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Leveraging Neuroscience in Learning Design
At its core, corporate learning is about changing behaviors for the purpose of accomplishing organizational goals. As we sometimes say, we want people to do stuff, not just know stuff. But let’s be clear—knowing stuff is critical. To do stuff, you need to know stuff. More specifically, before they can take action on the new information, people need to be able to recall that new information.
To allow for later retrieval, learning content needs to be stickier and more durable—so it can move from short-term memory to long-term memory via neural networks. And, because our long-term memory can hold unlimited amounts of information, we also need to be able to find that specific piece of information again. This is the job of the brain’s hippocampus region.
Let’s look at it another way. If, in our homes, we simply put away items in the first empty space we could find, it would be almost impossible to find a pot when we needed one. So, we put all the kitchen things in one room, and then within that room we store pots in one place and dishes in another. Likewise, the hippocampus uses pattern recognition to store new information with what it considers to be similar information. These “storage bins,” or neural schema, need to be connected through neural pathways. The more a pathway is used, the stronger it becomes. And the more pathways between and among schema, the easier it is to find information. So, the more you retrieve it, the easier it is to access later.
“As neural networks become more complex and interconnected, thus providing more options for interpreting and reinterpreting experience, the brain comes to know in more complex ways” (Taylor and Marienau 2016). When schema are connected through strong networks or were created at the same time, they can trigger one another. Additionally, the hippocampus is also part of the limbic system (the brain’s emotional processor), so the connections between memories and emotions can be very strong. That’s why the smell of baking cookies can trigger memories of your grandmother.
Fortunately, there is much research available on how we can push learning into long-term memory to improve retrieval. This chapter summarizes this research and provides suggestions for making your learning content durable and sticky.
Leverage Neural Networks: The Science
Neural networks connect all the bits of information we know and make it possible to find that information once it is stored. As with highways, the bigger the pathway and the more frequently they are used, the easier it will be to get where you’re going. A poorly marked dirt road is more difficult to navigate than a superhighway, and in the same way, the stronger the neural network, the easier it is to retrieve the information.
What This Means for Instructional Design
To facilitate learning, we need to maximize the use of these neural networks and schema. We also need to use existing pathways and strengthen pathways that aid retrieval of information.
One way we can do this is by connecting new information to what people already know, especially if that knowledge already has strong neural networks leading to it. This utilizes strong networks and helps to continue strengthening existing networks and pathways. At the same time, we need to intentionally design our learning content so that learners build new pathways among their schema. The more connections there are, the more likely they will be able to retrieve information.
The hippocampus can more easily determine where to store information if the appropriate areas are activated at the start of the learning program. It also helps if the relevant structure of the content is visible, which will ensure it’s stored with related information and patterns. In addition to the knowledge and information aspects of learning, memory and retrieval increase when we create emotional connections. These can be new emotional experiences or connections to existing emotional memories. Finally, the strength and number of neural connections increase when we create space for individual insights to occur.
Things to Try
Accessing and building neural networks should be done throughout the learning experience. More than 50 years ago, David Ausubel recommended the use of advance organizers to bridge the gap between new material and existing knowledge. Today we understand more about how and why tools such as advance organizers work. At the beginning of a learning experience, it is valuable to get participants thinking about relevant topics they already know something about. Activating these neural schema provides places to connect the new information. Here are some ways you can do this:
• At the beginning of a lesson or module, ask one or two priming questions. While learners don’t need to know the answers and should not be evaluated, the questions should pique their interest. They should be general enough that they don’t feel like trick questions, but specific enough to trigger the appropriate schema. Feedback about the questions can help focus the learning, as well as provide an interesting nugget of information that makes the learner curious to know more.
• In a live learning event, create icebreakers that are connected to the upcoming learning content. For example, instead of just having learners get to know one another, get them to activate their own neural networks by asking questions or telling stories that are relevant to the topic at hand.
• Start the learning program with a story or metaphor that participants will be able to relate to. If the session participants represent a variety of age groups, make sure the metaphor isn’t specific to one generation and unknown to the others. This is also important with global audiences. In some cases, it may be worthwhile to use multiple metaphors or stories to ensure that the learners have the relevant schema to begin with. For instance, references to a Bollywood movie might be very successful with an Indian audience, while leaving North Americans at a loss for context. The point is to connect to schema that are already strong, not to build a new schema.
During the learning experience, continue to help learners build multiple neural pathways by making the context clear, helping identify how the new information fits with their existing neural patterns, and activating existing pathways to strengthen connections. The key to learning that sticks is the ability to easily find the information later. Try these two techniques:
• Use metaphors and analogies to help people make strong connections to schema that are already well developed and connected.
• Use a range of topics to help maximize opportunities to connect the dots. Give learners a chance to tell their own stories to ensure the connections are meaningful for them. This is especially important in a global organization, where learners likely have very different backgrounds.
Focus on Focus: The Science
Attention or focus on a topic is needed for the hippocampus to start working and begin encoding memories. In addition, research has shown that the brain (hippocampus) can focus only on a single item at a time and then for only about 15 to 20 minutes. After that, the brain will begin to tire and shift its attention to something else.
What It Means for Instructional Design
We need to focus on a single chunk of learning content for no more than 15 to 20 minutes, and make sure it is relevant to the audience. After the learning chunk, we can do one of two things:
• Allow the brain to rest—such as scheduling a break.
• Recapture the brain’s attention on the topic by using a different activity to allow for processing.
What to Try
At the start of our learning programs, we often ask learners to be present and focused. We request that they put away their laptops and phones, so they won’t be tempted to multitask. (This is not new, but the neuroscience supports its importance. You could even explain the neuroscience behind why multitasking doesn’t work. Keep it simple and on point.) Perhaps start your programs with mindfulness activities to help learners focus.
Try to design learning content in 15- to 20-minute intervals. Make no mistake, this can be a challenge, especially with overzealous presenters! After a presenting learning chunk, look for ways to follow it up with an activity that recaptures the brain’s attention and reinforces the information—such as individual reflection using a journal, table discussions, or design thinking activities. So, although the topic might be the same, the next chunk of learning is experienced differently. Be creative to regain the attention of your learners’ brains!
In one of our leadership programs for up-and-coming executives, we created a novel space for breaks called the Discovery Zone. It is a separate room or area from the classroom, where participants could go play games, work on puzzles, read materials, watch videos, or have discussions with one another in a coffeehouse setting. To improve the experience, breaks were extended to at least 30 minutes. This was a favorite of the learners.
In another program, we broke a topic into shorter lengths so learners could focus by created a multistep practice exercise for sellers to create client-centered value statements. In the first five minutes, the facilitator shared the elements of a good value statement. Then, in small groups, learners spent five minutes creating a value statement. In the next step, each group read out their value statement and received feedback from the facilitator and the other learners. The learners then got another five minutes to update their value statements. Finally, each group shared their new value statement and explored what changes led to the improved statements. While this exercise lasted a full hour or more, the learners’ attention was recaptured every five to seven minutes.
Include Space: The Science
Research has shown that retention is better when learning is spaced over time instead of one condensed period. This gives the brain time to absorb the information and build neuro-connections through information retrieval. This means that, over time, spacing can improve retrieval and long-term memory. In addition, adding a night’s sleep as part of the spacing process increases retention because memories move into long-term memory during sleep.
What It Means for Instructional Design
No more consecutive days of jammed-packed agendas! We need to include spacing when we’re designing learning programs. Incorporating any kind of spacing is better than having none at all—even if it’s just a few minutes. And incorporating spacing between retrieval activities is even better. So, design your program’s spacing within a session, between a session, or overnight to make the most of those zzzzzs!
Why? Because spacing, including sleep, helps maximize long-term memory formation so they can remember what they learn today in the future!
Things to Try
When designing a training program, try incorporating some of these techniques:
• Include any kind of spacing.
• Ensure learners get ample breaks between sessions; consider having more breaks throughout the day or making existing breaks longer.
• Consider an extended format—instead of a multiday program with a packed agenda, break it up into a series of half days. For bigger impact, include retrieval activities between the series. For example, at the start of day 2, give a quick quiz or activity to get learners to retrieve the information they learned the day before. Breaking up the learning over a period of days also allows for sleep, which is even better for long-term retention!
• Consider spacing out the learning content to include prework and post-work topics. For bigger impact, add retrieval activities, such as leading a game on the prework content at the start of the class.
Here are some more examples of how to add spacing into your learning programs:
• For multiday classes, we usually start each day with a debrief or retrospective. We cover any questions participants have, what topics resonated with them, and ideas they came up with for how to apply concepts on the job. Doing this has a greater impact because we are combining spacing, sleep, and retrieval activities.
• In some leadership programs, we follow up with post-work composed of a series of simple messages asking the learner a few questions about what they learned and how they are applying it on the job. The post-work messaging is sent out once a week or every two weeks for a specific period of time. Again, spacing is combined with sleeping and retrieval activities for better retention.
Foster Insights: The Science
The good news about strong schema and neural pathways is that they reduce the brain’s workload when recalling information and executing behaviors. The bad news is that strong neural pathways can also make learning new information and changing our behavior more difficult. Just think of those paths in the woods. If you have been using the same path for years, going in a new direction off the beaten path is going to be difficult, even scary.
What It Means for Instructional Design
When we share information with people without also asking them to practice or reinforce it, or giving them the opportunity to integrate new information into their personal schemas, we create the awareness but not the memory required for behavior change. People remember what they discover for themselves.
Whenever possible, let people discover things on their own. A learner’s previous experience and bias will shape how they receive the information provided in the learning program and whether they will apply the information in their work. We cannot design for every single perspective, but we can provide space and opportunity for them to integrate new knowledge into their own experiences.
Certainly, learners need to gain knowledge about something before they can figure out how to use or apply that knowledge. To help them generate their own insights, move beyond knowledge transfer. Intentionally decide where in the learning experience knowledge gain ends and application and integration starts.
What to Try
Insight can be as simple as an effective debrief question like, “How would you use this concept in your work?” Or it can be as complex has having learners develop their own model. You can:
• Share the elements of a new programing language, then let learners program something.
• Share a new negotiation model, then have learners share their perspectives of its benefits instead of having the instructor state them.
• Use the expertise in the room. Learners often have valuable, related experience, so allow them to share what they’ve learned or done. Then supplement that with any content you want them to know and they haven’t mentioned.
• Have learners build a sales process in teams first, then share the desired process and highlight the similarities between the two.
• Do pre- and post-polls so people can see the shift in their own and others’ perspectives.
• Put learners in pairs and have them explain a concept to each other. Make sure they discuss the impact the new concept would have on their work.
• Provide time and a tool for individual reflection. Include questions or guidance so they intentionally focus on what the new information means to them or their work.
Here are two real-life examples of design allowing space for insight:
• We have a workshop that introduces recent university graduates to critical selling skills. The workshop begins with small groups rating the performance objectives of a six-month program on two factors: difficulty and importance. During the workshop, they actively practice performance objectives like leading client conversations and handling objections. Then, at the end of the workshop, they rate the objectives again. The workshop facilitator debriefs based on the rating changes. In the pre-workshop assessment, participants often rate “asking effective questions” as important and not difficult. However, once they practice a few assessed client conversations, their perception of the importance increases, and the difficulty rating goes way up. The two rating sessions separated by the opportunity to practice allow new sellers to develop their own insights about what makes a successful sales professional, and opens them up to further learning and development opportunities.
• Research conducted before the design of a new leadership program revealed that time management was an issue for the target audience. Because the audience was experienced professionals, we didn’t feel comfortable providing basic time management content. Instead, we started the time management model by providing general areas where managers spend their time. In small groups, the managers developed a pie chart to show how a high-performing manager would allocate their time. Then, we compared their models as a large group, discussing the similarities and differences required by different organizational demands. Managers were then asked to look at their work calendars and create a pie chart depicting where they actually spent their time in a typical week within the last month. With their own reality in front of them, they gained immediate insight to changes they needed to make to match their definition of how good managers allocate their time. They were engaged. They were more committed to changing their behavior because they each reached their own meaningful insight.
Consider Emotions: The Science
The hippocampus and amygdala regions of the brain are both essential for learning. The primary function of the hippocampus is in learning systems, navigation, and memory, while the amygdala is the emotional processing center of the brain and the seat of working memory. Together, the two regions take in information and move it into long-term memory, storing the emotional context along with the memory. When the amygdala is aroused, it automatically turns on the hippocampus.
What It Means for Instructional Design
Certain levels of emotional arousal increase attention, help learning content be more memorable, and enhance retention. Emotional content grabs the attention of the learner and helps focus that attention. It then signals the brain that the content is salient, ensuring it is stored effectively. This is particularly important with behavioral change programs.
All emotional arousal is not equal, however. Extreme emotions, whether positive or negative, can interfere with learning by interfering with our ability to attend to anything else and creating a lack of focus. Exercises that remove the fear of failure are especially important for facilitating learning programs. The best emotions for learning are in the middle—not too exciting and not too threatening. In this range, both positive and negative emotions can aid retention, although using negative emotions can be dangerous. What seems like a mild negative stimulus to some can be interpreted more strongly by others. Mild positive emotions are more likely to achieve their goal with a wider range of learners and have been shown to aid creativity, collaboration, and insight.
Understanding, making meaning, and problem solving are all key components of learning, but emotion is also essential. The emotional component is what enables us to make evaluative decisions based on what we know.
What to Try
Connecting to emotions to enhance learning can be twofold. On the one hand, you want to decrease any negative emotions and stress that participants bring to the learning event; on the other hand, you want to create positive emotions that help with later retrieval. Try some of these techniques:
• Help reduce negative stress at the beginning of a session by letting people name their distractions and concerns. People may be bringing concerns from their personal lives, but they may also be worried about work that isn’t getting done while they are in the class. If learners are not comfortable sharing their concerns with the group, you can ask them to write down what they’re worried about and then put it away. Just naming concerns and fears can help reduce their significance.
• Light competition can stimulate emotions, as long as the pressure to “win” doesn’t become stressful. In online courses we often employ Jeopardy-like games where learners can test their knowledge and try to achieve higher scores by answering more difficult questions. Their fear of failure is minimized because we allow them to retake the knowledge checks. However, it is important that these games don’t seem cheesy or childish because that will produce counterproductive emotions.
• During the learning experience, create situations where people can connect with others and experience emotional resonance. This can be more difficult in online courses than in face-to-face classes. In a course for technicians that outlined the importance of following a set of procedures to get servers back online quickly, we used scenarios depicting real consequences for people who were depending on those servers. This allowed the learners to relate to the situation and resulted in a greater commitment to solving problems for other people. The session was no longer just about remembering a set of random steps to make the hardware work.
• Challenging the learner increases emotion and helps increase retention, but don’t go too far. To build technical and conversation skills, sales professionals need to practice client conversations with subject matter experts in a workshop. For early career professionals, this can be highly stressful. To help balance between participants being under challenged and overly stressed, the facilitators can focus on the growth opportunities and penalty-free environment a practice session offers.
Summary
Incorporating neuroscience concepts into learning designs for business builds robust neural networks that facilitate better retention and retrieval, driving behavior change and business impact.
As we learn more about how the brain works, we learn how to use the brain’s cognitive processes to enhance learning, rather than fighting against its natural impulses.
Key Takeaways
Here are several ways to leverage the brain’s cognitive processes:
Focus on the learner first, then the content. Neural networks, focus, space, insight, and emotions are all about the learner, their experience, and how well that experience promotes the retention of new knowledge.
Honor the learners’ current schemas as you design the experiences to build new ones. Provide time and space for learners to integrate these new ideas into their personal schemas.
Consider neuroscience principles in every delivery method. Neural networks, focus, space, insight, and emotions influence everyone whether they’re in a standard classroom, live virtual classroom, social learning, or online self-study.
Find the right balance as you design. No learning experience can be all about emotion or focus or insight. Just as leveraging emotion needs to find the right balance between under stimulation and overstimulation, the program designs should be integrated and balanced with other learning design techniques.
Questions for Reflection and Further Action
1. What potential perspectives are your participants bringing to this learning experience?
2. At what points in the learning experience can you leverage neural networks, focus, space, insight, or emotions to increase retention?
3. Where does the learning experience call for a change in perception or belief? How can you leverage activities that address neural networks, focus, space, insight, or emotions to foster behavior change?
4. Which of these learning design suggestions will work in my organization? How might you use these ideas to learn more about the neuroscience of learning?