Camera Location

The term point of view refers to the position of the camera in relation to the subject and is determined by physical location and angle. One of the first decisions a videographer makes on a shoot is where to set the camera. Beginners don’t usually give this decision as much thought as they should and will often plop the camera and tripod down in the first place they come to that looks good. In short, don’t overlook opportunities for giving your viewer a more interesting point of view. Before settling on a camera location, walk around, explore the possibilities, observe the effects of light and the interaction of foreground, mid-ground, and background to see which vantage point offers the greatest potential. With the z-axis in mind, give adequate thought to how the main subject of the composition interacts with competing visual elements such as other people, set pieces, props, and fixed or moving objects within the frame (see Figure 13.4). Moving the camera one foot to the left or two feet to the right, or sometimes even an inch or two, can make the difference between an average shot and one that is visually superior. Work to eliminate unsightly background mergers such as the proverbial tree branch, lamppost, or fence rail protruding awkwardly from the subject’s head. Think of camera location as your first opportunity to simplify the shot by selectively cropping out unwanted visual elements from the frame with the goal of improving subject isolation and emphasis. Camera and subject location work somewhat in tandem. After fiddling with one you may have to adjust the other, then continue tweaking both until you achieve the shot you want.

When shooting in the field, you also need to consider lighting, which we’ll look at in more detail later in this chapter. What time of day are you shooting, and where is the sun? Is it possible to position the camera in relation to the subject in a way that takes advantage of existing light? Normally, it’s best to have the sun at your back and the camera pointing in the opposite direction. When shooting at night, consider the location of artificial light sources such as streetlamps and whether or

Figure 13.4 The subject/camera placement and z-axis depth improves as you move from top to the bottom in this series of images. Top: Placing the subject in front of a wall takes the z-axis out of play and can cause harsh background shadows. Middle: Z-axis depth is better in this image; however, the window appears to be growing out of the subject’s head, and light from the fill light is reflecting off the glass. The bench in the background adds visual clutter. Bottom: Shallow depth of field enhances visual interest and draws attention to the main subject. There are no unsightly or awkward background mergers. Seating the subject at an angle is more dynamic.

not they can be used to enhance illumination of the subject or background or are best left alone because they present a visual distraction.

As a general rule for interviews, try to locate the camera within four to six feet of the subject. While you can stay further back and merely zoom in for a close-up, it’s better to work from a distance that more closely resembles a real conversation. Interviewing a subject from across the room is unnatural and may contribute to greater discomfort or anxiety that gets captured by the camera and noticed by the viewer. The same is true when acquiring B-Roll. Unless you’re filming an establishing shot of Mount Everest, an adult elephant, or something else of similar magnitude or scale, positioning the camera closer to the subject almost always leads to better results. Don’t rely so much on your camera’s zoom to fill the frame. Get in the habit of zooming with your feet. Move in closer to the subject! Remember, this is what you do in real life when you spot someone across a crowded room with whom you want to have a conversation. Instead of shouting from a distance, you walk over to the person in order to interact in a more personal and meaningful way. All things being equal, your camera will yield better shots when placed in close proximity to the subject rather than farther away.

Camera Angle

Television reporters and documentary filmmakers routinely shoot from an eye-level camera angle during interviews because this position offers the least biased view of the subject (see Figure 13.5). As the saying goes, two people are said to see “eye to eye” when they agree with one another. Shooting at eye level helps maintain the viewer’s perception of a level playing field—where the viewer perceives him- or herself as an equal participant in the exchange and no one has the upper hand. It is a neutral angle that helps mirror a natural and unbiased conversation (see Figure 13.5).

Figure 13.5 Notice how the interviewer (1), the interviewee (3), and the camera (2) are positioned at eye level. This is the ideal setup for a journalistic-style on-camera interview. In a situation such as this, the interviewee is instructed to look at the interviewer/videographer and not directly at the camera. The videographer has positioned himself next to the camera where he can conduct the interview while monitoring video and audio signals during recording.

As humans, our normal or default angle of view is also from eye level, usually from a standing position five to six feet off the ground—a very ordinary vantage point that most amateurs default to when taking pictures. Great possibilities can emerge photographically as we break free of what feels easiest and most comfortable and begin experimenting with creative camera angles that reveal a more unique point of view. When shooting B-Roll or cutaways, try getting down low, even to ground level, or scaling to a height above the action—hovering over it from a bird’s eye point of view. A low-angle shot is one where the camera is placed below the subject’s eye-line, creating a sense from the viewer’s perspective that he or she is looking up at the subject. A high-angle shot is just the opposite, with the camera pointing down from a position above the subject’s eye-line. High- and low-angle shots are used often in the production of dramatic narrative films to intensify the emotion and energy of on-screen action. High-angle shots weaken the perceived status of on-camera subjects—whether they’re characters in a movie, professional talent, or everyday people in candid or staged moments of life— making them appear more delicate, feeble, vulnerable, or helpless, while high-angle shots do just the opposite— rendering them more stout, confident, influential, or powerful. The more extreme the angle, the more intense the perceived feelings of relative strength and power.

Subject Location

You may or may not have as much influence in deciding subject location as you do for camera position or camera angle. For example, if you’ve set up a formal interview with a city councilwoman in her office, it would be inappropriate and presumptuous of you to show up and start rearranging the furniture. However, you can often make minor adjustments without asking permission and, as the producer, suggest the seating arrangement you think works best. You can also suggest an alternative room or setting for the interview that provides better aesthetics, lighting, and/or sound isolation. The worse thing the subject can say is no, so don’t be afraid to try. Arrive early, if possible, to explore the location and to scout out alternative settings and backdrops. It is in your subject’s best interest to trust your judgment because your subject shares your desire to make him or her look as good as possible on camera.

Figure 13.6 In this example, the videographer shot this interview sequence using various settings, angles, and compositional frames. The interview was composed as a medium shot that varied slightly across several takes (top panels). B-roll was acquired after the interview using a mix of medium and close-up shots (middle and bottom panels).

One of the best tips for subject placement is to extend the z-axis as much as possible. Try to position the subject at least six to eight feet away from walls or fixed backdrops. The greater the distance between the subject and background, the more opportunity you will have for composing a pleasing shot with shallow depth of field (see Figure 13.6). Pulling the subject away from walls also helps when focusing lights—for example, giving you more flexibility to position a backlight and a greater opportunity to reduce or eliminate harsh shadows on the wall caused by the subject.

Figure 13.7 In this shot, the subject is heavily backlit, causing her to appear dark in contrast to the properly exposed background.

Finally, avoid placing the subject in front of a window or other highly reflective surface. Backlight from a window can often overpower the scene, producing a darkened and featureless silhouette of subject (see Figure 13.7). To reduce exterior light spilling into a room and mixing with other light sources, try to close doors and window shades. If you don’t have a light kit with you, then look around to identify the best source(s) of available lighting. Where can you position the subject so he or she is properly lit from the front and backlight isn’t a problem? Don’t be afraid to ask if you can turn certain lights off and other lights on if available.

Focal Length

The final determinant of field of view is focal length. The variable focal length lens found on most video camcorders gives you latitude to fine tune your framing—by zooming from a narrow-angle to wide-angle view or to anywhere in between. Ultimately, it’s the focal length of the lens that determines what portion of the viewable area of a scene is included in a shot and what is left out. Be sure to include sufficient white space in the frame to keep the image from looking cramped or cluttered, but not so much that emphasis on the subject is compromised or lost. Also, get in the habit of critically examining the outer edge of the frame to see where the cutoff lines are. Avoid dissecting people in half or eliminating key parts of an object that are needed to mentally complete the image—think back to the principle of psychological closure discussed in chapter 4. Be purposeful in your framing and continually ask yourself if the adjustment you just made improved the composition or took it down a notch. It should be obvious to the trained eye that each framing decision is deliberate, natural, and complimentary. Otherwise, it may be seen as a mistake or, at best, something not quite right or out of place.

While it’s best practice to zoom with your feet rather than with the camera’s zoom control, there are times when physical boundaries or rules can impose a limit on how close a camera can be placed to the subject. An obvious example is a sporting event, where cameras have to be located off the court or field of play. If you’ve been to a professional sporting event such as a football or baseball game, you may have noticed cameras in the stands or on the sidelines with giant box-shaped lenses attached (see Figure 13.8 and Figure 13.20). Professional zoom lenses such as these are very expensive but provide significantly greater magnification than lenses found on portable broadcast cameras and far more than a smartphone with its tiny builtin lens. At times when it’s impossible to get physically close to your subject, be sure to bring along a long lens to compensate.

Figure 13.8 A professional broadcast lens is sometimes bigger than the camera, as this picture illustrates. Expensive long lenses like this one are used in sports broadcasting to acquire close-ups from a distant vantage point.

Figure 13.9 Prior to high-definition video, a heavily saturated red outfit such as the one worn by this television newscaster was considered taboo because it tended to bleed (or smear) on a low-resolution SD monitor. High-definition (HD) cameras handle color much better. Still, as a general rule, on-camera talent should avoid wearing predominantly black or white clothing. Because black is naturally dark and white is so highly reflective, using either color as the base color in a shot will negatively affect the exposure of mid-tone colors in the image. For best results go with natural mid-tone colors for clothing and avoid the extremes as much as possible.

Frame

A frame is a single still image. In the United States, video is typically shot at 24 frames per second (fps)—the traditional frame rate for motion picture film—while broadcast television programs are shot at 30 fps. Each frame contributes to the illusion of visual motion that we perceive as live action, as they are captured one by one and then projected rapidly before our eyes. A motion picture frame carries little meaning on its own when isolated from adjacent frames in a series. It is analogous to a letter in a written word—and has significance only within the larger context of that to which it is attached. We typically do not refer to individual frames in scripts unless they are still images, graphics, or “freeze frames” occurring over a designated span of time.

Shot

A shot is the smallest standalone component in a visual time-based narrative. It is analogous to a word in written grammar. The saying “a picture is worth a thousand words” suddenly comes to mind. By definition, a shot is a continuous live or recorded moving image taken from a single camera’s point of view over time. The term shot derives from the early days of filmmaking when a camera operator turned a hand crank to manually advance the film frame by frame, through the gate and past the lens, where it was exposed to light for a fraction of a second (see Figure 13.1, left). Because the hand crank resembled those used on heavy artillery guns for rapidly firing a round of ammunition, the pioneers of filmmaking embraced the “shooting” metaphor to describe the mechanics of the moviemaking process. For this reason, a videographer or cinematographer is sometimes called a “shooter,” and industry idioms such as “shooting a scene” and going on a “film shoot” are still used today.

The interval from the first turn of the hand crank to a complete stop represented a single shot. Today, in lieu of a hand crank, modern digital cameras are equipped with a record button. The shooter presses this button once to begin recording and a second time to stop. Each interval of recording (from start to stop) produces a single “shot” that is recorded to disk or memory card as a standalone file. The files are imported from the memory card into your editing program as clips. In postproduction, a shot is defined as the portion of a clip between two transition points on the timeline or, prior to an edit, as the segment marked by IN and OUT points in the source or preview monitor. In a live multi-camera production, a switcher is used to instantaneously transition from one shot to another using two or more cameras—with each one providing a different point of view.

The duration of a shot can be very brief, less than a fraction of a second, or it can span an interval of several seconds or more. Because viewers have a relatively short attention span these days, it’s generally a good idea to transition from shot to shot quickly to maintain a pace that is visually stimulating and dynamic. When a single shot appears on the screen for too long (typically 10–15 seconds or longer), viewers can lose interest or stop watching.

Take

A take is a single recorded instance of a particular shot. A shooter may attempt a shot several times before he or she (or the director) is satisfied with the outcome. Each of these attempts is called a take, and at the end the shoot, the director has the job of sorting out the good takes from the bad takes, all of which have been recorded and saved to disk—along with a film slate reference for each scene, shot, and take number (see Figure 13.10). The best takes will make it into the final edited version of the production while the bad takes will likely never be seen by anyone else, unless, of course, the director creates a blooper reel comprised of the more humorous blunders and gaffes. Bloopers are a fun way of reminding the audience how much time, effort, and enjoyment goes on behind-the-scenes during the making of a film or television program. Multiple takes are most common in productions where an actor, host, or reporter must deliver a scripted performance from memory. Rarely does an actor nail a scene perfectly on the very first take. And even when they do, it certainly doesn’t hurt to record a backup take or two for good measure.

Figure 13.10 A clapperboard is used to synchronize picture and sound for each recorded scene and shot. On a motion picture film set, the clapper loader or second assistant camera (2nd AC) is responsible for updating scene information on the film slate at the beginning of each take. For U.S. productions, the slate designation for the scene number is usually a number followed by a letter (as shown here). The number corresponds to the actual scene number in the script while the letter indicates the shot number in the scene.

Source: bepsy/Shutterstock.com.

Scene

A scene is an event within a film that takes place in a single location within a specific period of time. In grammatical terms, it is analogous to a sentence because it is comprised of multiple shots in the same way that words are combined to form sentences. Motion picture screenplays are divided into scenes because doing so makes it easier for a director to break down a long story into manageable parts during the production process. In a screenplay, the scenes are numbered consecutively from the beginning to the end of the script, and a slug line indicates whether the scene takes place inside (INT.) or outside (EXT.) and time of day (DAY or NIGHT). To illustrate, imagine a short film that has 12 scenes and three locations: an apartment, an office, and an outdoor café. Because of the time and the cost involved with setting up and striking each location, it would be terribly inefficient to shoot the scenes in the order they appear in the script. In fact, filming the scenes consecutively would require resetting three locations 12 different times. However, by organizing the scenes according to location and time of day, a more efficient and cost-effective production schedule can be put together involving only three setups and five days of shooting (see Table 13.1).

Whether you’re shooting a motion picture, documentary, corporate video, or news feature, organizing your project by scenes and locations will save you lots of time, frustration, and money.

Sequence

A sequence is an edited series of individual shots that promotes a sense of continuous action or narrative flow (see Figure 13.11). A sequence is analogous to a paragraph in written grammar. You can think of it as a mini-story embedded into a larger narrative. Think about a simple scene in a park where a mother and child approach a cart to purchase an ice cream cone. After completing the transaction, they both turn to walk away. A scene like this could be filmed as one long continuous shot taken from a stationary camera with a wide-angle lens. The downside to this approach is that a shot will present the action in real time and be limited to a fixed and distant point-of-view—one that’s also lacking in visual variety and detail. Most people would find this pretty boring to watch, don’t you think? Since there are three people in the scene (mother, child, and ice cream vendor), one or more of the subjects will have their back or side to the camera for most of the scene. The viewer will likely feel detached from this event as an outsider instead of an active participant who is emotionally engaged and drawn into the scene. As we’ll see in a moment, a wide shot is good for establishing the setting of a new scene, but it’s those specially crafted medium shots and close-ups, woven together into a sequence, that can rivet the viewer’s attention and keep them engrossed in the story.

As an alternative, a scene such as this can be shot and put into a sequence using a variety of interrelated shots taken from different camera angles and points of view. Cinematographers use the term coverage to describe this practice. And the goal of coverage is not just to combine a bunch of random shots together to speed up the action, but to shoot and cut with intentionality and purpose, to enhance the story, and to keep the viewer engaged. A thoughtfully constructed sequence can intensify action, heighten emotion, and compress time. Instead of taking sixty seconds for the action to unfold in real time, an edited sequence can depict the same scene in half the time or less, while providing more information and detail about each of the subjects.

Narrative films are often shot with a single camera. Unfortunately, the camera can only be in one place at a time. In order to obtain multiple shots of a scene from various camera positions, the actors must repeat the scene for as many different camera setups as the director calls for. Following each successful performance or iteration of a scene, there’s usually a break, allowing time for the crew to reset the camera and lights for the next shot.

Figure 13.11 These still image frames were lifted from a one-minute student-produced motivational film for Everlast. The sequence cuts back and forth between two locations past and present—a makeshift gym in a barn (present) and a boxing ring (recent past)—as the main character recalls the details of his most recent triumph. The powerfully constructed sequence is set entirely to music and natural sound. Scanning these frames in order from left to right and from top to bottom, think about how shots can be woven together into a sequence to tell a story in a more interesting way while condensing time and intensifying action and emotion.

Source: Courtesy of Wilson Hester and Peter Walpole.

To illustrate, let’s consider a very simple scenario involving two people seated in a dimly lit television studio (see Figure 13.12). In order to create a sequence using three different camera setups, the actors need to perform their lines at least three times with no mistakes. The first time the scene is performed, the camera will be set to a two-shot that clearly establishes both subjects in the frame (Figure 13.12, top). This shot is referred to as the master shot or cover shot. During the second performance, the camera will be moved to a new position and set to a medium or close-up shot of Person A (Figure 13.12, bottom left). For the final performance, the camera will be moved again and set to a medium or closeup shot of Person B (Figure 13.12, bottom right). The second and third shots, called cross-shots, normally exclude the second person from the frame and are composed as matching reverse images of one another. Person A is shot looking left to right (from the camera’s perspective) with lead room on the right side of the frame. Person B is shot looking right to left with complimentary lead room on the left.

Figure 13.12 Top: A master shot or cover shot is produced by framing both subjects within the frame. Bottom left and right: Two matching cross-shots with complementary framing and lead room. In single-camera film production, a scene such as this one is performed and recorded at least three times— once from each camera position. In postproduction, the shots are interwoven to create a visually interesting and dynamic edited sequence.

Great Ideas

180-Degree Rule (Crossing the Line)

Screen direction refers to the direction subjects are facing as we look at them in the viewfinder or on a television monitor or movie screen. When shooting two people in a scene using three cameras or the single-camera master shot/cross-shot just described, you need to avoid accidentally reversing the screen direction of the subjects when cutting from the master shot to a cross-shot. In other words, in a cross-shot, the subject should face the same direction and be positioned on the same side of the screen as in the master shot. A reverse in screen direction in an edited sequence is a visual faux pas and looks like a mistake to the viewer. To avoid this potential pitfall, picture an imaginary line drawn through the middle of both subjects (see Figure 13.13). This imaginary vector is known as the axis of action, or simply the line. When shooting the scene, be sure to keep the camera or multiple cameras on the same side of this line at all times. This will preserve visual continuity during live switching or editing. At a televised football game or soccer match, the main stadium cameras are located on one side of the playing field only. Live switching of cameras placed on opposite sides of the field during the game would create the undesirable effect of instantly reversing the position of players and teams on the field. The solution? Don’t cross the line!

Figure 13.13 When filming a scene with multiple cameras or camera setups, be sure to shoot from the same side of the 180-line every time. Crossing the line will result a reverse shot, making it appear to the viewer that one of the subjects in the shot has suddenly switched positions or changed direction.

Wide Shot

As the name implies, a wide shot (WS) or long shot (LS) captures a wide angle of view of a scene or person. The WS designation can be used for describing something grand, such as a panorama shot of Pike’s Peak, or for an all-encompassing shot of a single human subject from head to toe. To be more precise, we could refer to the Pike’s Peak example as an extreme wide shot (EWS). An extreme wide shot or extreme long shot (ELS) is sometimes called an establishing shot, particularly when it is used as the first shot in a sequence to “establish” a location or scene change. Establishing shots provide the viewer with a sense of place, helping the viewer develop a mental map of the physical occupants, space, and boundaries where the action is taking place. Establishing shots can vary in range and scope. For instance, to establish a scene in New York City, one could use an EWS of the Manhattan skyline, the Statue of Liberty, a subway station with a recognizable name, or performers masquerading as action heroes in Times Square or Central Park. The more recognizable the people, setting, or landmarks in an establishing shot, the more effective it will be as a visual cue for connecting viewers to the actual location, season, and time of day it represents. Complimentary wide shots are sometimes used as bookends at the opening and close of a sequence or movie as a way of visually indicating the beginning and end of a particular scene or story.

Medium Shot

A medium shot (MS) is a tighter composition that generally contains only a portion of the subject in the frame while allowing sufficient room for gestures, actions, or references to nearby people and objects just beyond view. The cutoff point for a medium shot can occur near the ankles, knees, waist, elbows, shoulders, or neck. However, be careful to avoid setting the bottom of the frame even with one of the body’s natural joints. Instead, select a cutoff point that is slightly above or below the joint. Tighter medium shots are good for isolating a single subject while accentuating facial expressions, actions, and movement. More loosely framed medium shots permit other people and objects to reside within the frame simultaneously. For example, a medium two-shot might reveal two people interacting side-by-side from the waist up. Likewise, an over-the-shoulder (OTS) shot includes a portion of one person shot from behind as he or she interacts with the main subject who is facing the camera.

Close-Up

A close-up comes in two varieties: normal (CU) and extreme (XCU). As with all shot designations, these are relative labels that are somewhat subjective. A close-up to one person might be viewed as an extreme close-up to someone else. As far as human subjects go, a close-up takes us beyond the bust shot to a composition that fills the majority of the frame with the subject’s head or face but may still include portions of the neck or upper torso. An extreme close-up moves in even tighter on the face or specific facial features such as the eyes or mouth. Extreme close-ups can focus attention on the actions and movements of hands, feet, eyes, and so on as well as on details found on objects and things in everyday life.

Headroom

Figure 13.15 A) This shot illustrates improper lead room for a subject looking right to left. B) Center framing, with an equal amount of white space on both sides, is appropriate here since the subject is looking directly at the camera. C) This shot illustrates proper lead room for a subject looking right to left.

Figure 13.16 A) This shot is framed with too much headroom. B) This shots lacks headroom entirely. 3) This shot illustrates proper headroom. The amount of headroom you include in a shot is often a matter of taste and personal preference. Over time, you will develop a sense of what works well and what doesn’t for different subjects and settings. Think of these examples as benchmarks to give you an idea of how headroom can affect the overall composition of a shot.

Headroom is the white space located between the top of a person’s head or hairline and the top edge of the video frame. Unless you are composing an extreme closeup, it’s generally a good idea to include at least a small amount of space above the subject’s head (see Figure 13.16). The amount of headroom depends on the subject and the relative tightness of the shot. If the subject has a particularly high forehead and/or hairline, then little headroom, if any, may be called for. Remembering the rule of thirds may help. Frame your subject first with the eyes at or close to the upper horizontal line. Next examine the headroom and make adjustments from there.

Figure 13.17 These B-Roll shots were acquired during the performance of a percussion ensemble. Top: A wide shot (WS). Center: A medium shot (MS). Bottom: A close-up (CU). Individual shots such as these, reflecting diverse points of view, can be combined in editing to form a sequence.

Create a Shot List

Before heading out on a shoot, take time to think ahead and construct a shot list. This is particularly important when working on an unscripted project. Write down everything you can think of that visually relates to your story and think deeply about what shots might flow together in an edited sequence. At every location, be sure to acquire wide shots that can be used to establish or reestablish the setting throughout your story. If the scene is inside, be sure to get at least one exterior shot of the building or a familiar landmark. Shoot your interviews with care, and get lots of B-Roll from a variety of different wide, medium, and close-up views (see Figure 13.17). The more intentional you are in framing and acquiring diverse shots, the more you will have to work with as you assemble your project in post.

Primary Motion

Primary motion includes the physical on-screen movements of people, animals, and objects that take place in front of the camera during a shoot. It is the result of the natural and choreographed movements of subjects within the frame and includes the full gamut of on-screen movement—from high-energy shots of fast-moving vehicles, combatants embroiled in conflict, athletes in the heat of fierce competition, and so forth to the more muted or understated movements of a falling leaf, a flickering candle, or a twitching eyebrow. Primary motion is so named because, as Zettl notes, “it is, and should be, the prevalent motion in a scene.” As a shooter, you should be continually looking for ways to capture primary motion, either through carefully choreographed performances from your actors or in the candid moments of real life, when filming average people performing extraordinary feats or simple mundane actions that are unusual or visually compelling.

Secondary Motion

Secondary motion is produced by the physical movement of the camera or through zooming. Technically, it is independent of event motion and works best when performed in combination with primary motion occurring at the same time. An inexperienced shooter can easily get carried away overusing secondary motion— after all, panning, zooming, and moving around with a camera in tow is so much more exciting than simply pointing and shooting from a stationary position, right? However, secondary motion can easily become a visual distraction, especially when camera movements are unmotivated by the action unfolding within a scene. Secondary motion draws attention to itself and away from the story or subject whenever a viewer perceives it as random or accidental. When properly motivated and used in moderation, secondary motion appears natural and uncontrived. Done well, the viewer shouldn’t even notice when the camera moves because the primary motion on screen calls for it and keeps it in check. For example, in a shot where the subject is walking toward the camera (primary motion), the shooter must zoom out or walk backward (secondary motion) to maintain consistent framing. Because a camera move like this is motivated by primary motion, it will be perceived as natural to the viewer and will draw little attention, if any, to itself.

I like to encourage my students to avoid secondary motion altogether at first, relying on it only in an offline capacity, as a tool for framing or recomposing a shot. Doing so forces someone new to shooting to observe and rely more fully on primary motion as the driving visual force in his or her story. The type of secondary motion you can achieve often depends on whether or not you are controlling the camera by hand or using a tripod or other device for stabilization.

Handheld Motion

Due to their larger form factor, portable broadcast cameras are designed to be shoulder operated or handheld, providing adequate image stability for a trained shooter. In the hands of an inexperienced person, however, shooting handheld can result in shaky camerawork that looks unprofessional. The primary advantage of shooting handheld is speed. With only the camera to worry about, a shooter can quickly move from place to place within a scene, drastically reducing the amount of time it takes to set up and acquire shots from different positions. It also allows you to move in tight on your subject for compelling close-up shots and to rapidly angle low or high for shots that cannot be easily achieved with the camera attached to a tripod or other device.

Figure 13.18 A student uses a freestanding monopod to stabilize a DSLR camera during a video shoot in Costa Rica. The lightweight size and portability of a monopod makes it a popular alternative to a tripod when using smaller cameras in remote regions.

One of my favorite handheld moves is to perform a walking shot while holding the camera slightly above the ground. Another popular handheld technique, known as a Dutch angle or Dutch tilt, involves shooting with the camera slanted sideways on a diagonal axis. A canted camera angle can produce tension, heighten drama, and intensify the primary motion of characters or subjects within the frame. To minimize camera shake while handholding the camera, get close to your subject and shoot with the lens set to the shortest focal length possible (wide angle of view). Trying to maintain a steady handheld shot while zoomed in tight on a subject is very difficult to do even with experience. You can also try turning on your camera’s optical image stabilization (OIS) function, which is designed to digitally compensate for image jitter and shake caused by sudden unintended bumps or movement.

Tripod Motion

Figure 13.19 There’s more to a professional tripod than you might think. Various controls are included to help you quickly change the camera’s height and level the head. You can also vary the amount of tension using the pan and tilt drag controls or lock them down to keep the camera from moving. The pan handle is used for panning and tilting with one hand while controlling the camera with the other. The quick-release plate bolts to the bottom of the camera, allowing you to swiftly slide the camera on and off the head when changing locations.

Source: Manfrotto.

Whenever possible, shoot from a tripod! A tripod is a three-legged support system designed to keep the camera at an appropriate working height while giving the photographer smoother control when framing and recording shots (see Figure 13.19). When using a tripod, the camera is attached to a tripod mounting plate, which in turn is attached to the tripod head using a quick-release mechanism that permits rapid connection and disconnection during a shoot. It’s good practice to disconnect the camera from the tripod before moving it from one location to another. Also, be sure to level the tripod when placing it on uneven ground, otherwise you may end up with a crooked image. Most tripods include a leveling bubble at the base of head to take the guesswork out of balancing it in the field.

Pan and Tilt

A pan involves swiveling the camera left or right horizontally on a fixed pivot point. To pan left requires aiming the lens of the camera more to the shooter’s left. Panning right swings the lens in the opposite direction. A tilt involves swiveling the camera up or down vertically on a fixed pivot point. To tilt up means to point the lens in a more upward direction while a tilt down requires moving it the other way.

Pedestal Motion

Studio cameras are often mounted to a pedestal (see Figure 13.20). Unlike a tripod, a pedestal utilizes a single-column support system on wheels and is designed for use on smooth hard surfaces. In addition to accommodating simple pan and tilt moves, a pedestal allows you to move the entire camera up and down and along the floor in any direction.

Figure 13.20 In addition to simple panning and tilting moves, a camera mounted to a studio pedestal can move laterally across the floor in any direction as well as vertically up or down.

Source: © Soundsnaps | Dreamstime.com – Studio TV Camera On Pedestal Photo.

Pedestal Up and Down

A camera pedestal is counter-balanced to allow it to move effortlessly up and down along a vertical shaft of pressurized gas. Whereas tilting forces the camera into an upward or downward angled view, a pedestal permits the camera to remain parallel to the floor as it is raised or lowered. The vertical range of a studio pedestal is only a few feet, yet this permits a camera operator to perform dramatic moving shots, especially when combined with other secondary motion.

A dolly move is achieved by rolling the entire camera and pedestal forward or backward in a relatively straight line. To dolly in is to move the camera closer to the subject while to dolly out is to pull back and away from the subject in the opposite direction. At first, you may think that a dolly move and a zoom are in essence the same thing—producing an identical motion effect. However, filmmakers favor dolly shots over zooming because the dolly produces movement that more closely mirrors human experience. A dolly visually captures the motion someone performs when physically moving closer or further away from another person or object. With zooming, the camera remains stationary as the subject is brought closer into view through magnification. See the difference for yourself by performing a test using both techniques. After comparing the results on screen, I think you’ll agree that the motion created by the dolly move looks more realistic.

Truck and Arc

A truck is a lateral movement of the entire camera from left to right (or vice versa) in a relatively straight line. An arc involves moving the entire camera to the left or right along a curved path. A director specifies the path of a truck or arc move with the commands truck left and truck right or arc left and arc right.

You do not have to use an expensive studio pedestal to attempt moving shots like these. They can be performed handheld and/or with the aid of a device like a shoulder rig, jib, Steadicam, dolly, or any other number of contraptions designed to facilitate smooth camera motion (see Figure 13.21 and Figure 13.22). When using a camera dolly, it helps to have track the dolly can ride on to minimize shock from uneven surfaces. There are many ways to improvise using inexpensive means and a little bit of creativity. You may be able achieve good results shooting from a car, cart, skateboard, wheel chair, and so on. Just be careful and use common sense.

Figure 13.21 Camera support systems such as these provide added stability for moving shots and come in many shapes and sizes. Top left: A slider provides lateral movement for the camera by gliding sideways on a three-foot rail support. Top right: A shoulder rig comes in handy when shooting handheld with a smaller camera such as this DSLR. Bottom left: A videographer sits atop a platform dolly designed to move smoothly along a curved linear track when pushed from behind. Bottom right: A Steadicam Pilot uses a gimbal stabilizing system to keep the shot steady during walking shot.

Figure 13.22 Filmmakers have increasingly taken to the skies as the tools of aerial photography have become more affordable. Here, the GoPro HERO3, a popular broadcast-quality point-of-view (POV) camera, is attached to a remote-controlled quadcopter to provide secondary motion from a bird’s eye view. While this may look like child’s play, it takes a skilled operator at the controls to acquire smooth shots. In addition, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has instituted strict rules for the operation of unmanned aircraft for such purposes.

Also, make sure you have production assistants on hand to help spot you and the camera as you perform your moves.

Tertiary Motion

Tertiary motion, or “sequence motion,” is achieved as shots and sequences are ordered and connected together in editing. Cutting back and forth from one shot to another produces visual energy in the form of tertiary motion. Dissolves, fades, wipes, page peels, key frame animation, and other types of computer-generated motion effects fall into this third and final category of motion. Tertiary motion is covered in more detail in chapter 14.

Hard and Soft Light

Have you ever noticed that light bulbs often come in two varieties: clear and frosted. A clear bulb produces a hard light, which is brighter but also produces stronger reflections and harsher shadows with a more crisply defined edge. The unobstructed filament of a clear bulb is intense and overpowering in certain applications. A frosted bulb, on the other hand, produces soft light, which wraps itself more delicately around the subject. The translucent coating of a frosted bulb diffuses light—scattering it so it lands more evenly on the objects in its path while casting lighter shadows with softer edges.

Figure 13.23 The image on the left was shot under overhead fluorescent lighting while the “warmer” image on the right was shot using a portable light kit and the technique of three-point lighting—and with the overhead lights turned off. The first image is relatively flat, while the second image is more saturated and has better contrast.

The sun on a bright cloudless day is a hard light source. When the sky is over-cast, the sun is transformed into a soft light. Clouds absorb sunlight and reflect a portion of it back into the atmosphere, thereby reducing the overall brightness or intensity of light reaching the surface. Clouds also act as a giant diffuser—scattering light so it falls more uniformly on the subject while reducing harsh shadows and reflections. All things being equal, people look much better on camera when they are shot under cloudy skies then under direct intense sunlight. In the absence of clouds, you can move to a shady spot under a tree or in the shadow of a building or other tall structure. Sunlight now becomes a reflected light source, striking the subject indirectly from every angle as it ricochets off surrounding surfaces. Whenever light strikes an object, some of its energy is absorbed while the rest of it is reflected back out at an angle. Shiny light-colored surfaces such as tinted glass, white clothing, and silver sunshades reflect light better than dull dark-colored surfaces that tend to absorb more light than they give back. While on a sunny day a subject standing in the shade of a tree may be sufficiently illuminated for the camera, the image may appear flat or washed out—lacking detail and contrast. In such cases, supplementing natural light with artificial light or reflected light can help improve the shot. More on this later!

Angle of Light

The orientation of the sun changes throughout the day as it moves across the sky in a linear path. As a result, the angle of the light it casts also changes continually. At midday, when the sun is directly overhead, the shadows and reflections it casts are the harshest. Subjects tend to look better when the angle of a light source is at 45 degrees or less. In fact, photographers often speak of the golden hour, a brief window of time just after sunrise or before sunset each day, when exterior lighting is optimal. During the golden hour when the sun is near the horizon, it casts a reddish light, producing a warmer color cast on the subject and background than at other times of the day. Sunlight during the golden hour is also softer (less intense) and easier to work with. If you aren’t interested in a warmer look, then add or subtract additional hours. Just remember, the closer to midday you get, the higher the angle of the sun will be, and the more difficulty you will have mitigating the undesirable consequences of direct sunlight at its worst. When working indoors, the 45-degree rule still holds. For best results, set the height of studio or stand-mounted lights so the angle of light in relation to the subject is roughly 45 degrees.

Light Modification Tools

Much of what we do when lighting a scene for film or video involves harnessing the power of light and controlling it to achieve an intended effect. For example, when shooting outdoors in bright sunshine, you can’t just command the sun to move to a different angle or position or summon a cloud to come and soften the shadows. Instead, you must work with what you have and learn to apply some of the many tricks of the trade used by professionals to modify and control light to achieve a desired look. Let’s take a look at three of the most common light modification techniques at your disposal: 1) block out unwanted light using a flag, 2) diffuse a hard light source using a scrim, or 3) redirect spill light using a reflector (see Figure 13.24).

Flags

A flag is used to block out direct light or prevent spill light from hitting your subject. It functions as a barrier obstructing the passage of light beyond a certain point. You can think of spill light as all the unwanted light in a scene that you would like to eliminate or redirect. Flags come in many sizes and are usually rectangular in shape. They are usually constructed of an opaque fabric, such as black duvetyne, that is stretched and mounted on a rigid frame. A flag works in much the same way as the sun visor in your car—as a shield for your eyes from blinding sunlight. A flag can be held by hand, but it is best to permanently affix it to a C-stand—a sturdy metal stand with an adjustable swing arm that allows for precise positioning of any type of light-modifying device. If you don’t have access to a professional flag kit, you can improvise using cardboard, poster board, foamcore, or another solid material to block out incoming light. Many studio and kit lights come with barn doors to help contain or redirect spill light generated from the instrument. Functioning somewhat like a flag, barn doors are used to block light at the source—keeping it from spilling out haphazardly in all directions. A four-leaf barn door has movable metal plates protruding outward from the front of the light to the left, right, top, and bottom. Each leaf can swing independently, allowing for less or more blockage in all four directions.

Figure 13.24 A flag, scrim, and reflector are mounted to C-stands and strategically positioned to help control and modify light for an on-camera interview.

Lamp Technologies

The three most common types of lamps used in television studio and field lighting instruments are: 1) incandescent, 2) fluorescent, and 3) LED. Incandescent bulbs for television/video applications are color balanced at 3,200 K (Kelvin) for general-purpose indoor lighting. Fluorescent bulbs and LED lamps come in two varieties: 3,200 K (indoor) or 5,600 K (daylight).

Incandescent Lamps

The incandescent light has been around in various forms for many years. It is constructed of a glass or quartz bulb containing a wire filament that is heated by electricity to a high temperature to produce a bright glowing light. The bulb also contains an inert gas that prevents the filament from evaporating and the bulb from darkening over prolonged use. Most incandescent lighting instruments used in video production use tungsten-halogen bulbs (also called quartz lamps). The bulb is made of quartz,

Great Ideas

Three-Point Lighting

The classic technique of three-point lighting is often employed when shooting a single-subject interview (see Figure 13.25 and Figure 13.26). It is sometimes called triangle lighting because the position of the three instruments around the subject tends to form an isosceles triangle. The key light is the brightest source and the main provider of subject illumination. The primary purpose of the key light is to “reveal the basic shape of the subject.”²

Figure 13.25 In three-point lighting, the placement of the key light, fill light, and backlight forms a triangle around the subject.

The fill light is positioned at an opposite angle to the key light in front of the subject. It is intended to compensate for falloff by softening the dark shadows created by the key light without eliminating them entirely. Remember, we need some shadows to maintain a sense of depth and shape. Falloff is the degree to which the lit area of a subject transitions into shadow. The key light creates a fast falloff with bright areas offset quickly by harsh dark shadows. Sometimes, for dramatic effect, a director wants to achieve what is known as the chiaroscuro effect or low-key lighting, where one side of a person’s face is brightly lit while the other side is masked in shadow. In such cases, the fill light is left out. Most of the time, however, the goal is to create a more natural on-camera look where the illumination of the subject is more balanced. The fill light, which is generally a soft light instrument, slows falloff and helps bring better contrast and balance to the image. The backlight helps separate the subject from the background by accentuating the contours of the subject’s hair and shoulders. All three lights are aimed downward at the subject at roughly a 45-degree angle. A fourth light is sometimes added to light the background or set piece behind the subject.

Figure 13.26 This interview was shot using three-point lighting. As you can see, the fill light doesn’t have to be an actual lighting instrument. Here, a reflector is used to bounce spill light to the left side of the subject’s face to counteract falloff. Also, notice that the backlight does not have to be placed directly behind the subject to serve its intended purpose.

the filament is constructed of tungsten, and halogen gas is used to extend the life of the bulb (see Figure 13.27).

Incandescent lights generate lots of heat. For this reason, you need to exercise extreme caution when touching them if they are turned on or before they have completely cooled after being turned off. Experienced gaffers wear gloves to protect their hands from injury when working with incandescent lights. Care also must be taken not to jostle or bump a hot incandescent light. When the filament is hot, it is extremely fragile and can break with even the slightest agitation. It’s best to wait until the lamp is completely cool before touching or moving it. For added incentive, remember that professional-grade incandescent bulbs are expensive compared to the consumer variety used in a household table lamp. A new quartz bulb can easily set you back $20–$40 depending on the model. Light kits often include spare bulbs because breakage and burnout are always a possibility and will often occur at the worst possible moment during a shoot. One last warning about incandescent bulbs—be careful not to touch the surface of the bulb when replacing it. Residual oil from your fingers can coat the outer shell of the bulb. When the lamp heats up, areas coated in oil can overheat, causing the lamp to fail or even shatter.

Figure 13.27 This portable light kit includes four 650-watt tungsten-halogen Fresnels. Each instrument includes a stand, a power cord, and a four-leaf barn door. An assortment of wire scrims is also included.

Fluorescent and LED Lamps

In recent years, new types of non-incandescent bulb technologies have evolved for professional video applications—namely fluorescents and LEDs. Fluorescent lamps are constructed of a low-pressure mercury-vapor gas-filled tube. When an electric charge is added to the mercury vapor, ultraviolet light is produced, causing the phosphor coating on the inside of the glass tube to glow and emit light. Fluorescent lights operate cool to the touch, have a long life, and are significantly more energy efficient than incandescent bulbs. However, because of their long tubular shape and the addition of a ballast to regulate current, fluorescent lighting fixtures are large and bulky in comparison to traditional instruments. Also, because fluorescent bulbs are coated, they naturally cast a soft light with a broad spread that cannot be focused. In order to provide sufficient illumination, fluorescent fixtures generally have to be placed close to the subject. This works exceptionally well when lighting a single-subject interview that is tightly framed; however, when lighting a wide area, fluorescents may not be the best choice—particularly if your goal is to keep the lights out of the shot. For many applications, including studio lighting, fluorescents are combined with focusable instruments (tungsten or LED) to create a more balanced and pleasing image with higher contrast.

LEDs are the latest innovation in video lighting, combining some of the best qualities of incandescent and fluorescent technologies. LED (light-emitting diode) lamps contain no filament or gas. Instead, they use a tiny electronic component called a diode, the simplest form of a semiconductor, to generate light when electrically charged. LED lighting instruments are extremely energy efficient, operate with very little heat, are lightweight and compact, can be dimmed without affecting color temperature, and are rated exceptionally high for durability and longevity. Depending on the design of the lighting instrument, LEDs can be used to generate an intense focusable hard light or a broad soft light—thus making them a versatile solution that can satisfy many types of video lighting needs. LEDs can be dimmed full range without affecting color temperature. Unfortunately, LEDs are also one of the most expensive lighting technologies currently available to video professionals.

Tech Talk

Lighting Instruments Film and television lighting instruments come in a variety of styles suited for different tastes, budgets, and uses (see Figure 13.29).

Figure 13.28 A Fresnel lamp can be manually focused, altering the spread of light from a narrow beam (spot) to a broad beam (flood).

• ■ Fresnel: A Fresnel is a focusable lighting instrument that allows the user to alter the angle of the beam across a range—from a narrow hard light to a broad softer light (see Figure 13.28). Inside the Fresnel’s housing, the lamp connects to a movable platform that slides back and forth between a rear-mounted reflector and a front-mounted lens as the focusing knob is turned. The relative positions of the reflector and lens in relation to the lamp determine the intensity and angle of the beam at any particular point between spot and broad. Fresnels are often used as the key light in three-point lighting because they produce a relatively hard yet controllable beam. They often come equipped with a four-leaf barn door for controlling spill and a gel frame slot for holding metal scrims or colored gels.
• ■ Scoop: If we compare a Fresnel to a spotlight, then a scoop is best thought of as a floodlight. A scoop is a bowl-shaped broad light instrument designed to cover a wide surface area. The lamp sits at the rear of the inside of a shiny scoop, which acts as a parabolic or ellipsoidal reflector to direct the beam. Since a scoop cannot be focused, the only way to control the spread of light it casts is to move it closer or further away from the subject. A scrim can be attached to the front of a scoop to further soften the throw.
• ■ Umbrella light: An umbrella light is a standard lighting instrument (usually a Fresnel) that’s designed to be connected to an attached umbrella with a shiny reflective surface. The umbrella captures the hard light emanating from the lamp and bounces it back out as a soft light in the opposite direction. An umbrella light is often used as the fill light in a three-point lighting setup.
• ■ Softbox: A softbox is a variation of the umbrella light concept. It features a one-piece collapsible umbrella-like design with a curved reflective inside coating and a rectangular front. A diffusion scrim is stretched over the opening to create an even broad throw.
• ■ Camera light: A camera light mounts to the top of a video camera. It is used more for convenience and necessity than for creating a properly lit image, as lighting a subject directly head-on isn’t usually very flattering. When shooting in dimly lit areas or at night, a camera light comes in handy and can often make the difference between acquiring an unusable shot and having something you can work with in post. For best results, use a camera light when you are within a short distance of the subject. Many LED camera lights come with a dimmer control and attachable scrims and color gels for greater lighting control.

Figure 13.29 A) Fresnel with barn door; B) scoop; C) umbrella light; D) softbox with detachable scrim; E) LED camera light with plastic diffuser; F) variable-color LED light with barn door.

Chapter Summary

As with anything new, learning how to light and shoot video with professional results takes time, patience, and lots of practice. Before embarking on an actual project for school or work, practice shooting a simple interview and some accompanying B-Roll. Select a human subject; find a setting that is well lit, visually interesting, and relatively quiet; and shoot a five-minute interview with a properly framed close-up. Shoot from a tripod with the camera set at eye level, and use an external lavaliere microphone to capture sound if you have one. Be sure that it is properly attached (see chapter 12). Go through the FWIGSS setup procedures step by step (see chapter 11). Don’t cut any corners. Play back the interview and critique your work. How did it turn out? Show it to a colleague or professor for feedback. Repeat the practice interview with a second subject and a third, each time building on previous experience while improving results. Once you are competent shooting an interview, practice moving the camera and resetting it quickly from one location to another while capturing B-Roll. Experiment with as many different camera positions and angles as you can as you practice getting more B-Roll than you can ever imagine needing. Keep shooting until you have completely worked the scene and exhausted all possibilities for shot composition and motion. Stop, critique your work, obtain feedback, and try again! If you commit yourself to practicing prior to an actual production, you will achieve better results and have much more confidence when the stakes are higher and a grade or a paid gig are on the line.