Index

Note: Page numbers with “f” denote figures; “t” tables; and “b” boxes.

A

A-tail, 495–496
Absolute ceiling, 840–842, 841f
Absolute viscosity, See Dynamic viscosity
Acceleration
on flat runway, 48, 798
fuselage reducing, 602–603
graph for SR22, 812f
ground run distance estimation with, 802–803
to higher airspeed, 289
thrust estimation, 807
thrust-to-weight ratios, 799
on uphill slope, 48, 798
Additive drag, 698–700, 708
of antennas, 731
placement and shape, 732f
of blisters, 728
drag contribution, 729f
example, 729b
of canopies, 727
canopy styles, 728f
drag coefficients for canopy styles, 728, 729f
coefficient, 708, 715
due to compressibility effects, 730
cooling drag, 714
cooling drag coefficient, 714
idealization of engine installation, 714f
CRUD, 709
component contribution, 710t
Seversky P-35, 709, 709f
twin-engine business jet, 710
WR-L-489, 709–710
of deployed flaps, 725
Δ1 function, 726
Δ2 function, 726, 727t
increase of CDmin due to flaps, 725–726
drag correction for cockpit windows, 726
drag of blunt ordinary and undercut, 727, 728f
drag of conventional cockpit windows, 727
drag of various geometry
critical Reynolds number, 733
cross-flow principle, 734, 734f
drag of 3D objects, 734–735
flow regions on sphere, 733, 733f
3D drag coefficient, 732, 732f, 734f
2D cross-section, 3D drag of, 733–734
2D drag coefficient, 733f
of floats, 724
float geometries, 725f
special NACA-designed floats, 724
geometric shape of protrusions, 708
of gun ports in airplane nose, 736
due to ice accretion, 736–737
landing gear drag
of fixed landing gear struts with tires, 718–722
of nose landing gear, 723–724
of retractable landing gear, 722–723
of tires only, 718
of tires with wheel fairings, 718
landing gear pant fairings, 715–718
thick fairings, 717–718
lift-induced drag corrections
example, 738b–739b
in ground effect, 738–739
pressure difference, 737f
vortex core location, 738f
wingtip correction, 737–738
wingtips effect, 737f
of parachutes, 735
drag coefficient, 735, 735f
example, 735b
total drag force evaluation, 735
of sanded walkway on wing, 736
scaling, 708
stopped propellers, 731
of streamlined external fuel tanks, 736, 736f
streamlined struts drag, 715–718
trim drag, 710
balancing force, 710
consequence of longitudinal stability, 711
wing-horizontal tail combination, 711
wing-horizontal tail-thrustline combination, 712
windmilling propellers, 711
due to wing washout, 736
wing-like surface drag, 715
Adiabatic compression, 192, 217
Adiabatic expansion, 217, 224
Advance ratio, 611–613, 630, 841
Advisory circular (AC), 15
Aerobatic category, 482
Aerofoil software, 254–255
Aesthetics, 7–8, 10, 77–78, 461
Aft spar, 122
Aft swept planform, 336, 374–375
Aileron
design requirements, 952
differential, 952
frise, 951
hinges, 123
plain flap, 951
sizing, 960
maximizing responsiveness, 962
steady-state roll rate estimation, 960
slot-lip, 951–952
spoiler-flap, 951
Aileron authority, 953, 954b–955b, 968
Aileron deflection, 596
angle, 960
change in lift coefficient due to, 953, 954–955b, 960f
impact on flow field, 950f
Aircraft conceptual design algorithm, 15
for GA aircraft, 16, 17t
implementation of, 15–16
modern spreadsheet software, 16
organizational hierarchy of spreadsheet, 18f
tail sizing worksheet, 16
modern spreadsheet, 15
Aircraft design process, 11
elementary outline, 11, 12f
for GA aircraft, 12f, 13
per Torenbeek, 12–13, 12f
regulatory concepts, 13–15
advisory circular, 15
airworthiness directives, 14
maintenance requirements, 14
parts manufacturer approval, 15
service bulletin, 15
special airworthiness certificate, 14
standard airworthiness certificate, 14
supplemental type certificate, 14
technical standard order, 15
technical standard order authorization, 15
type certificate, 13–14
Aircraft development cost, 36
of business aircraft, 44
avionics cost, 46
certify, total cost to, 46
development support, total cost of, 45
engineering, total cost of, 45
engineering man-hours, 44–45
flight test operations, total cost of, 45
manufacturing, total cost of, 45
manufacturing labor man-hours, 45
materials, total cost of, 45–46
power plant cost, 46
quality control, total cost of, 45
retractable landing gear cost, 46
tooling, total cost of, 45
tooling man-hours, 45
of GA aircraft, 37
avionics cost, 41
break-even analysis, 43, 44b
certify, total cost of, 40–41, 40b–41b
cost analysis, 39
development support, total cost of, 39–40
engineering, total cost of, 39
engineering man-hours, 37–38
example, 38b
flight test operations, total cost of, 40
manufacturing, total cost of, 40
manufacturing labor man-hours, 38–39
materials, total cost of, 40
power plant cost, 41–43, 42b–43b
product liability costs, 37
quality Control, total cost of, 40
retractable landing gear cost, 41
tooling, total cost of, 40
tooling man-hours, 38
project cost analysis, 37t
QDF, 36
depends on experience effectiveness, 36–37, 36f
experience effectiveness adjustment factor, 36
Airfoil cross-sectional area, 308–309
Airfoil design, 254
AeroFoil software, 255
design process, 256
JavaFoil software, 256
PROFILE software, 255
types, 254–255
XFLR5, 255, 255f
Xfoil, 255
Airfoil direct design, 256
Airfoil inverse design, 256
Airfoil selection matrix, 289
critical Mach number, 289
guidelines, 290–293
impact on drag, 289
impact on flow separation, 289
impact on longitudinal trim, 289
impact on maximum lift and stall handling, 289
impact on structural depth, 289–290
impact on wing-fuselage juncture, 289
NACA recommended criteria, 294
target zero-lift AOA evaluation, 290
Airload actuated leading edge slat, 413–414, 413f
on McDonnell-Douglas A-4 Skyhawk, 414f
Airships, 3t
form factors for airship hulls, 703–708
Airspeed effect on turbofan thrust, 201–202
Airspeed effect on turbojet thrust, 200
Airspeed effect on turboprop thrust, 198–199
Airspeed indicator (ASI), 768
markings of analog, 768f
markings of modern, 769f
pressure sources, 769
Airworthiness Directive (AD), 14
Altitude
absolute/service ceiling, 16
sensitivity, 29
sensitivity plot, 20f
thrust as function of, 28
time to, 15
Altitude effect on piston engine power, 192–193
air compression, 194
altitude impact on engine, 194
altitude-dependency model, 193
Gagg and Ferrar model, 193
Ideal manifold pressure, 194
initial pressure in cylinders, 193
model comparison, 193, 193f
power estimation, 194
power settings, 194
supercharger, 194
turbo-normalization, 194
turbocharger, 194
Altitude effect on turbofan thrust, 201–202
Altitude effect on turbojet thrust, 200
Altitude effect on turboprop thrust, 198–199
Aluminum alloy, 103
applications in GA aircraft, 106t
designation of, 104
extrusion for, 101
flaws, 104
endurance limit, 104–105
galvanic corrosion, 105–106
stress corrosion, 105
identification, 104
pre-cure, 114
properties of, 103–104, 106t
sheet metal thicknesses for, 106t
Amphibian, 87, 968
Analysis technology, 971–972
Angle-of-attack (AOA), 238, 822, 926
airspeed, lift coefficient and, 344
change in induced, 387
for design lift coefficient, 343
for maximum lift coefficient, 343
movement of transition points with, 677f
non-linear lift curve, 343
stall, 358
wing stall, 359–360
at zero lift, 239, 240f, 343
Angle-of-climb (AOC), 821–824
Angle-of-descent, 927
Angle-of-glide (AOG), 927
Angle-of-incidence (AOI), 467
lift coefficient value effect, 241
recommended HT, 327
symmetrical airfoil at, 127
wing, 325–329
Angle-of-yaw (AOY), 964
Angular momentum, 596
Anhedral, 318–319
AOY, See Angle-of-yaw
Apophenia, 301
Approach distance, 936, 939–940
Approach for landing, 939
Aspect ratio, See wing aspect ratio
Asphalt, 798t, 938t
ASTM standards, 3–4
Asymmetric aircraft, 378–379
Atmosphere, 985
Atmosphere, chemical composition, 985–986
Atmosphere, formation of, 985
Atmosphere, layer classification, 986
Atmospheric modeling, 763, 985, 992
air deviation density, 765–767, 766b, 989
change due to humidity, 766–767, 767b
formulas for standard atmosphere, 767
standard properties, 766t
atmospheric ambient temperature, 763–764, 987–988
atmospheric pressure and density for altitudes, 764, 989
atmospheric property ratios, 764–765, 989
computer code A-1, 993
density altitude, 765, 990
example, 764b
Mach number, 991
pressure altitude, 767, 990
Reynolds number, 991
sound speed, 991, 991b
temperature constants in troposphere, 764t
viscosity
dynamic or absolute, 990–991
kinematic viscosity, 991
Atmospheric pressure, density, temperature, 763–764
Atmospheric property ratio, 764–765, 989
Automated Handley-Page leading edge slat, See Airload actuated
Average chord, 304, 307
for HT, 507, 514
for VT, 511
Avgas, 187

B

Balanced field length, 795–796, 795f
analysis effort, 795
empirical expression, 796
example, 796b
Torenbeek’s method, 796–797
Basic drag, 666
Basic drag coefficient, 674–675
Best angle-of-climb, 832
Best angle-of-climb airspeed, 746, 828
Best endurance airspeed, 668, 849, 867
Best glide
lift coefficient, 741
ration, 869
Best glide airspeed, 867, 931–932
comparison to, 867, 877
Best range airspeed, 867
for Jet, 875–877
best glide speed comparison, 877
Carson’s airspeed, 877
requirement for maximum range, 875–876
Best rate-of-climb, 59, 749, 831
for propeller-powered airplane, 834
Best rate-of-climb airspeed, 746
example, 835b
for propeller-powered aircraft, 867
for selected classes of aircraft, 842, 842t
Beta range, 586
Biot-Savart law, 351, 380
Biplane, 77, 86
Blade element, 640
chord, 641
induced velocity at, 652
local velocity of, 654
Reynolds number for, 646
Blade element theory (BET), 437–438, 583, 638, 640
advantages, 641
compressibility corrections, 654
drag correction, 655
lift correction, 654
formulation
differential lift and drag forces, 641
lift coefficient of element airfoil, 641
observation 1, 641–643, 643b–644b
parameters, 641
propeller, 641, 641f
table columns 11–17, 645–646
table columns 18–25, 646–650
table columns 2–9, 645
hub loss corrections, 655–656
induced AOA, 650–654
difference calculation, 652–654
example, 652b–654b
initial value, 652
next value calculation, 652
limitations, 641
Prandtl’s tip, 655–656
primitive, 640–641
propeller induced velocity, 656
Blended wing-body aircraft (BWB), 342
Blind-rivet, 102
Boundary layer
fences, 976–977
laminar, 242–243, 250
6-series airfoils, 264
airfoil selection effect, 373
nature of fluid flow, 248f
skin friction coefficient, 540
theoretical extent of, 374f
mixed, 665, 675, 676f
Reynolds number, 247
thickness estimation, 250, 250f
transition, 248–249
turbulent, 248–249
local airspeeds, 526
nature of fluid flow, 248f
skin friction coefficient, 542
Brake caliper, 563–564
Brake horsepower (BHP), 185, 620–621
Brake-release, 802
Brakes, 559–560
Braking, 549
devices, 940–941
Braking, landing, 549
Braking distance, 936
Break-even analysis, 43, 44f
Breguet endurance equation, 898
Breguet range equation, 897
Bubble-drag, 981
Buckingham’s Pi-theorem, 237–238
Bulkhead, 117
firewalls, 209
pressure, 130
Bungee landing gear, 560–562, 563f
Butterfly-tail, See V-tail

C

Cabin dimensions, 533, 543t–544t, 545
CAFÉ, 182, 910–911
Calibrated airspeed, 47, 770, 861
Camber, 256
effect of, 276
line, 266
polyhedral, 454f
relative magnitude of, 262
Cambered-span wing, See Polyhedral wing
Canard, 496–497
Canonical pressure coefficient, 241–242
Canopy, 88
acrylic, 88–89
smooth, 701
styles evaluation, 728f
Cantilever wing, 587–588
Carbon, 106–107
Carpet plot, 69f
creation, 68–69
cruise speed, 67–69
stalling speed, 353f
Carson's airspeed, 8, 849, 877
Cast alloy, 103–104
Castering, 553
Casting, 549
Center of gravity (CG), 46, 84, 164
travel during flight, 972
Center of mass (CM), 164
Center of pressure, 243–244, 244f
Certification
basis for classes of aircraft, 3t
in LSA category, 21
requirements for GA aircraft, 936
Certification Standard (CS), 6, 13
CG envelope, 168
Chord, 307
Chordline, 256
Circular Advisory, See Advisory circular (AC)
Climb, 825
angle, 802–804, 813
capability, 968
gradient, 825
T/W for desired rate of, 58–59
Climb airspeed, 749
Climb angle, 49, 813, 822, 827
Climb gradient, 800–801
Climb performance, 594
evaluation of, 824
extracting CDmin using, 746
spreadsheet to estimating, 840f
Climb propeller, 594
Cockpit dimensions, 533f
Cockpit layout, 532–535
in large business jet, 536f
typical seating for, 535f
Coefficient of drag
3D, 732, 732f, 734f
2D, 733f
Coefficient of lift, See Lift coefficient
Commercial aircraft
passenger door in, 130
pitch of seats in, 536f
turboprops and turbofans for, 183
wing flex in, 349
Commercial aviation regulations, 7, 78, 168
Commuter aircraft, 124, 818t
Commuter category, 779
Composite images, 5
Composite material, 108
aircraft construction methodologies, 114
fabrication methods, 114–115
fibers, 111–112
glass transition temperature, 113
pre-cure, 114
pros and cons of, 110–111
resin, 112–113
thermoplastics, 113
thermosets, 112–113
sandwich core materials, 113
structural analysis of, 109–110
types of, 108–109
Composites, 6, 8, 99, 108, 111
Compound surface flex, 100–101, 100f
Compound taper, 335, 336f
Compressibility, 278
corrections, 281
of drag, 655
of lift, 654
method, 281
modeling, 280–281
Compressibility effect, 278, 668
on drag, 278–279
drag due to, 730
for F-104 Starfighter, 468
on lift, 278
on lift and drag exemplified, 279
on pitching moment, 279–280
Compressible Bernoulli equation, 219, 246
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD), 27–28
advances in, 430
Kutta-Joukowski theorem use in, 247
Prandtl-Betz Integration, 690
software use, 246
Conceptual design, 10, 15
algorithm for GA aircraft, 16
implementation of, 16
non-planar wings, 453
of propeller-powered aircraft, 608
Configuration layout
cabin configurations, 88–89, 89f
configuration selection matrix, 92–93
engine placement, 89–91
fundamentals, 82–93
landing gear configurations, 91–92
propeller configuration, 89, 89f
tail configurations, 92
vertical wing location, 82–86
Boeing 737–800 in landing configuration, 83f
Consolidated PBY-5 Catalina, 85f
field-of-view, 84
impact on airframe design, 84–85
impact on flight, 85
nomenclature, 84f
operational characteristics, 85
parasol wings, 85–86
properties of aircraft, 83t
wing configuration, 86, 86f
wing dihedral, 86–87
effect, 87f
nomenclature, 87f
wing structural configuration, 87–88
cantilever or braced with struts, 88f
shear and moment diagrams, 88f
Constant airspeed/constant altitude, 899–900, 907
Constant altitude/constant attitude, 901–902
Constant chord planform (Hershey bar), 303
Constant speed propeller, 41–43, 586, 594
cubic spline method for, 628–630
fixed vs., 594–595, 595f
propeller efficiency table for, 630f
section view of inside, 595f
Constraint analysis, 56–57
general methodology, 58–63
additional notes, 59–61
cruise airspeed, T/W for desired, 59
example, 64b
level constant-velocity turn, T/W for, 58
rate of climb, T/W for desired, 58–59
service ceiling, T/W for, 59
specific energy level, T/W for desired, 58
T-O distance, T/W for desired, 59
optimum design points, 58
typical design space, 57f
Constraint diagram, 60f
banking, 887
CLmax for desired stalling speed, 66
stall speed limits, 65–66, 66f
Consumer Price Index (CPI), 37
Control horn, 975
Control surface
deflection effect, 109f
fabrication and installation of, 126–127
sizing, 948–964
aileron sizing, 960–962
control surface hinge moments, 948–949
pitch control fundamentals, 962–964
roll control fundamentals, 949–960
yaw control fundamentals, 964
Control system
flap, 285, 462
HM reaction, 949f
mixer, 491
side-effects on swept wings, 951
Control system harmony, 968
Control system jamming, 970
Control system stretching, 969–970
Conventional-tail, 92, 483–485, 484f
Cooling, 213
air, 213
drag, 714, 715
of pusher configurations, 213
quenching, 107
Cost analysis, 1, 39
methods, 6
project, 37t
Cost function, 72, 72f, 72b
Cost-effectiveness, 56
Cowl flap, 216–217
Cowling, 587, 603–604
Cranked, 338–340
Cranked dihedral, 87
Crew weight, 135
Critical Mach number, 273, 278–279, 281–282
for airfoil selection, 289
correction to, 317
limitation with, 375–376
NACA 6-series airfoils, 294
sweep angle impact on, 317
Crosswind
capability at touch-down, 78
snow bank collision effect, 85
Cruciform-tail, 92, 486
Cruise airspeed, 59
Cruise flap, 284–285, 286f
Cruise lift coefficient, 313
airfoils drag at, 294
critical Mach numbers, 294
Cruise performance, 744
Cruise propeller, 594, 745, 747
Cruise segment, 896, 897f
for endurance analysis, 897–898
for range analysis, 896
range vs. weight, 896–897
in terms of time of flight, 897f
with transposed axes, 897f
Cruising speed, 119
AOA, 367
design, 776
streamtube, 225
Cuffs, 978
Cutaway drawings, 30

D

DAPCA-IV, 6, 34, 36
Davis wing, 272–273
Dead rise angle, 724
Decalage angle, 329f
Decalage for biplane, 328–329
Delta wing, 340–341, 355
Delta wing planform, 340f
Density
of air deviations, 765–767
of aviation gasoline, 187
change due to humidity, 766–767
energy, 204
Density altitude, 765, 767
Descent
positions, 415f
at specific condition, 161–162
weight ratios for, 916t, 921
Descent performance
descent analysis methods
airspeed of minimum sink rate, 931
best glide speed, 931–932
equilibrium glide speed, 929
general angle-of-descent, 927
general rate-of-descent, 927, 928b
glide distance, 932, 933b
minimum angle-of-descent, 931, 932b
sink rate, 930
descent maneuver, fundamental relations, 926
general 2D free-body diagram for aircraft, 926–927
planar equations of motion, 927
Design airspeed for maximum gust intensity, 777
Design algorithm, 779
for GA aircraft, 766t, 783–785
implementation, 785
modern spreadsheet, 778–779
Design gross weight, 38, 137–138
Design lift coefficient, 343
angle-of-attack for, 343
in NACA 6-series airfoils, 265–266
Design of experiments (DOE), 56, 69–72
Design space, 57–58, 57f
Detail design, 10–11, 13
Detailed weight analysis, 134–135, 141–142
Development cost, See Aircraft development cost
Development program phase, 11
Differential ailerons, 952, 952f
Diffuser, 223
inlet, 224–225
Diffuser length, 224–225
Dihedral, 318
configurations, 87
wing dihedral, 86–87
effect, 87f
nomenclature, 87f
Dihedral angle, 86–87, 318
Dihedral effect, 86, 87f, 477
Directional stability, 71, 476, 964
formulation of, 500–501
improvement to, 494
requirement for, 476f
trends of, 479f
Disc brake, 559
Dive airspeed, 776–777
Dorsal fin, 477–480, 479f, 973
on Douglas DC-4, 480f
prevents rudder lock, 481f
Double slotted flap, 427–430
effect of, 378f
articulating-vane, 428, 429f
fixed vane, 428, 428f
main/aft, 428, 429f
reference geometry schematics for, 435f
Double-delta, 341
Down-selection matrix, 309t
Drag, 663–664
of aircraft by class, 752
airfoil impact on, 289
of airfoils and wings, 668–670
analysis, 739t
of antennas, 731
basic drag coefficient, 674–675
basic drag modeling, 666
of blisters, 728
breakdown, 852–853
of canopies, 727
CDBM, 697–700
characteristics of Gurney flap, 433f
compressibility effect on, 278–279, 730
cooling, 714
correction for cockpit windows, 726
correction of, 444
CRUD, 709
of deployed flaps, 725
estimation pitfalls, 972
of external sources, 736
of floats, 724
of landing gear, 718
of landing gear pant fairings, 715
lift-Induced drag coefficient, 686–690
means to reducing, 691–693
models for airfoils, 287–289
of parachutes, 735
polar
for airfoil, 406f
of NACA series airfoils, 268f
quadratic drag modeling, 666–670
sensitivity, 909
simple wing-like surfaces, 715
skin friction drag coefficient, 675–679
of stopped propellers, 731
of streamlined struts, 715
total drag coefficient, 691
trim, 444, 710
of various geometry, 732
of windmilling propellers, 731
Droop nose leading edge, See Hinged
Drum brake, 559
Dynamic pressure, 591, 769
Dynamic stability, 127–128, 462
Dynamic viscosity, 991

E

EASA regulations, 13
Eastlake model
business aircraft, development cost, 44
avionics cost, 46
certify, total cost to, 46
development support, total cost of, 45
engineering, total cost of, 45
engineering man-hours, 44–45
flight test operations, total cost of, 45
manufacturing, total cost of, 45
manufacturing labor man-hours, 45
materials, total cost of, 45–46
power plant cost, 46
quality control, total cost of, 45
retractable landing gear cost, 46
tooling, total cost of, 45
tooling man-hours, 45
GA aircraft, development cost, 37
avionics cost, 41
break-even analysis, 43, 44b
certify, total cost of, 40–41, 40b
cost analysis, 39
development support, total cost of, 39–40
engineering, total cost of, 39
engineering man-hours, 37–38
example, 38b
flight test operations, total cost of, 40
manufacturing, total cost of, 40
manufacturing labor man-hours, 38–39
materials, total cost of, 40
power plant cost, 41–43, 42b
product liability costs, 37
quality Control, total cost of, 40
retractable landing gear cost, 41
tooling, total cost of, 40
tooling man-hours, 38
Electric
airplanes, 206, 903–904
propulsion, 206
Electric motor, 182, 190, 203–206
Elevator, 495
limit isobar, 170–171
stall limit, 170
Elevator authority, 484, 488, 493
Elevator deflection, 460
Elevon, 460, 950, 952
Elliptic wing planform, 331
Empty weight, 134, 161f
of aircraft ranges, 138
fractions, 139–141, 140f
impact, 148f
ratio, 137
sensitivity, 909
Endplate wingtip, 176–177
Endurance performance, 897
Endurance Profile 1, 9, 911–912
Endurance Profile 2, 9, 912
Endurance Profile 3, 9, 913
Engine cooling, 665
Engine power, 186–187
airspeed effect on, 192
altitude effect on, 192–195
manifold pressure and RPM effect, 195–196
piston, 187
temperature effect on, 195
Engineering
lean, 8–9
man-hours, 37–38, 44–45
Engineering cost, 39, 45
Engineering drawings, 32
Engineering reports, 30–32
Epoxy, 111
Eppler, 256
Eppler-code, 255
Equation of motion (EOM), 802
for climb maneuver, 822–825
for descent maneuver, 822
general solution of, 802–804
for landing roll, 938
for T-O ground run, 798–799
Equilibrium glide speed, 929
Equivalent airspeed, 47, 770
Equivalent horsepower (EHP), 185
Exit
area, 216–217
sizing, 213–219
Experience effectiveness, 36, 36f
External flap, See Junkers flap
Extrusion, 39

F

FAA regulations, 46, 111
Famous airfoils
Clark Y airfoil, 267–268, 270f
Davis wing airfoil, 272–273
GA(W)-1 airfoil, 271–272, 272f
Joukowski Airfoils, 274–275, 275f
Liebeck Airfoils, 275, 275f
NACA 23012 airfoil, 268–271, 271f, 272f
“peaky” airfoil, 273–274, 273f
supercritical airfoils, 274
USA-35B airfoil, 268, 270f
FAR 14 CFR Part 23, 825, 861
business aircraft certification, 44
fire extinguishing systems, 523
GA aircraft certification, 4
requirements for T-O speeds, 800–801
restrictions for aircraft classes certification, 4t
Subpart E–Powerplant, 209
Fasteners, 103, 212
Feathering propeller, 586
Features and Upgradability, 7
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), 3, 13, 99
Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR), 13
Fiberglass, 108–109
boat glass, 111
R-glass, 112
Fibers, 111–112
aramid, 111
boron, 111
carbon, 111
graphite, 112
unidirectional, 319
Field-of-view, 84
Final weight, 896, 914–915
Finite element analysis (FEA), 27–28
Firewall, 210, 523
Fishbone diagram, 19
categories, 20
during design process, 21f
for preliminary airplane design, 19
typical, 20f
Fixed landing gear, 17t
Fixed slot leading edge, 407–408, 412
Fixed-pitch propeller, 42, 586, 594
cubic spline method for, 623–624
desired pitch for, 592
propeller efficiency graph for, 632f
Flap
deflecting effect of, 284
Gurney flap, 432–434
Junkers flap, 423–425
Krűger flap, 408–411
plain flap, 417–420
single-slotted flap, 425–426
split flap, 420
Zap flap, 420–422
Flap Extension airspeed, 782
Flaperon, 437, 952
Flare, landing, 966
Flare distance, 936, 940
Flare maneuver, 935
Flexible wings, 349–350
Flight envelope, 774–775
completion, 782
design airspeeds, 775–778
for GA aircraft, 782–783
gust loads, 778–781
maneuvering loads, 775–778
Floatplane, 925
Floats, 724
Flow separation, 247, 249–250
effect of, 247–248
effect of early, 282, 283f
growth on aircraft, 367–369
impact on, 289
trends for simple diffusers, 227f
Flying boat, 117–118
Flying wing, 460
wing twist of, 125–126
Folding bull-nose Krüger flap leading edge, 411
Forebody strakes, 973–974
Forging, 100–101
Forward swept planform, 337–338
Fowler flap, 430
aerodynamic properties, 432
feature, 430
general design guidelines, 431–432
single-slotted, 430–431
Free roll
determination, 940
distance, 938t
Free-body
reaction forces on, 566f
T-O ground run, 797
two-dimensional, 822
Free-roll distance, 938t, 940
Frise aileron, 951
Frustum
frustum-shaped fuselage, 523
geometry, 507f
Frustum fuselage, 523–524
Fuel, 84
fuel cell, 205
fuel grades for jet, 188
for mission, 907–908
operational cost, 51
piston engine installation, 210–213
system weight, 144
wing area sizing, 56
Fuel consumption
air-to-fuel ratio, 192
aspirated piston engines, 192t
comparable turbofan aircraft, 495
for jets, 189
for pistons, 189
typical, 196
Fuel system, 212–213
gravity-fed, 84
weight, 144
Fuel tank selector, 969
Fuel weight
Justification for maximum zero, 136f
range analysis, 899
ratio, 38, 137
Fuel-cell, 205, 205f
Fuselage design, 522, 526–527
Fuselage geometry
large aircraft, 534
surface areas and volumes, 544
tadpole fuselage, 524–526
Fuselage internal dimensions, 531–532
Fuselage sizing, 526
cockpit layout, 532–535
external shape
initial design, 526–529
refining, 529–531
internal dimensions of fuselage, 531–532
Fuselage volume, 26
Fuselage width, height, 364

G

Gagg-Ferrar, 59–61
Galvanic corrosion, 105–106
Galvanic corrosion, 105–106, 125–126
Gantt diagram, 19, 20f
Gap
effect on magnitude, 420f
jet airspeeds, 428–429
NLF airfoil, 414
Gearbox, 227–228
General Aviation aircraft
AR values for, 309t
CG envelope for light, 169f
Cirrus SR22, 911f
design checklist, 964–965
balked landing capability, 965–966
center of gravity travel during flight, 972
climb capability, 968
control system harmony, 968
control system jamming, 970
control system stretching, 969–970
crosswind capability at touch-down, 965
drag estimation pitfalls, 972
fuel tank selector, 969
ground impact resistance, 970
natural damping capability, 969
one-engine-inoperative trim and climb capability, 969
reliance upon analysis technology, 971–972
roll authority, 967–968
stall handling capability, 966–967
stall margin for horizontal tail, 967
take-off rotation capability, 966
trim at stall and flare at landing capability, 966
weight estimation pitfalls, 972
wing/fuselage juncture flow separation, 972
weight ratios for, 916t
General Aviation Manufacturers Association (GAMA), 34, 103
General process of aircraft design
design process, 11
elementary outline, 11–12
for GA aircraft, 13
per torenbeek, 12–13
regulatory concepts
advisory circular, 15
airworthiness directives, 14
authorization, 15
maintenance requirements, 14
parts manufacturer approval, 15
service bulletin, 15
special airworthiness certificate, 14
standard airworthiness certificate, 14
supplemental type certificate, 14
technical standard order, 15
type certificate, 13–14
Glass-transition temperature, 113
Glide, 3–4
comparison, 867
equilibrium glide speed, 929
glide distance, 932
lift coefficient, 664
transport efficiency, 877
Glide distance, 873, 932
Goettinger, 443
Graphite, 112
Gross weight
using historical relations, 138–140
maximum lift coefficients, 361t–362t
preliminary data, 67t
properties, 83t
Ground adjustable propeller, 586
Ground effect, 350
airplane in, 350f
high-wing aircraft, 85
lift-induced drag correction in, 738–739
Ground fine, propeller, 586
Ground friction
ground roll friction coefficients, 554t
main gear tire, 565–566
weight on wheels, 800
Ground impact resistance, 970
Ground roll, Take-Off, 800
Ground speed (GS), 555, 770
Ground-loop, 550t
Growth
features and upgradability, 7
flow separation on aircraft, 367–369
intermittent periods, 35f
NASA’s Glenn research center, 252
GS, See Ground speed
Gull-wing dihedral, 87
Gurney flap, 432–434, 433f
Gust load, 156
for airframe loads, 347
design cruising speed, 776
step-by-step, 778–781
Gyroscopic effects, 595–607

H

Handling requirements, 5
Helix
angle, 590–591
geometric pitch angle, 588–589
propeller, 587f
Helmholz’s vortex theorem, 381
Hershey bar, See Constant chord planform
Hershey Bar wing, See Wing planform
High wing location, 92
High-wing
airplanes, 82
configuration, 84
ground effect, 85
vortex-lattice model, 967f
wing-struts, 84
Hinge moment (HM), 949f
coefficient, 949
control surfaces, 243, 948–949
high pressure, 127
pressure distribution, 242
zap flap, 422
Hinged leading edge, 403–406
HM, See Hinge moment
Hoerner wingtip, 446
Hoop frame, 85
aluminum semi-monocoque fuselage, 128
landing gear loads, 522
underlying fuselage structure, 129f
Horizontal airspeed, 824
Horizontal tail (HT), 89, 460
aspect ratio for, 305
downwash angle, 467
impact on longitudinal trim, 289
initial tail sizing optimization, 503–509
for KC-135, 500f
magnitude effect, 448
stall margin for, 967
total weight, 162
trim drag, 711–712
weight, 143
weight data for, 176t
Horizontal tail volume, 501
initial tail sizing optimization, 503–509
on location of stick-fixed neutral point, 502f
tail sizing, 47
House of Quality (HQ), 21–27, 25f
Hub, 16
blades, 210
constant-pitch propeller, 590
correction parameter calculation, 655
and tip effects, 604–605
Hull speed, 703–708
Humidity, 768–769
Hybrid electric aircraft, 206
Hydrostatic stability, 5, 764
Ice-accretion, 252–253

I

IFR range, 914–923
Important elements of new aircraft design, 237–238
aesthetics, 240
aircraft design process phases, 241
certifiability, 239
development program phase, 242–243
ease of manufacturing, 239
features and upgradability, 239–240
handling requirements, 239–241
integrated product teams, 241
lean engineering and lean manufacturing, 241
maintainability, 240
mission, 238–239
performance requirements and sensitivity, 239
post-development programs, 243
Incidence angle
decalage angle, 328–329
determination, 328f
wing, 255f
Incompressible Bernoulli equation, 246
Indicated airspeed, 769, 882
Inflation pressure, 555
selection of tire sizes, 555
tires and tire, 137
for typical aircraft, 557t
Initial weight
analysis methods, 138–141
cruise segment, 896
Initial weight estimation, 134
Inlet
diffuser Inlet, 224–225
inlet types for jet engines, 223–224
inlet-radiator-exit method, 217–219
jet engine inlet sizing, 223–227
NACA duct for, 79–80
piston engine inlet, 213–219
Inlet lip radius, 226
Inlet-Radiator-Exit method, 217–219
Installation
aircraft power plant, 209
danger zones around propeller aircraft, 210
fireproofing, 209–210
firewall, 210
fuel system, 212–213
gas turbines, 222
jet engine inlet sizing, 223–227
piston engine inlet and exit sizing, 213–219
piston engine installation, 210–213
braking system, 554
cockpit window, 727
control surfaces, 46–51
cost of avionics, 46
STC, 14
turboprop on agricultural aircraft, 196f
ventral fin, 480
Insurance
annual insurance cost, 47
cost, 47
form of liability, 35
Integrated Product Teams (IPT), 9
Inverted gull-wing dihedral, 87
Inverted V-tail, 493, 493f
Inverted Y-tail, 494, 494f
Ishikawa diagram, See Fishbone diagram

J

Javafoil software, 256
Jet A, Jet A-1, Jet B, TS-1, 188t
Jet engine inlet, 223–227
Jodel wing, 87, 117–118
Joining, 102–103
Joukowski airfoil, 274–275, 275f
Junkers flap, 423–425

K

Kinematic viscosity
dynamic viscosity, 7
properties, 766t
Reynolds number, 252
Kinetic energy (KE), 560
derivation of equation, 560
energy height, 891
propulsive efficiency, 618–619
rate-of-climb, 931
Knots
using airspeeds, 740
preliminary data, 67
Knots calibrated airspeed (KCAS), 740
Knots equivalent airspeed (KEAS), 775
airspeeds, 47
design maneuvering speed, 777
properties, 775t
Knots ground speed (KGS), 557t, 768
Knots indicated airspeed (KIAS), 769
Knots true airspeed (KTAS), 740
Krüger flap leading edge, 408–411

L

Labor cost, 38–39, 45
Laminar boundary layer, 242–243
boundary layer transition, 248
leading edge to force, 250
transition, 379
wing layout, 374f
Xfoil, 255
Landing gear forces, 565
Landing over 50 ft, 942
Landing performance, 942–944
Landing roll, 938
Landing wire bracing, 724
Lapse rate
atmospheric ambient temperature, 763–764
temperature constants, 764t
Lateral directional stability, 462–483
Lateral stability
directional and roll stability derivatives, 478t
overturn angle, 569
requirement for, 477, 477f
roll or bank, 475
slipping or sideslip, 475
winglets, 448–449
Law of effectiveness, 46–47, 349
Leading edge extension, 302
AOA, 379
lift distribution, 356f
Leading edge radius
flow over an object with, 249f
LE radius, 256–257
Leading edge slat, 412–416
Leaf spring landing gear, 563–564
landing gear legs, 715
for small aircraft, 564f
Leaf-spring, 560–562, 563f
Lean Engineering, 8–9
Lean Manufacturing, 8–9
Learjet 45XR, 785
drag polar, 852, 853f
example, 853b
flight envelope for, 881f
properties, 786t
three-view, 785f
Learning curve, 36
Liability cost, 37
Liebeck airfoil, 275, 275f
Lift
airfoil stall characteristics, 251
angle-of-attack at zero lift, 240
compound tapered planform, 335
compressibility effect on, 278
and drag, 5
engine placement, 89
force, 149
forward-swept planform, 337–338
fuselage, 81
generation, 245
Bernoulli theorem, 246
Kutta-Joukowski circulation theorem, 246–247
momentum theorem, 245–246
lift coefficient of minimum drag, 241
lift curve slope, 239–240, 343
maximum lift coefficient, 66
performance efficiency, 56
positive relation, 26
Reynolds number effect, 276f
SAS, 5
section lift coefficient, 239
smeaton lift equation, 239
spanwise location, 155
turbulators, 981
USA-35B, 268
Lift Bernoulli theorem, 246
Lift coefficient, 344
AOA, 86
camber effect, 276
comparison of section, 331f
compressibility, 279
linear range, 240
maximum
for desired stalling speed, 66
gap effect on magnitude, 420f
max lift ratio, 357
maximum theoretical lift coefficient, 276–277
nacelle strakes, 981
for selected aircraft, 361t–362t
standard lift curve graphs, 276
impact of sweep angle on, 318
of thin airfoils, 252
USA-35B, 268
minimum drag, 241
numbering system, 262
relationship, 344
section, 86
wide-range lift curve, 344
Lift curve
airfoil stall characteristics, 251
airfoil’s, 283–284
derivation of equation, 346
flap effect to airfoil on, 285f
NACA series airfoils, 268f
Reynolds number effect on, 276f
three-dimensional wing, 343
two-dimensional, 240f, 276
Lift curve slope, 239–240, 343
complete aircraft, 347–348
determination, 345–347
using equation, 344
property, 349
Lift distribution
conventional, 242–243
drag due to wing washout, 736
Fourier series, 386
ideal, actual and wasted, 329f
methods to present spanwise, 331–332
optimum, 256
un-flexed and flexed wings, 350f
Lift distribution with flaps deflected, 336
Lift Kutta-Joukowski circulation theorem, 606–607
Lift momentum theorem, 245–246, 638–640
Lift-induced drag
correction factors, 672
Oswald efficiency, 672–673
span efficiency, 673
corrections
in ground effect, 738
wingtip correction, 737
using lifting-line method, 689
magnitude, 309
Oswald span efficiency, 363
Prandtl-Betz integration, 690
pros, 334
Lift-induced drag coefficient, 314–315, 383–384
AOA and airspeed, 686
generic formulation, 687
using lifting-line method, 689
from momentum theorem, 686–687
monoplane equation, 386
Prandtl-Betz integration, 690
Lift-to-drag ratio
Liebeck Airfoils, 275
maximum
calculation, 351
determination, 326f
graphical determination, 673f
for modern sailplanes and powered sailplanes, 316f
performance efficiency, 56
Light sport aircraft (LSA), 3
aircraft classes, 3t
establishing weight ratios for, 139t
KCAS for, 58
stalling speed, 353
Linear range, 240, 343
Loading cloud, 171–173, 529f
Longeron, 101, 117
Longitudinal static stability, 463–466
Low wing location, 82–86
Low-wing, 82
aircraft, 85
configuration, 84
fuel system, 212

M

Mach number, 249
compressibility, 278–279
computer code, 207–209
critical, 282f, 289
effect on lift and drag, 278f
effect on pitching moment, 280f
throttle ratio, 196–197
thrust ratio, 199f, 200f
Machining, 101, 124
Macro-and micromechanics, 109
Main landing gear
comparison, 174t
main wheel tires, 556–557
structural capabilities, 170
structural limits, 170f
Main spar, 120–121
cross sections, 121, 121f
leading edge rib, 123
main ribs, 122
Maintainability, 8
Maintenance, 14
cost, 46, 49
to flight hour ratio, 46–47, 49
laminar boundary layer, 676
protocols, 585–586
repair stations, 487–488
requirements, 14
Maintenance requirements, 14
Maneuvering airspeed, 775–778
Maneuvering load, 210–211, 775–778
Manhours
for engineering development, 6
number of engineering, 37–38
number of manufacturing labor, 38–39
number of tooling, 38, 45
Manufacturing labor
cost analysis, 39
number of man-hours, 38–39
total cost of, 40
Materials
aircraft cost, 56
aircraft fabrication and, 98–115
CET and TET, 196–197
composite materials, 108
aircraft construction methodologies, 114
fabrication methods, 114–115
fibers, 111–112
gelcoat, 113–114
glass transition temperature, 113
pre-cure, 114
pros and cons, 110–111
resin, 112–113
sandwich core materials, 113
structural analysis, 109–110
types of composite, 108–109
technical standard order, 15
total cost of, 40
Mattingly, 4, 197–198
Max zero fuel weight, 135
Maximum landing weight, 135
Maximum lift coefficient
for desired stalling speed, 66
gap effect on magnitude, 420f
max lift ratio, 357
maximum theoretical lift coefficient, 276–277
nacelle strakes, 981
for selected aircraft, 361t–362t
standard lift curve graphs, 276
impact of sweep angle on, 318
of thin airfoils, 252
USA-35B, 268
Maximum operating airspeed, 787–789
Maximum zero fuel weight, 134–135, 137
Maxwell leading edge slot, 414–415
Mean Geometric Chord (MGC), 84
Cirrus SR22 properties, 784t
comparison, 158t
effectiveness law, 349
MAC, 304
spanwise location, 149
trapezoidal wing, 155
Mean-line, 256
NACA four-digit airfoils, 257–258
slope calculation, 259–260
y-value computation for, 259
Mid-wing
aircraft design, 85
configurations, 84
Minimum angle-of-descent, 931
Minimum control airspeed, 601
Minimum descent airspeed, 893–894
Minimum lift coefficient, 239, 343
Minimum power required airspeed, 864–867
Minimum sink rate, 931
Minimum unstick airspeed, 183
Minimum wetted area, 503, 510
Miscellaneous drag, See Additive drag
Mission definition, 5, 78–79
Mission definition, 5
Mission profile, 899, 914–921
Mission range, 899–909
Molding, 100, 111
Moment of inertia
comparison, 158t
inertia properties, 161t
mass, 166f
parallel-axis theorem, 156
propeller, 619–620
system of discrete point loads, 167–168
trapezoidal wing, 155
Mono-wheel
landing gear with outriggers, 571
with outriggers, 92
structural weight, 92
Monocoque, 117
Monoplane, 77
aspect ratio, 310
decalage angle for, 328, 329
equation, 386
Multi-disciplinary optimization (MDO), 56
estimation, 145
software for, 57
Munk-Multhopp method, 473

N

NACA 1-series airfoil, 263–264
NACA 4-digit airfoil, 257–258
NACA 5-digit airfoil, 261f, 263
NACA 6-series airfoil, 264–266, 265f
NACA 7-series airfoil, 266–267, 266f
NACA 8-series airfoil, 267
NACA airfoil
with Highest Clmax, 270t
lift and drag properties, 269–271
with Lowest Cdmin, 270t
properties of selected, 267, 269t
pros and cons, 267, 267t
Nacelle, 81
configurations, 585t
propeller configurations, 584
stabilizing effects, 473
strake on Airbus A319 commercial jetliner, 981f
twin-engine turboprop aircraft, 90
Nacelle strakes, 981
Natural Laminar Flow (NLF), 665
airfoil, 675, 692
LFC, 691
quadratic drag model, 668
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 1, 763
NBAA range, 919
Never-exceed airspeed, 773t–774t
95th percentile human, 533f, 544–545
NLF airfoil, 692
advantage, 289
chordwise distribution for, 243f
composite sandwich construction, 119
pressure-recovery region, 526
square trailing edge, 257
for stabilizing surfaces, 126–127
Noise
advisory circular, 15
in cabin, 485
climb angle, 827
propeller, 606–607
Non-Conventional aircraft, 3t
Non-planar wing, See Polyhedral wing
Normal Category
aluminum alloys, 106t
applicable properties, 775t
40-ft wingspan, 125
Normal force, 238–239
moment equation, 469–470
propeller normal and side force, 598–599
workaround for, 470
Nose landing gear
CG location, 165
comparison, 174t
drag of, 723–724
geometric definitions, 552f
nosewheel tires, 557
weight, 38, 143
NRLMSISE-00, 2
Numerical integration method
equation of take-off motion
closed-form integration, 807
nomenclature, 807f
using spreadsheet, 807
ground run analysis, 810t
propeller thrust at low airspeeds, 807–808

O

Oleo-strut landing gear, 564f
Operational cost
aircraft estimation
aircraft ownership, 46
manufacturing and selling airplanes, 46
business aircraft, 49
annual fuel cost, 49
annual insurance cost, 49
engine overhaul fund, 49
hourly crew, 49
maintenance cost, 49
maintenance to flight hour ratio, 49
storage cost, 49
total yearly cost, 51
GA aircraft, 46
annual fuel cost, 47
annual inspection cost, 47
annual insurance cost, 47
annual loan payment, 47
cost per flight hour, 48
engine overhaul fund, 47
maintenance cost, 46
maintenance to flight hour ratio, 46–47
monthly loan payment, 47
storage cost, 47
Optimum glide in headwind or tailwind, 770–771
Optimum glide in rising air, 778–779
Optimum glide in sinking air, 778–779
Optimum lift, 329–330
Oswald’s span efficiency
aerodynamic properties calculation, 67
determination, 67t
estimation, 363
definition, 363
Douglas method, 364
lifting line theory, 364
straight wings, empirical estimation for, 363
swept wings, empirical estimation for, 363–364
USAF DATCOM method, 364–365
lift-induced drag coefficient, 314–315
Outrigger
design guidelines, 572f
monowheel landing gear with, 571
monowheel with, 92
tailwheel and, 92
Overhaul
annual insurance cost, 49
engine overhaul bank, 46
engine overhaul fund, 47
TBO, 47

P

P-factor, 595–596, 598
Parasitic drag, 666
CDBM, 697
endplates, 448
lift-induced drag, 442
span efficiency, 673
Parasol wing location, 82–86
Parasol-wing, 85–86
configurations, 84
consolidated PBY-5 Catalina, 85f
dihedral effect, 86
lower lift-induced drag, 86
wing configurations, 86f
Parts manufacturer approval (PMA), 15
Payload, 135
aircraft performance, 762
fuselage, 526
payload-range sensitivity study, 919–921
Payload-range
analysis, 920–921, 921t
NBAA payload-range sensitivity plot, 920f
sensitivity study, 919–921
Performance chart
engine, 195–196
extracting piston power, 228–229
using petty equation, 229–230
RPM, 230f
piston-engine performance chart, 229f
Performance padding, 762–763
Personal jet, 200
Petty-equation, 229–230
Philosophy of design, 3
Piston engine, 182, 190
air-to-fuel ratio, 192
airspeed effect on engine power, 192
altitude effect on engine power, 192–195
BHP, 185
common fuel grades for, 188t
compression and pressure ratios, 192
cost of power plant, 41
displacement, 192
energy content of fuel for, 187
example, 189b
four-stroke engine operation, 191
fuel consumption, 189
in GA aircraft, 183
inertia loads, 98
installation, 210
application, 211f
danger zones, 211f
fuel system, 212–213
loads generated by, 210–211
systems integration, 212
torque, 211
types of engine mounts, 212
manifold pressure and RPM effect on, 195–196
manufacturers, 228
performance analysis, 620–621
power plant thermodynamics, 183
specific fuel consumption for, 192
STC, 14
temperature effect on engine power, 195
turboprop engines, 222
two-stroke versus four-stroke engines, 190–191
weight of, 145, 145f
Piston engine exit
exit area and cowl flaps, 216–217
inlet-exit-dependent heat transfer, 215–216
inlet-radiator-exit method, 217–219
Piston engine inlet, 213
adequate cooling, 213
airflow, 215f, 216f
exit area and cowl flaps, 216–217
fuel system, 214f
inlet-exit-dependent heat transfer, 215–216
inlet-radiator-exit method, 217–219
proper sizing, 214
pusher configurations, 213
for selected aircraft, 215f
tractor and pusher aircraft configurations, 213
updraft or a downdraft methodology, 213
Pitch control, 607–608, 962–964, 963f
Pitching
airfoils, 244
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