harvest on Deer Populations. The most positive scenario (dark blue boxes) would increase the deer population. The other two scenarios (light blue boxes) would each decrease the deer population. Further analysis in the text would lead to a resolution between opposing scenarios. Note that the numbers on the boxes are for reference only, not to reflect the sequence of causes and effects.

Again, software templates make it easy to create flow charts that serve many purposes. For example, there are different templates for continuous, parallel, or staggered processes, among others. Make sure the template you use serves your purpose and aligns with these guidelines.

8. Choose a standard system of symbols to indicate the types of activities and the control or transfer points.

Squares and rectangles typically indicate activities or steps in the process. In figure 2, for instance, the upper left rectangle represents “ore crushing,” the first activity in ore processing. The arrow linking this rectangle to the rectangle directly to the right indicates that, after being crushed, the ore undergoes a chemical bath.

The arrows indicate the sequence of activities in the w and show a chronological (and sometimes cause-and-effect) relationship between linked activities or control points.

Circles typically indicate control or transfer points. Control points indicate where the activities are monitored, started, stopped, or in some other way controlled. Transfer points indicate where the sequence of activity leaves one flow chart and continues on to another. In figure 2, the two right-most circles indicate that the ore has been processed and is ready for packaging. To continue following the process, the reader must go to the packaging flow chart, which is shown in figure 3.

The “pack” circles in figure 2 represent all of figure 3. Consequently, figure 2 is the more general flow chart. If “ore crushing” involved a series of steps, the writer could have turned the “ore crushing” symbol in figure 2 into a circle and then constructed another subordinate.

Note that by putting all of the packaging activities into one subordinate flow chart, the writer has avoided significant repetition in figure 2.

Diamonds typically represent decision points. Often, as in figures 2 and 3, decisions are represented by simple yes/no questions. Normally, three lines link diamonds to other symbols: one incoming line indicating what precedes the decision, one outgoing line indicating “yes,” and the other outgoing line indicating “no.”

The flow chart in figure 4 differs from figures 2 and 3. In figure 4, the boxes represent a conceptual sequence of possible effects, originating with the initial cause (the harvesting of a stand of Douglas-fir timber). Flow charts can be used to depict any cause-and-effect sequence. For instance, a flow chart might present the sequence of events if a government decided to subsidize automobiles with engines that did not use gasoline. Effects would flow through consumers to manufacturers, with possible feedback loops to government.

Other symbol systems for flow charts are possible, particularly in software development and other specialized fields, such as architecture and electrical engineering. These symbols often have very specific meanings and have become conventional in particular scientific and technical applications. If you need to create flow charts for these specialized areas, consult appropriate trade publications and websites.

9. Place the starting activity in the upper left corner of the chart and proceed to the right and down. Place the ending activity in the lower right corner of the chart.

Readers will expect the flow chart to begin in the upper left corner. Don’t disappoint them. If possible, try to end the flow chart in the lower right corner.

10. Break large or complicated flow charts into smaller, simpler flow charts.

Flow charts that become too large or too complicated are unreadable as well as intimidating. Provide users with only as much of the process as is relevant to them. To avoid repetition and to keep flow charts from becoming too long, break them into general (overview) charts and subordinate (component) charts.

After breaking up a flow chart, you must also decide just which parts of it to use in your document. Do your readers need the subordinate charts to understand your information, or would the overall chart be sufficiently detailed?

In many instances, you can retain the overall chart in your document while putting the subordinate charts in an appendix or attachment.

See APPENDICES.

11. Use arrows to show the sequence or direction of flow within flow charts.

Flow charts with activities or control points linked only by lines are often confusing. Place an arrowhead on the end of the line to indicate the sequence or direction of flow (see figures 2 and 3). Most flowchart templates use arrows for this purpose.

Arrows are sometimes unnecessary. Notice in figure 4 that arrows are unnecessary because the flow is obviously from left to right; in addition, each square is numbered for easy reference and discussion.

Schedule Charts

Schedule charts are horizontal charts used to schedule tasks, projects, and programs.

Schedule charts are also called time charts or timelines. Other terms are also possible, as in various scheduling software programs. For example, critical-path schedules are merely schedule charts that show whether items are concurrent or sequential.

Schedule charts help readers visualize a sequence of activity occurring over time. They help readers see how sequential and concurrent activities relate to one another in time and how activities depend on one another for completion on schedule.

The horizontal (x) axis in schedule charts is always time, in decades, years, quarters, months, weeks, days, or hours. To make schedule charts easier to read, use vertical dotted or dashed lines to mark major time periods (see figures 5 and 6).

Project management software programs typically contain templates for schedule charts. If such a program isn’t available, you can create a schedule chart using a template for a bar chart. Make sure the template you use follows these guidelines.

12. List activities in chronological order beginning at the top of the page and moving down.

Schedule charts require strict chronology. Do not violate the readers’ expectation that the events listed from top to bottom along the vertical (y) axis will appear in chronological order.

13. Clearly label or identify the bars.

Always identify what each bar represents, either with a bar label along the left margin or with an explanation block (as in figure 5). Traditionally, the bar labels appear on the left side of the chart.

Figure 5. AAW2 Production Schedule. To shorten production time, we have scheduled each phase (shaded orange) to begin before the prior phase is finished. These savings in time are possible because of our self-funded R&D work with the AAW2 program.

Figure 6. Schedule of Recombinant Tests and Documentation. As the bars with the diamonds indicate, planning and documentation efforts are concurrent with the lab work (pentagons) and tests (triangles). As this schedule suggests, documentation should never be left until all the research work is finished.

14. If appropriate, indicate milestones on the chart.

Milestones may be indicated with small circles, dots, or triangles. If you have reporting, control, or performance deadlines that constitute milestones for tracking and monitoring progress, then indicate them on the chart.

15. Use bar colors to identify groups of related activities. If you do so, explain in the legend or caption what the colors represent.

Bar colors (see the discussion of bar graphs in GRAPHS) can be used to indicate similar or identical activities that occur at different times. In figure 5, for instance, all airframe-production activities are shown with orange bars, while engine-production activities are in grey. This way readers can see how related activities fit within the whole sequence.

Using colors as in figure 5 is increasingly desirable. Remember, however, that colors will not reproduce adequately in a black-and-white copy, so you might use patterns or textures to help readers distinguish among bars. See COLOR.

Citations

Citations (bibliographic entries) enable writers to identify in the text itself the sources of their information. The methods of citation vary, depending on the technical field and its traditions, the type of publication, and the publisher.

The method of citation that we recommend represents the standard convention in the physical sciences and engineering disciplines. However, if you are writing for a particular professional society or technical journal, you should follow its method of citation.

1. Enclose the author’s name and the date of the publication in parentheses following the material quoted or the ideas referred to. Attach at the end of the text an alphabetical list of the cited works:

One critic called the whole dispute a “galaxy of confusion” (Jameson 2007). In reply, the spokesman for the conservative wing rebutted Jameson point by point (S. Clarke 2008).

See BIBLIOGRAPHIES.

NOTE 1: This system, or some variation of it, is favored by physical and biological scientists, as well as many social scientists. Scholars in the humanities sometimes still use footnotes. See FOOTNOTES.

NOTE 2: An alternative method uses only numbers in the text, not the author’s last name and date:

One critic called the whole dispute a “galaxy of confusion” (1). In reply, the spokesman for the conservative wing rebutted Jameson point by point (2).

or

One critic called the whole dispute a “galaxy of confusion” [1]. In reply, the spokesman for the conservative wing rebutted Jameson point by point [2].

The numbers appearing within parentheses or brackets are keyed to an unalphabetical list of sources at the end of the text.

NOTE 3: With only a few citations and if you want to omit the final alphabetical list, follow the footnote format within the text:

Sinclair Jameson in Age of Change (New York: Freedom Press, 2007) called the whole dispute a “galaxy of confusion.”

See FOOTNOTES.

2. Use a consistent format for citing the name of the author and the date of publication:

(Collins 2001)

(Mihelcic and Zimmerman 2009)

(United Nations Committee on Science and Technology 2007)

(Covey, Colosimo 2010)

(U.S. Department of Agriculture 1994)

NOTE: Some authors and journals prefer to place a comma between the author and the date:

(Collins 2001)

Another common variation is to include the page number or volume and page number following the date:

(Collins 2001, 43–48)

The abbreviations p. and pp. (for page and pages) are unnecessary:

(Mihelcic and Zimmerman 2009, 156)

(UN Committee on Science and Technology 2007, 2:34–36)

In the last example, 2 is the volume number.

Whatever the format used, you should be consistent in your method of citation within the same document.

3. Include a full alphabetized list of cited sources following the article or chapter:

Book by one single author

Bricke, Larry N. 2008. Canadian Political Parties. Toronto: New Country Press.

Book by two authors

Azuma, Shoji and Ryo Sanbongi. 2001. Business Japanese. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.

Journal or magazine article

Kumar, Nirmalya. 2003. “Kill a Brand, Keep a Customer.” Harvard Business Review 81:12:86-95.

NOTE 1: In these bibliographic entries, the date of publication comes immediately after the name of the author. In a common optional format, the date appears after the name of the publisher:

Bricke, Larry N. Canadian Political Parties. Toronto: New Country Press, 2010.

See BIBLIOGRAPHIES.

NOTE 2: The titles may be underlined rather than italicized if italics is not available.

Cliches

Cliches are worn-out phrases that were originally effective, even vivid:

innocent bystander

irony of fate

too funny for words

cool as a cucumber

moot point far and wide

Such phrases are so common that writers and speakers use them habitually, without thinking. Their familiarity makes cliches convenient. So when writers are struggling to express an idea, using a cliche becomes a tempting alternative to serious thought. See WORDY PHRASES.

The Origin of Cliches

The word cliche comes from French and is often still written with the French accent: cliché. Writers of English typically omit the accent mark because the word has been anglicized. See SPELLING.

Many cliches were originally metaphors and were therefore vivid. Their wittiness and sparkle made them memorable, so they were repeated often. However, the vividness of the original metaphor is dulled by repetition and the expression becomes a cliche.

The first person in medieval Europe to associate the concept of avoidance with the Black Death must have created a vivid image in listeners’ minds. But today’s users of the expression to avoid it like the plague experience little if any of the original effect. Today the cliche means little. We’ve heard it too often.

Other cliches developed and survived because they sounded good:

bag and baggage

rack and ruin

not wisely but too well

snug as a bug in a rug

willy-nilly

The alliteration (repetition of consonants) and repetition of bag in the expression bag and baggage likely ensured the phrase’s survival. Similarly, willy-nilly has survived so long that its original meaning has been lost: “whether you are willing or unwilling.” Now willy-nilly implies haphazard or weak actions. The logical choice in its original meaning has faded. Now the cliche has more sound than substance.

1. Use cliches sparingly, if at all.

Writers would find eliminating all cliches a hard row to hoe. Reasonable cliches are fine in certain contexts, but the one in the preceding sentence is clearly inappropriate. The context of this discussion makes a cliche based on farm work ridiculous.

However, some cliches—in the right context—are valuable:

Following the testimony, the judge had to sift through a thousand pages of unreadable and often contradictory testimony.

Here, the cliche of sifting through many pages is not objectionable. It is, in fact, a fine metaphor, given the circumstance to which it applies. In this case, the cliche does not clash with the context.

So one test of a cliche’s acceptability is the degree to which it is relevant to the context in which it occurs and the extent to which it goes unnoticed. If the cliche does not call attention to itself, it is probably acceptable. The moment a writer (or reader) knows the expression is a cliche, it is unacceptable in most contexts.

NOTE: Sometimes a cliche can be used to advantage if its meaning or phrasing allows the writer to play against the cliche itself, as in the following quote from Oscar Wilde:

“Truth is never pure, and rarely simple.”

By rephrasing the cliche, Wilde asks readers to reexamine the cliche about pure and simple truth.

Some Common Cliches

English contains hundreds of cliches. The following list includes some of the more common ones currently in use:

A bad scene

a can of worms

acid test

active consideration

add insult to injury

agree to disagree

all things considered

all too soon

along these lines

among those present

ample opportunity

an end run

armed to the teeth

as a matter of fact

as the crow flies

at a loss for words

at the end of the day

attached hereto

at this point in time

auspicious moment

avoid it like the plague

awaiting further orders

Back at the ranch

back to the drawing board

bag and baggage

bated breath

beat a hasty retreat

be at loggerheads

beginning of the end

benefit of the doubt

best-laid plans

better late than never

better left unsaid

beyond the shadow of a doubt

bite the bullet

bitter end

blissful ignorance

block out

bloody but unbowed

bolt from the blue

bone of contention

bottom line

brain dump

bright and shining faces

broad daylight

brook no delay

brute force

budding genius

built-in safeguards

burning question

burning the midnight oil

busy as a bee

by leaps and bounds

by the same token

Calm before the storm

capacity crowd

cast a pall

casual encounter

chain reaction

charged with emotion

checkered career/past

cherished belief

chief cook and bottle washer

circumstances beyond my control

city fathers

clean bill of health

clear as crystal/day

colorful display

come full circle

common/garden variety

confirming our conversation

conservative estimate

considered opinion

consigned to oblivion

conspicuous by its absence

contents noted

controlling factor

cool as a cucumber

crying need

curiously enough

cut a long story short

cut down in his prime

Dark horse

date with destiny

days are numbered

dazed condition

dead as a doornail

deadly earnest

deafening crash

deficits mount

deliberate falsehood

depths of despair

diamond in the rough

dig in your heels

discreet silence

do not hesitate to

doom is sealed

doomed to disappointment

dramatic new move

drastic action

drink the Kool-Aid

due consideration

dynamic personality

Each and every

easier said than done

eight-hundred-pound gorilla

eloquent silence

eminently successful

enclosed herewith

engage in conversation

enjoyable occasion

entertaining high hopes of

epic struggle

equal to the occasion

errand of mercy

even tenor

exception that proves the rule

existing conditions

express one’s appreciation

eyeball to eyeball

Failed to dampen spirits

fair sex

fall on bad times

fall on deaf ears

far and wide

far be it from me

far cry

fateful day

fate worse than death

feedback loop

feel free to

feel vulnerable

festive occasion

few and far between

few well-chosen words

fickle finger of fate

final analysis

fine-tune one’s plans

finishing touches

fire on all cylinders

fit as a fiddle

food for thought

fools rush in

foregone conclusion

foul play

from the sublime to the ridiculous

Gala occasion

generation gap

generous to a fault

gild the lily

give the green light to

glowing cheeks

go down the drain

goes without saying

goodly number

good team player

grateful acknowledgement

grave concern

green with envy

grim reaper

grind to a halt

Hale and hearty

hands across the sea

happy pair

hastily summoned

have the privilege

heartfelt thanks/appreciation

heart of the matter

heart’s desire

heated argument

heave a sigh of relief

height of absurdity

herculean efforts

hook, line, and sinker

hook or crook

hope springs eternal

hot pursuit

house divided

how does that grab you?

hunker down

hurriedly retraced his steps

Ignominious retreat

ignorance is bliss

ill-fated

immaculately attired

immeasurably superior

impenetrable mystery

in close proximity

inextricably linked

infinite capacity

inflationary spiral

innocent bystander

in no uncertain terms

in reference/regard to

in short supply

internecine strife

in the limelight

in the nick of time

in the same boat with

in the twinkling of an eye

in this day and age

into full swing

iron out the difficulty

irony of fate

irreducible minimum

irreparable/irreplaceable loss

it dawned on me

Just desserts

just for openers

Keep options open

knock your socks off

Labor of love

lashed out at

last analysis

last but not least

last-ditch effort

leaps and bounds

leave no stone unturned

leaves much to be desired

leave up in the air

lend a helping hand

let well enough alone

like a bolt from the blue

limped into port

line of least resistance

little woman

lit up like a Christmas tree

lock, stock, and barrel

logic of events

long arm of the law

low-hanging fruit

Make good one’s escape

man the barricades

marked contrast

masterpiece of understatement

matter of life and death

mecca for travelers

method to/in his madness

milk of human kindness

miraculous escape

moment of truth

momentous decision/occasion

monumental traffic jam

moot point

more in sorrow than in anger

more sinned against than sinning

more than meets the eye

more the merrier

motley crew

Narrow escape

nearest and dearest

needs no introduction

never a dull moment

never before in the history of

nipped in the bud

none the worse for wear

no sooner said than done

not wisely but too well

One and the same

ongoing dialogue

on more than one occasion

on unimpeachable authority

open kimono

order out of chaos

other things being equal

outer directed

overwhelming odds

own worst enemy

Pales into insignificance

paralyzed with fright

paramount importance

part and parcel

patience of Job

pay the piper

peer group

pet peeve

pick and choose

pie in the sky

pinpoint the cause

pipe dream

place in the sun

play hardball

play it by ear

point with pride

poor but honest

powder keg

powers that be

pretty kettle of fish

pros and cons

proud heritage

pull one’s weight

push the envelope

Rack and ruin

ravishing beauty

red-letter day

regrettable incident

reigns supreme

reliable source

remedy the situation

right on

riot-torn area

ripe old age

round of applause

rude habitation

Sadder but wiser

saw the light of day

scathing sarcasm

sea of faces

seat of learning

second to none

seething mass of humanity

select few

selling like hotcakes

shattering effect

shift into high gear

shot in the arm

sigh of relief

silence broken only by

silhouetted against the sky

simple life

skeleton in the closet

snug as a bug in a rug

social amenities

something hitting the fan

spectacular event

spirited debate

steaming jungle

stick out like a sore thumb

stick to one’s guns

straight and narrow path

structure one’s day

such is life

sum and substance

superhuman effort

supreme sacrifice

sweat of his brow

sweeping changes

swim with the sharks

Take the bull by the horns

teaching moment

telling effect

tender mercies

terror stricken

thanking you in advance

there’s the rub

think outside the box

this day and age

those present

throw a monkey wrench

throw a party

throw caution to the winds

thrust of your report

thunderous applause

tie that binds

time immemorial

time of one’s life

tongue in cheek

too funny for words

too numerous to mention

tough it out/through

tower of strength

trials and tribulations

trust implicitly

tumultuous applause

Uncharted seas

unprecedented situation

untimely end

untiring efforts

up tight

Vale of tears

vanish into thin air

viable alternative

Watery grave

wax eloquent/poetic

weaker sex

wear and tear

wend one’s way

whirlwind tour

wide open spaces

words fail to express

word to the wise

work one’s wiles

worse for wear

wrought havoc

X-ray vision/view

Yea verily yea

yeasty blend/mix

yellow journalism

yen for . . .

Young Turk

Zero hour

zest for life