What are the main components of the Python memory manager?

The main components of the Python memory manager are as follows:

• The raw memory allocator handles the allocation of memory at a low level by interacting with the memory manager of the operating system.
• Object-specific memory allocators interact with the private heap of objects and values in Python. These allocators execute memory operations that are specific to given data and object types.
• The system allocators from the standard C library are responsible for helping the raw memory allocator interact with the memory manager of the operating system.

How does the Python memory model resemble a labeled directed graph?

The memory model keeps track of its data and variables via nothing but pointers: the value of every variable is a pointer, and this point can be pointing to a symbol, a number, or a subroutine. So, these pointers are the directed edges in the object graph, and the actual values (symbols, numbers, and subroutines) are the nodes in the graph.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of the Python memory model, in terms of developing concurrent applications in Python?

Reasoning about the behaviors of a concurrent program can be significantly easier than doing the same in another programming language. However, the ease of understanding and debugging concurrent programs in Python also comes with a decrease in performance.

What is an atomic operation, and why is it desirable in concurrent programming?

Atomic operations are instructions that cannot be interrupted during their execution. Atomicity is a desirable characteristic of concurrent operations, as it guarantees the safety of data shared across different threads.

Give three examples of innately atomic operations in Python.

Some examples are as follows:

• Appending a predefined object to a list
• Extending a list with another list
• Fetching an element from a list
• Popping from a list
• Sorting a list
• Assigning a variable to another variable
• Assigning a variable to an attribute of an object
• Creating a new entry for a dictionary
• Updating a dictionary with another dictionary