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by Douglas Self
Small- Signal Audio Design
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Contents
Preface
About the Author
Dedication
Acronyms
Chapter 1. The Basics
Signals
Amplifiers
Voltage Amplifiers
Transconductance Amplifiers
Current Amplifiers
Transimpedance Amplifiers
Negative Feedback
Nominal Signal Levels
Gain Structures
Amplification Then Attenuation
Attenuation Then Amplification
Raising the Input Signal to the Nominal Level
Active Gain Controls
Noise
Johnson Noise
Shot Noise
1/f Noise (Flicker Noise)
Popcorn Noise
Summing Noise Sources
Noise in Amplifiers
Noise in Bipolar Transistors
Bipolar Transistor Voltage Noise
Bipolar Transistor Current Noise
Noise in JFETs
Noise in Op-Amps
Low-Noise Op-Amp Circuitry
Noise Measurements
How to Attenuate Quietly
How to Amplify Quietly
How to Invert Quietly
How to Balance Quietly
Ultra-Low-Noise Design with Multipath Amplifiers
Ultra-Low-Noise Voltage Buffers
Ultra-Low-Noise Amplifiers
References
Chapter 2. Components
Conductors
Copper and Other Conductive Elements
The Metallurgy of Copper
Gold and Its Uses
Cable and Wiring Resistance
PCB Track Resistance
PCB Track-to-Track Crosstalk
Impedances and Crosstalk: A Case History
Resistors
Through-Hole Resistors
Surface-Mount Resistors
Resistor Imperfections
Resistor Noise
Resistor Non-Linearity
Capacitors
Capacitor Non-Linearity Examined
Non-Electrolytic Capacitor Non-Linearity
Electrolytic Capacitor Non-Linearity
Inductors
References
Chapter 3. Discrete Transistor Circuitry
Why Use Discrete Transistor Circuitry?
Bipolars and FETs
Bipolar Junction Transistors
The Transistor Equation
Beta
Unity-Gain Buffer Stages
The Simple Emitter-Follower
The Constant-Current Emitter-Follower
The Push-Pull Emitter-Follower
Emitter-Follower Stability
CFP Emitter-Followers
Improved Unity-Gain Buffers
Gain Stages
One-Transistor Shunt-Feedback Gain Stages
One-Transistor Series-Feedback Gain Stages
Two-Transistor Shunt-Feedback Gain Stages
Two-Transistor Series-Feedback Gain Stages
Discrete Op-Amp Design
High-Input-Impedance Bipolar Stages
References
Chapter 4. Op-Amps and Their Properties
A Very Brief History of Op-Amps
Op-Amp Properties: Noise
Op-Amp Properties: Slew Rate
Op-Amp Properties: Common-Mode Range
Op-Amp Properties: Input Offset Voltage
Op-Amp Properties: Bias Current
Op-Amp Properties: Cost
Op-Amp Properties: Distortion
Op-Amp Internal Distortion
Slew-Rate-Limiting Distortion
Distortion Due to Loading
Thermal Distortion
Common-Mode Distortion
Bipolar input op-amps
FET op-amps
Rail bootstrapping to reduce CM distortion
Simpler rail bootstrapping
Bootstrapping series-feedback JFET op-amp stages
Selecting the Right Op-Amp
Op-Amps Surveyed: BJT Input Types
The LM741 Op-Amp
The NE5532/5534 Op-Amp
Deconstructing the 5532
The LM4562 Op-Amp
The AD797 Op-Amp
The OP27 Op-Amp
The OP270 Op-Amp
The OP275 Op-Amp
Op-Amps Surveyed: JFET Input Types
The TL072 Op-Amp
The TL052 Op-Amp
The OPA2134 Op-Amp
The OPA604 Op-Amp
The OPA627 Op-Amp
References
Chapter 5. Filters
Passive Filters
Active Filters
Low-Pass Filters
High-Pass Filters
Combined Low-Pass and High-Pass Filters
Bandpass Filters
Notch Filters
All-Pass Filters
Filter Characteristics
Sallen-and-Key Filters
Distortion in Sallen-and-Key Filters
Multiple-Feedback Bandpass Filters
Making Notch Filters
Differential Filters
References
Chapter 6. Preamplifier Architectures
Passive Preamplifiers
Active Preamplifiers
Amplification and the gain-distribution problem
Active Gain Controls
Recording Facilities
Tone Controls
References
Chapter 7. Moving-Magnet Disc Inputs
The Vinyl Medium
Spurious Signals
Maximum Signal Levels on Vinyl
Equalization and Its Discontents
The ‘Neumann Pole’
Implementing RIAA Equalization
Passive and Semi-Passive RIAA Equalization
Calculating the RIAA Equalization Components
RIAA Equalization Component Tolerances
Simulating Inverse RIAA Equalization
Physical Inverse RIAA Equalization
Overload Margins
Cartridge Impedances
Cartridge Loading
Cartridge–Preamplifier Interaction
Cartridge DC and AC Coupling
Discrete MM Disc Input Stages
Op-Amp MM Disc Input Stages
Noise in RIAA Preamplifiers
Noise Results with A-Weighting
RIAA Noise Measurements
Electronic Cartridge Loading for Lower Noise
Subsonic Filters
Combining Subsonic and Ultrasonic Filters
References
Chapter 8. Moving-Coil Head Amplifiers
Moving-Coil Cartridge Characteristics
Amplification Strategies
Moving-Coil Transformers
Moving-Coil Input Amplifiers
A New Moving-Coil Amplifier Configuration
The Complete Circuit
Performance
References
Chapter 9. Volume and Balance Controls
Volume Controls
Volume Control Laws
Loaded Linear Pots
Dual-Action Volume Controls
Tapped Volume Controls
Slide Faders
Active Volume Controls
The Baxandall Active Volume Control
A Practical Baxandall Active Gain Stage
Potentiometers and DC
Motorized Potentiometers
Stepped Volume Controls
Switched Attenuator Volume Controls
Relay-Switched Volume Controls
Transformer-Tap Volume Controls
Integrated Circuit Volume Controls
Balance Controls: Passive
Active Balance Controls
Mono/Stereo Switches
Width Controls
References
Chapter 10. Tone Controls and Equalizers
Passive Tone Controls
Baxandall Tone Controls
The Baxandall Two-Capacitor LF Control
The Baxandall Two-Capacitor Tone Control
The Baxandall Two-Capacitor HF Control
Switched-Frequency Baxandall Controls
Variable-Frequency LF and HF EQs
Tone-Balance Controls
Middle Controls
Fixed-Frequency Baxandall Middle Controls
Three-Band Baxandall EQ in One Stage
Wien Fixed Middle EQ
Sweep Middles
The Single-Gang Sweep Middle
Switched-Q Variable-Frequency Wien Middle EQs
Switchable Peak/Shelving LF/HF EQs
Parametric Middle EQs
Graphic Equalizers
References
Chapter 11. A Complete Preamplifier
Architecture and Philosophy
The Line Inputs
The High-Impedance Input Buffer
The Tone-Control Stage
The Active Gain Stage
Performance
References
Chapter 12. Mixer Architectures
Performance Factors
Mixer Internal Levels
Mixer Architecture
The Split Mixing Architecture
The In-Line Mixing Architecture
A Closer Look at Split-Format Modules
The Channel Module (Split Format)
Effects Return Modules
The Group Module
The Master Module
Talkback and Oscillator Systems
The In-Line Channel Module
Chapter 13. Microphone Preamplifiers
Microphone Preamplifier Requirements
Transformer Microphone Inputs
The Simple Hybrid Microphone Preampilifier
The Balanced-Feedback Hybrid Microphone Preampilifier
Microphone and Line-Input Pads
The Padless Microphone Preampilifier
Capacitor Microphone Head Amplifiers
Chapter 14. Line Inputs
External Signal Levels
Internal Signal Levels
Input Amplifier Functions
Unbalanced Inputs
Balanced Interconnections
The Advantages of Balanced Interconnections
The Disadvantages of Balanced Interconnections
Balanced Cables and Interference
Electrostatic Coupling
Magnetic Coupling
Ground Voltages
Balanced Connectors
Balanced Signal Levels
Electronic vs. Transformer Balanced Inputs
Common-Mode Rejection
The Basic Electronic Balanced Input
Common-Mode Rejection: The Basic Balanced Input and Op-Amp Effects
Op-Amp Frequency Response Effects
Op-Amp CMRR Effects
Amplifier Component Mismatch Effects
A Practical Balanced Input
Variations on the Balanced Input Stage
Combined Unbalanced and Balanced Inputs
The Superbal Input
Switched-Gain Balanced Inputs
Variable-Gain Balanced Inputs
High-Input-Impedance Balanced Inputs
The Inverting Two-Op-Amp Input
The Instrumentation Amplifier
Transformer Balanced Inputs
Input Overvoltage Protection
Low-Noise Balanced Inputs
Low-Noise Balanced Inputs in Real Life
Ultra-Low-Noise Balanced Inputs
References
Chapter 15. Line Outputs
Unbalanced Outputs
Zero-Impedance Outputs
Ground-Canceling Outputs
Balanced Outputs
Quasi-Floating Outputs
Transformer Balanced Outputs
Driving Heavy Loads
Reference
Chapter 16. Signal Switching
Mechanical Switches
Input-Select Switching
The Virtual Contact
Relay Switching
Electronic Switching
Switching with CMOS Analog Gates
CMOS Gates in Voltage Mode
CMOS Gates in Current Mode
Series-Shunt Current Mode
Control Voltage Feedthrough in CMOS Gates
Discrete JFET Switching
JFETs in Voltage Mode: The Series JFET Switch
The Shunt JFET Switch in Voltage Mode
JFETs in Current Mode
Reducing Distortion by Biasing
JFET Drive Circuitry
Physical Layout and Offness
Dealing with the DC Conditions
A Soft Changeover Circuit
Control-voltage feedthrough in JFETs
Reference
Chapter 17. Mixer Subsystems
Mixer Bus Systems
Input Arrangements
Equalization
Insert Points
How to Move a Circuit Block
Faders
Postfade Amplifiers
Direct Outputs
Panpots
Passive Panpots
The Active Panpot
LCR Panpots
Routing Systems
Auxiliary Sends
Group Module Circuit Blocks
Summing Systems
Voltage Summing
Virtual-Earth Summing
Balanced Summing Systems
Ground-Canceling Summing Systems
Distributed Summing Systems
Summing Amplifiers
Hybrid Summing Amplifiers
Balanced Hybrid Summing Amplifiers
PFL Systems
PFL Summing
PFL Switching
PFL Detection
Virtual-Earth PFL Detection
AFL Systems
Solo-in-Place Systems
Talkback Microphone Amplifiers
Line-Up Oscillators
Console Cooling and Component Lifetimes
Chapter 18. Level Indication and Metering
Signal-Present Indication
Peak Indication
Distributed Peak Detection
Combined LED Indicators
VU Meters
PPM Meters
LED Bar-Graph Metering
A More Efficient LED Bar-Graph Architecture
Vacuum Fluorescent Displays
LCD Meter Displays
Chapter 19. Level Control and Special Circuits
Gain-Control Elements
A Brief History
JFETs
Operational Transconductance Amplifiers
Voltage-Controlled Amplifiers
Compressors and Limiters
Attack Artefacts
Decay Artefacts
Subtractive VCA Control
Noise Gates
Clipping
Diode Clipping
Active Clipping with Transistors
Active Clipping with Op-Amps
Noise Generators
Pinkening Filters
References
Chapter 20. Power Supplies
Op-Amp Supply-Rail Voltages
Designing a ±15 V Supply
Designing a ±17 V Supply
Using Variable-Voltage Regulators
Improving Ripple Performance
Dual Supplies From a Single Winding
Power Supplies for Discrete Circuitry
Larger Power Supplies
Mutual Shutdown Circuitry
Very Large Power Supplies
Microcontroller and Relay Supplies
+48 V Phantom Power Supplies
Reference
Chapter 21. Interfacing with the Digital Domain
PCB Layout Considerations
Nominal Levels and ADCs
Some Typical ADCs
Interfacing with ADC Inputs
Some Typical DACs
Interfacing with DAC Outputs
Index
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