11.3. APPROACHES AND FACTORS AFFECTING TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER
Roberts and Frohman (1978, p. 36) describe three general approaches used by industrial research organizations to facilitate research utilization: These are the personnel approach, the organizational link-pins approach, and the procedural approach.
11.3.1. The Personnel Approach
The personnel approach involves movement of people, joint teams, and intensive person-to-person contact between the generator and the user of the research. Suppose an R&D group develops an intelligent and stand-alone air-pollution monitoring device that has a built-in microprocessor capable of real-time analysis. The innovation is complex, requiring some modifications or debugging during manufacturing. Some key members of the R&D group may be transferred to manufacturing to facilitate the process. The enthusiasm and keen insight of the R&D group can thus be transferred to manufacturing, increasing the probability of effective technology transfer.
11.3.2. The Organizational Link-Pins Approach
This encompasses specialized transfer groups that contain engineering, marketing, and financial skills; use of integrators who act as third-party transfer coordinators; and new venture groups.
Some organizations may find that the movement of people creates other unacceptable personnel problems or is not economical. A special "technology transfer group" is formed to specialize in moving innovations from R&D to demonstration, to manufacturing, and to the ultimate user. It is important to recognize that a technology transfer group cannot consist of just a sales or public affairs office (PAO). In one case we studied, the PAO was driving the train and results, predictably, were disappointing. After the initial knowledge and presentation stages, further activities quickly faded away. The PAO group did not have the technical understanding to successfully carry out other tech transfer activities. Even at the knowledge and persuasion stages, misleading and at times erroneous information was provided to the user groups. This further reduced the probability of success for the follow-up stages. For a technology-based innovation, it is essential that knowledgeable engineers and scientists play a leading role in the technology transfer group at all stages. As the technology moves to the decision stage and beyond, the PAO group's role is minimal.
11.3.3. The Procedural Approach
This includes joint planning, joint funding, and joint appraisal of research projects using research and user groups from manufacturing and marketing.
This procedural approach, which involves joint planning and participation in the innovation process by the user community, can be utilized quite effectively. User groups that include personnel from manufacturing, marketing, field users, corporate funding sponsors, and the research community can be organized for major R&D products. It is important to note that participants in these user groups still continue their normal duties. Their participation in the user group is an added responsibility. Researchers often comment on how many new ideas are generated as a result of their interaction with this user group. Such approaches require considerable organizational support, but the effort is worth the cost. In many cases, movement of people or formation of specialized technology transfer groups is simply not feasible due to organizational or cost considerations. Procedural approaches such as formation of user groups can serve as a tool for effective technology transfer without requiring movement of people or extra resources for establishing technology transfer groups. Procedural approaches can also be used to complement the other two approaches.
11.3.4. Factors Affecting Technology Transfer
In a study involving 26 companies, Bosomworth (1995) found that the central research efforts of large corporations vary widely in their organization, objective, and strategic approach to research investment and technology transfer. One of the most important findings was that a formal technology transfer process tends to shorten the time required to move the technology from research to commercialization.
A study of high-performance computer development companies and projects found that the differences in performance are correlated with skills and routines aimed at technology integration (Iansiti, 1995). Furthermore, high project performance is linked to a broad approach to resolving critical problems, merging deep technical knowledge with a detailed understanding of the specific environment in which the new technologies would be applied.
Cetron (1973, p. 11) describes a number of factors affecting technology transfer:
National policies, laws, and regulations (e.g., taxes and tax credits, tariffs, and health and safety regulations)
Corporate policies
Market demand
Scientific base of the nation and industry
Level of R&D effort
Education level
Availability of capital