CHAPTER 6

What the Camera Can Do

“While cameras with lots of features are nice, it is not the camera that creates incredible images—it is what you do with the camera that is important.”

Jeff Hutchens, Photographer

3D: Images that appear to have three dimensions, height, width, and depth.

Convertible camera: Can be used in a variety of configurations. This type of camera generally starts out as a camera “head.” A variety of attachments can then be added onto the camera head, including different kinds of lenses, viewfinders, recorders, and so on, to suit a specific production requirement.

EFP (electronic field production) camcorders: Used for non-news productions such as program inserts, documentaries, magazine features, and commercials. Can also be used for a multicamera production.

ENG (electronic news gathering) camcorders: Generally used for news gathering. Often these cameras are equipped with a microphone and camera light and are used to shoot interviews and breaking news.

Depth of field: The distance between the nearest and farthest objects in focus.

Dolly shot: The action of moving the whole camera and mount slowly toward or away from the subject.

DSLR: Digital single-lens reflex still camera with video capabilities.

Focal length: An optical measurement—the distance between the optical center of the lens and the image sensor, when you are focused at a great distance such as infinity. Measured in millimeters (mm) or inches.

Focus puller: The person responsible for keeping the camera in focus using a follow-focus device.

Follow-focus device: A device that is attached to a film-style camera’s lens, allowing a focus puller to adjust the focus on the camera.

POV (point-of-view) camera: These small, sometimes robotic cameras can be placed in positions that give the audience a unique viewpoint.

Prime lens (primary lens): A fixed coverage, field of view, or focal length.

Telephoto lens: A narrow-angle lens that is used to give a magnified view of the scene, making it appear closer. The lens magnifies the scene.

Wide-angle lens: A lens that shows us a greater area of the scene than normally seen. The subject looks unusually distant.

 

Video/television cameras have become increasingly user-friendly over the years. Various controls that previously needed watchful readjustments can now be left to clever automatic circuitry that tweaks them automatically. On the face of it, there may thus seem to be little point in getting involved with the technicalities of its controls. It looks as if you only need to point the camera and zoom in and out to adjust the size of the shot—leaving circuitry to take care of all other issues such as exposure, light quality, and so on. Why do we need to learn about lens apertures, depth of field, lens angles, and other details?

Frankly, it really depends on how critical you are of the results. When you want successive pictures to match in brightness, contrast, and color quality, with consistent perspective and controlled focusing, you need to understand the effects of the various camera controls. Although automatic compensatory circuits (autocircuits) can certainly ease pressures when working under difficult conditions and are valuable fallback devices that can be helpful, they do have their limitations. Good camera work involves making subtle artistic judgments, and autocircuits simply can’t do that for you.

Knowing about the various camera adjustments and the effects that they can have on your images will not only enable you to make the best judgments, but will also prepare you for problems that arise under everyday conditions.

TELEVISION CAMERAS

A wide range of television/video cameras are available today, from modestly priced designs for consumers (even mobile phone cameras) to very sophisticated state-of-the-art professional cameras. The market spread of models suits a variety of applications; as you would expect, both design and performance vary with cost. Although cameras at the lower end of the range can provide very satisfactory image quality under optimum conditions, the more advanced equipment designs produce consistently excellent pictures for long periods, even in difficult circumstances (Figure 6.1).

A number of factors can influence one’s choice of camera:

 Cost: initial and running costs

 Physical aspects: weight, portability, method of mounting, and reliability

 Operational features: available options, controls, handling, and flexibility (e.g., zoom range)

 Image performance: resolution, color quality, any picture impairment (artifacts), performance stability, and sensitivity

Determining the features that are most important to you depends on how you are going to use the camera. Are you shooting live or recording? Are you working with a single-camera setup or as part of a multicamera production? Are you editing what you shoot as you go or will the material be edited later? Some camera systems are more appropriate than others for specific situations.

One factor can strongly outweigh others. If, for instance, a news unit is working under hazardous conditions where the likelihood of equipment loss or damage is high, it may be wiser to use a small, low-cost consumer/small-format camcorder rather than a larger, expensive camera!

FIGURE 6.1
Cameras have been designed for a wide variety of users and situations. (Photos courtesy of Sony, Panasonic, and Thomson)

TYPES OF CAMERAS

Historically, there have been many different types of cameras, generally sorted into one of three categories: consumer, prosumer/industrial, and professional. Generally, the categories were assigned according to the level of quality and the features each camera provided. Of course, there are still some high-end professional cameras and some low-resolution/low-feature consumer cameras that are aimed at specific markets. However, the quality of today’s cameras have blurred the lines between these three categories, sometimes allowing lower-end/lower-cost cameras to be used in high-end professional productions. Some of the different styles of cameras are discussed in the following sections.

Camcorders

Camcorders are the main type of camera used today in television productions. As high-quality camcorders have became available at lower prices, these have been adopted by many organizations throughout the world, for both studio and location production (Figures 6.3 and 6.4). Although camcorders can record their own signal, they can also be used in multicamera productions. These cameras have proven to be not only convenient, but adaptable, with lower operating costs than many other cameras.

FIGURE 6.3
With their high-resolution sensors and HD capabilities, cell phones are becoming increasingly popular as video cameras. The iPhone 4 shown above is attached to an OWLE grip that includes tripod/light mounts, a professional mic, and an add-on wide-angle lens. One of the main advantages of these phones is that the video can easily be immediately edited on the phone and then transmitted back to a news station, client, or directly onto a website … right from the phone.

FIGURE 6.4
High-end professional cameras are used in situations where absolute control is needed over every aspect of the image. (Photo courtesy of Panasonic)

FIGURE 6.5
A number of different 3D cameras have been introduced, including a very low cost consumer model (Top left), a low cost professional model (Bottom left), and a high end 3D rig (Right) that incorporates two cameras. (Photos courtesy of Panasonic and 3ALITY)

FIGURE 6.8
This studio configuration utilizes a small camcorder with studio back, large studio monitor, remote controls, and an ENG lens. (Photo courtesy of JVC)

FIGURE 6.9
Wheeled dollies are often used with studio cameras. (Photo by Jon Greenhoe)

FIGURE 6.10
This POV camera was mounted onto a referee’s helmet in order to give viewers a chance to see what the referee was seeing.

Studio Cameras

Studio productions make use of a wide range of camera designs, from handheld cameras in a studio configuration to the large traditional studio cameras (see top camera in Figure 6.1 and Figure 6.8). However, this type of camera is not limited to the studio; you will also see it at sports events and other multicamera productions. The large “studio” viewfinder is usually intended to make it easier for the camera operator to accurately focus and compose the images.

Studio cameras are usually mounted on heavy-duty wheeled dollies—pedestals or rolling tripods—on a pan and tilt head, which enables it to turn (pan) and tilt (Figure 6.9). Its focus and zoom controls are usually fixed to the panning handles (pan handles), which position the head.

Miniature or Point-of-View Cameras

Miniature or POV (point-of-view) cameras are being utilized on a regular basis by directors who need to get a camera into a location that would be extremely difficult for a normal camera. These difficulties may be size (the camera may not fit into a tight location), safety (it may not be safe to have a camera and operator in a dangerous location), or visibility (the director may not want the camera to be seen). Generally, these cameras are remotely controlled by a camera operator (Figures 6.10, 6.11, 6.12, and 6.13).

FIGURE 6.11
Camera operators can use a POV camera to get into small areas. This operator used a POV camera attached to a pole to get a shot in a bull’s pen at a rodeo. Note that a lavaliere mic has been taped to the camera to capture the audio. (Photo by Ben Miller)

FIGURE 6.12
The Discovery Channel’s Mike Rowe uses a small HD POV camera taped to a light to capture tight areas in a cave. In this situation, Mike is both the host and one of the camera operators for the show Dirty Jobs. (Photo by Douglas Glover)

FIGURE 6.13
Traditionally thought of as consumer cameras, small HD cameras, such as the GoPro shown, are now being used by television networks as well as documentaries for specialty shots. These HD cameras have gained popularity as a camera that can be connected to anything. For a relatively low cost, this high quality little camera, with a 170 wide angle lens and waterproof case, records to an SD card. The photo on the right was shot with this camera.

CAMERA BASICS

Let’s now take a closer look at the various features found on cameras (Figures 6.15, 6.16, 6.17, and 6.18) and how they can affect the way you use them:

 The camera’s viewfinder

 The camera’s main controls

 The camera lens and how it behaves

 The techniques of adjusting exposure for the best picture quality

 Methods of supporting the camera

FIGURE 6.15
Parts of an ENG/EFP camera. (Photo courtesy of Panasonic)

FIGURE 6.16
Parts of a studio-configured camera. (Photo courtesy of JVC)

FIGURE 6.17
Parts of a high-quality (4 K) HD camera. (Photo courtesy of RED)

FIGURE 6.18
A film-style video camera configuration may include two viewfinders. The film-style viewfinder is used by the camera operator. The production monitor or viewfinder can be used by the operator or by the focus puller. The focus puller is a person who uses a follow-focus device to keep the image sharply focused. These camera configurations generally also include a matte box used to hold filters and shield the lens from light glares. (Photo courtesy of Panasonic)

The Viewfinder

An effective viewfinder is essential for successful camera work. It enables you to select, frame, and adjust the shot; to compose the picture; and to assess focus adjustment. When you are working alone, with a portable camera, the viewfinder will usually be your principal guide to picture quality and exposure, as well as providing continual reminders about videotaping, the battery’s condition, and other relevant factors.

Traditionally, most viewfinders are fitted with a black-and-white monitor, displaying a high-grade black-and-white image. Although LCD screens do have the advantage that you can see the shot in color (although it’s not necessarily identical to that on the picture monitor), one cannot see fine detail as easily on the LCD, and manual focusing may be more difficult. However, color screens have gotten much higher quality and have gained in popularity.

Some camera systems show just a little more than the actual shot being transmitted so that the camera operation can see whether there is anything just outside the frame that might inadvertently come into the picture. Although the viewfinder shows exactly the same shot area as the transmitted picture, the camera operator has no warning if an unwanted subject (a microphone, a bystander) is about to intrude into the shot.

Because the viewfinder is a monitoring device, any adjustments made to its brightness, contrast, sharpness, or switching will not affect the camera’s video output. Normally, a viewfinder is fed with the camera’s own video, but when necessary, it may be able to be switched to display another camera’s picture as well. This feature lets you compare two or more cameras’ shots, or to show them combined in a composite effect. You can also use the viewfinder to display test patterns (e.g., color bars), which allow you to check the camera’s performance.

Viewfinders often have a number of indicators that aid in framing the image, such as a safe area line around the viewfinder’s edges to remind the camera operator how important information and titles near picture edges can be lost inadvertently through edge cutoff on overscanned TV receiver screens. Other viewfinders may keep the camera operator informed about the camera or recorder’s settings and status. These may include light or audio meters, shutter speeds, a tally light showing when the camera is recording or “on-air,” zoom lens settings, “zebra” (refers to a camera feature that displays all over-exposed areas of the image with diagonal stripes warning the operator to reduce the exposure), battery status, and other displays. Various indicators keep you informed about the camera and recorder’s settings and status. Some monitors even place a red line around all sharply focused subjects.

The viewfinder on a camcorder not only shows the video image being shot, but it can also be switched so that the camera operator sees a replay of the newly shot images. Camera operators can check for any faults in camerawork, performance, or continuity and can then reshoot the sequence if necessary.

The Camera’s Controls

Television cameras have three different categories of controls:

 Those that need to be continually readjusted while shooting, such as focus

 Occasional adjustments such as compensating for changing light

 Those involved in aligning the camera’s electronics in order to obtain optimum consistent performance

Once these are set up, they should not be casually tweaked! There are really two quite distinct aspects to picture making: camera work and image quality control. These can be controlled manually, semi-automatically, or even completely automatically. Let’s look at some practical cases.

MULTICAMERAS

Camera operators who are part of a multicamera production concentrate on the subtleties of camera work. They spend their time selecting and composing the shots, selectively focusing, zooming, and controlling dolly movements. The quality of the video image is remotely controlled by a video operator utilizing a camera control unit (CCU) or remote control unit (RCU), as shown in Figure 6.20. There are basically two types of camera adjustments made by the video operator:

Preset adjustments: During the setup period, camera circuitry is adjusted to ensure optimum image quality. This may include color and tonal fidelity, definition, and shading (adjusting the aperture). These adjustments can be done manually using test signals displayed on test equipment, or, in digital systems, the process can be semi-automated by inserting programmable memory cards.

Dynamic adjustments: During the actual television production, the video operators, sometimes known as “shaders,” continually adjust the camera’s images (in terms of exposure, black level, gamma, color balance) to optimize the subjective quality of shots and match the various camera’s images. This approach not only leaves the camera operator free to concentrate on effective camera work, but results in the highest and most consistent image quality.

FIGURE 6.20
A video operator adjusts a camera that is part of a multicamera production utilizing a CCU.

SINGLE CAMERAS

Single-camera operators are not only required to ensure that they obtain well-composed images, but must also adjust the camera to obtain the highest-quality image possible. There are a number of options for adjusting the camera:

 The camera’s built-in automatic circuitry can be used to readjust the camera’s performance as conditions change. Although this is a good option when in a hurry to capture the images, it gives the least amount of quality control to the camera operator—and may not provide the optimum quality in every situation.

 Preview the scene before shooting and adjust the controls until pictures appear optimum in the viewfinder or a nearby monitor.

 Readjust the camera controls while shooting.

THE CAMERA LENS

Lens Angle

Lens angles have a distinct impact on the final image. Each lens focal length has its own type of distortion. You need to understand the types of lenses to know what lens is best for your specific situation.

The term focal length is simply an optical measurement—the distance between the optical center of the lens and the image sensor when you are focused at a great distance, such as infinity. It is generally measured in millimeters (mm).

A lens designed to have a long focal length is called a telephoto lens or a narrow angle lens. The subject appears much closer than normal. When the lens has a short focal length, usually called a wide-angle lens, it takes in much more of the scene. However, subjects will look much farther away.

How much of the scene and subject the lens shows will depend on several areas:

 The size of the subject itself

 How far the camera/lens is from the subject

 The focal length of the lens being used

 The size of the camera’s image sensor (such as ⅔, ½, or ⅓ inch)

The focal length of your lens is not a mere technicality. A lens’ focal lengths will affect:

 How much of the scene your shot shows

 The apparent proportions, sizes, and distances of everything in the shot (perspective)

 How much of the scene is in focus and how hard it is to focus accurately

 Camera handling, such as how difficult it is to hold the shot steady

There are three broad types of camera lens angles: normal, telephoto (narrow angle), and wide-angle.

FIGURE 6.21
The angle of the lens determines what is captured in the camera.

NORMAL LENS

A normal lens gives a viewpoint that is very close to what is seen by the human eye. This focal length lens is used more than any other lens since it has the least amount of distortion.

TELEPHOTO LENS

A telephoto lens is designed to have a long focal length. The subject appears much closer than normal, but you can see only a smaller part of the scene. Depth and distance can look unnaturally compressed in the shot (Figures 6.21 and 6.22).

Using a telephoto lens angle has some major advantages:

 When you cannot get the camera near the subject because of obstructions

 When the subject is out of reach

 When there is insufficient time to move the camera closer to the subject

 When the camera is fixed in position

 When the camera operator is unable to move around unobtrusively

There are often occasions, both in the studio and in the field, when the only way that you can hope to get an effective shot of the subject is by using a telephoto lens.

However, the telephoto lens also has some drawbacks (Figure 6.23):

 Depth can appear unnaturally compressed—foreground-to-background distance seems much shorter than it really is. Solid objects look shallower and “depth-squashed.”

 Distant subjects look much closer and larger than normal. Things do not seem to diminish with distance as we would expect.

 Anyone moving toward or away from us seems to take an interminable time to cover the ground, even when running fast. At the racetrack, horses gallop toward us, but appear to cover little ground despite their efforts.

FIGURE 6.22
The red lines show a wide-angle lens while the blue lines show a narrow-angle/telephoto lens. (Camera photo courtesy of JVC)

 When the camera uses a telephoto lens to shoot a subject head-on lengthwise, the subject will look much shorter than it really is. For example, a large oil tanker may look a few yards long.

If a long telephoto lens is utilized to capture close-up shots of people, you will notice that their features are unpleasantly flattened and facial modeling is generally reduced. Shot from the front (full face) or when slightly angled (three-quarters face), this effect can be very obvious.

Camera handling becomes increasingly more difficult as the telephoto lens focal length is increased. Even slight camera movement, caused by a shaky handheld or dollying over an uneven floor, causes image jerkiness. It is no easy feat to follow a fast-moving subject, such as a flying bird, in a close shot with a telephoto lens and keep it accurately framed throughout its maneuvers! Apart from handling difficulties, there is the additional focusing hazard of working with a shallow depth of field!

When using a telephoto lens, it is difficult to hold the camera still for any length of time without shake from one’s breathing, heartbeat, or tiring muscles. A gust of wind can be a disaster! But it is virtually impossible to handhold a camera with a long telephoto lens. Telephoto lenses usually require the camera operator to use a tripod or other camera support, and lock the pan and tilt head to keep the image steady.

WIDE-ANGLE LENS

A wide-angle lens has a short focal length that takes in correspondingly more of the scene. However, subjects will look much further away and the depth and distance appear exaggerated. The exact coverage of any lens will depend on its focal length relative to the size of a camera’s image sensors. As you might expect, wide-angle lenses have the opposite characteristics of telephoto lenses.

Wide-Angle Lens Distortion

The wide-angle lens exaggerates perspective. Depth and space are over-emphasized. Subjects in the image seem further away than they really are (Figures 6.23 and 6.24). Anyone approaching or walking away from a camera with a wide-angle lens seems to be moving much more quickly than normal.

FIGURE 6.23
Lens angles distort the perspective of the scene. Wide-angle lenses expand the subjects and telephoto lenses compress the subjects.

FIGURE 6.24
This image was shot with a fish-eye wide-angle lens. The camera operator was standing very close to the building, but the lens was still able to capture this shot. However, note the distortion that takes place in this situation. (Photo courtesy of Demon Fisheye Lens)

This distortion can be used to your advantage. A wide-angle lens can give a wide overall view of the scene, even when it is relatively close. This can be a great help when shooting in restricted spaces. Even a small room can look quite spacious when shot on a wide-angle lens—a very useful deception when you want to emphasize space, or make small settings appear more impressive.

There are times when the wide-angle lens distortion can be an embarrassment. If, for instance, you are shooting within a very confined area such as a cell, only a wide-angle lens will give you a general view of the location. (Any other lens angle would provide only close shots.) But at the same time, the wide-angle lens exaggerates perspective and makes the surroundings seem very spacious. In these circumstances, the only alternative is to use a normal lens angle, and move outside the room, shooting in through a window or door.

If you take close shots of people through wide-angle lenses, you will get extremely unreal distortions and an odd-shaped head (Figure 6.25).

Never use wide-angle lenses for close shots of geometrical subjects such as pages of print, graph paper, or sheet music. The geometrical distortion can become very noticeable. When panning a shot containing straight vertical or horizontal lines, wide-angle lenses bend the lines near the picture edges. The wider the lens, the more obvious these effects become.

Wide-Angle Camera Handling

On the plus side, camera work is much easier when using a wide-angle lens. Camera movements appear smoother, and any slight bumps as the camera moves are less likely to cause jerky shots. As an extra bonus, focusing is less critical, as the available depth of field is much greater.

The advantages and disadvantages of the three types of lenses are outlined in Table 6.1.

FIGURE 6.25
Although super-wide-angle shots can give a good view of a very confined area, faces can become incredibly distorted. (Photo by Guillaume Dargaud)

Supplementary Lenses

By adding an extra, supplementary lens onto the front of a camera lens, you can alter its focal length. These supplementary lenses can be used with almost any type of lens, and can change the lens so that it becomes more of a telephoto, wide-angle, or close-up lens (Figure 6.26).

Lens Controls

Most lens systems have three separate adjustments that can be made manually or semi-automatically:

 Focus—adjusting the distance at which the image is sharpest

 f-stop—adjusting a variable iris diaphragm inside the lens system

 Zoom (if utilizing a zoom lens)—altering the lens focal length to adjust how much of the scene the shot covers

Generally, how the lens controls are adjusted will affect the following:

 How sharp the detail in the image is (focusing)

 Exactly how much of the image appears sharply defined in the shot (depth of field)

 How much of the scene appears in the shot (focal length/angle of view)

 The impression of distance, space, and size that the picture conveys

 The overall brightness of the picture, and the clarity of lighter tones and shadows (exposure)

FIGURE 6.26
This supplementary wide-angle lens can be screwed onto the front of the camera lens. (Photo courtesy of VF Gadgets)

Working Practices

There are several ways of working out the sort of shot you will get at various distances:

Trial and error: A “try it and see” approach, in which the camera is moved around to potential positions, changing the lens focal length setting until you get the result you want. This is a very laborious process.

Director’s viewfinder: In this approach, the director stands in the planned camera position and checks out the scene through a handheld portable viewfinder. After its zoom lens has been adjusted to provide the required shot size, the corresponding focal length is then read off the viewfinder’s scale and the camera’s lens is set to this figure (Figure 6.27 and 6.28).

Computer calculators: There are a number of tools available that will calculate lens angles, depth of field, and other measurements. Some, such as the one shown in Figure 6.29, work on a PDA device, making it very easy to take into the field. These computer-based calculators are especially good for preplanning a shoot.

Experience: When working regularly in certain surroundings, such as a news studio, you soon come to associate various shot sizes with specific camera positions and focal length settings. However, these proportions will be altered if you happen to change to a camera with a different sensor size.

FIGURE 6.27
A director’s viewfinder can be used to determine the camera position and the appropriate lens. (Photo courtesy of Alan Gordon Enterprises)

FIGURE 6.28
This mobile phone app, Artemis, uses the internal video camera to show the various lenses that can be used to shoot a scene. The image can then be saved for future use.

TYPES OF LENSES

Zoom Lens

Most television/video cameras come with a zoom lens, which is a remarkably flexible production tool. A zoom lens system has the great advantage that its focal length is adjustable. You can alter its coverage of the scene simply by turning a ring on the barrel of the lens. This change gives the impression that the camera is nearer or farther from the subject, at the same time modifying the apparent perspective. At any given setting within its range the zoom lens behaves like a fixed focal length lens, called a prime lens.

The zoom lens’ main advantage is that you can select or change between any focal lengths within its range without interrupting the shot. You can zoom out to get an overall view of the action and zoom in to examine details (Figures 6.30 and 6.31). The fact that in the process you are playing around with the spatial impressions your picture conveys is usually incidental to the convenience of getting shot variations from a camera viewpoint.

ZOOM LENS CONTROLS

There are basically two methods of adjusting the focal length of a zoom lens:

Direct control: By turning a ring or a lever on the lens barrel. The major advantage of this type of control is that it does not make any noise, unlike motorized systems. On most cameras, you can override the motorized lens servo-switch control and operate the zoom action manually.

Servo control: The lens zoom action is controlled by a small forward/reverse variable-speed electric motor.

FIGURE 6.29
This screenshot is from the software program pCAM, which runs on a PDA. The software helps the director or cameraperson (video, film, and photography) calculate the correct lens, depth of field, and settings. (Photo by David Eubank)

FIGURE 6.30
Zooming in progressively fills the screen with a smaller segment of the scene.

FIGURE 6.31
Parts of a zoom lens. (Photo courtesy of Canon)

FIGURE 6.32
The fingers on the left are positioned on a rocker switch, allowing the camera operator to zoom in or out. (Photo by Josh Taber)

On most cameras, a rocker switch forms part of the lens housing. When the camera is handheld or shoulder-mounted, fingers on the right hand can easily operate the two-way rocker switch to adjust the zoom. Pressing W (wide-angle) causes the lens to zoom out toward its widest angle; when the T (telephoto) is pressed, the lens zooms in to the longest focal length. By releasing the rocker switch, the zoom can be stopped at any point within the zoom range. Most zoom lenses also have an adjustable zoom speed (Figure 6.32).

On large cameras, such as the larger studio and field cameras, a servo remote control is usually located on one of the tripod pan handles. These controllers provide a smooth, even change, particularly during a very slow “creep-in.” The spring-loaded thumb-lever control is turned to the left to zoom out, and to the right to zoom in. Light thumb pressure results in slow zooming, and heavier pressure gives a fast zoom. You soon learn to adjust thumb pressure to control the zoom rate (Figure 6.33).

ZOOM LENS ADVANTAGES

Zoom lenses have unquestionably added an important dimension to camera work:

 Zooms provide a wide selection of lens’ focal length.

 Camera operators can rapidly select any focal length within the lens’ range.

 Zooming can be controlled manually or by a motor driven at various preset speeds.

 They allow the camera operator to slightly adjust the size of the shot to improve composition/framing without having to move the camera nearer or farther away from the subject.

 Zooming is much easier and more precise than dollying (although the final effect may not be as good as a dolly shot).

ZOOM LENS DISADVANTAGES

Although a zoom has many advantages, it also has some disadvantages:

 Depth of field, perspective, and camera handling vary as the lens is zoomed in and out.

 If you are continually varying the zoom settings during a rehearsal, it is important to repeat the same angles and camera positions when recording. Suppose, for instance, that you are now further away than previously and you zoom in to compensate. This “corrected” shot will not have the same relative subject proportions. You might now be in the way of another camera or a boom mic in the studio. To avoid this type of discrepancy, note the details of the lens angle on a card, shot sheet, or script, and mark or tape the camera’s floor positions during rehearsal.

 Zooming can easily be misused as a lazy substitute for more effective camera movement. Sometimes a dolly shot would be much more effective than a zoom, but the zoom is easier.

FIGURE 6.33
Larger cameras incorporate zoom and focus controls that are located on the tripod’s pan handles.

ZOOMING THE LENS VERSUS THE DOLLY SHOT

When needing to move closer or farther away from your subject during a shot, you have two options:

 Use a zoom lens and zoom in or out

 Dolly, or actually move the physical camera toward or away from your subject

You may wonder, what is the big deal? Don’t they look the same? If you are shooting a flat surface, such as a painting, the effect of zooming is identical with that of dollying—an overall magnification or reduction of the image. However, there is a significant visual difference between a zoom shot and a dolly shot. Although the zoom shot can show the magnification or reduction of the image, a dolly shot shows a different perspective, it emphasizes the dimensional aspects of the scene. In Figure 6.34, you can actually see that the camera moved down the aisle, showing more information to the viewer than is possible with a zoom shot. Zooming is seldom a completely convincing substitute for moving the camera.

Prime Lens

A very popular lens with narrative or film people, is a prime (primary) lens. Prime lenses have a fixed focal length, that means that the scene coverage cannot be varied without physically moving the camera and lens. The prime lens is particularly useful when:

 The highest optical quality is necessary

 Creating a special optical effect such as an extremely wide-angle fish-eye lens

 Shooting in low-light situations; primes have lower light losses, and thus are able to obtain a quality image in low light

Because its focal length is fixed, the prime lens will cover only a specific angle of view, according to whether it is designed as a narrow-angle (or telephoto or long) lens, a wide-angle (or short) lens, or as a normal lens system. You can only change a prime lens’ coverage by adding a supplementary lens. Prime lenses are available with fixed focal lengths ranging from just a few millimeters (for wide-angle work) to telephoto lenses with focal lengths of more than 1000 mm (Figure 6.35).

Extender Lens

Some zoom lenses include a built-in supplementary lens that is called a 2x extender. The extender can be flipped in or out of use and is available in sizes other than 2x, but that is the most common configuration. The 2x extender doubles the focal length of the lens, allowing the camera operator to zoom in much closer to the subject (Figure 6.36).

There are a few drawbacks to using an extender lens:

 The extender lens cannot be switched in or out when shooting because it disrupts the visual image. It must be changed between shots.

FIGURE 6.34
Zooming simply magnifies and reduces the picture. It does not produce the changes in the scene that arise as the dolly is moved through a scene. Increasing the focal length narrows the lens angle, filling the screen with a smaller and smaller section of the shot. The photographs illustrate the difference between the zoom and dolly. Notice that there is not much of a difference between images 1B and 2B. However, as the dolly continues in 2C, it begins to show a different perspective, showing that there is a table between the two chairs on the left. Photo 1D zooms past the table, while the dolly perspective in 2D takes the viewer up to the table and allows them to see the top of it.

FIGURE 6.35
Prime lenses are used when the highest optical quality is required. (Photo courtesy of Zeiss/Band Pro)

FIGURE 6.36
A 2x extender doubles the focal length of the zoom. (Photo courtesy of Canon)

FIGURE 6.37
Focusing with a shallow depth of field will allow you to make your subject stand out against a defocused background.

 There can be a substantial loss of light when utilizing an extender, which causes camera operators to adjust their aperture.

 The minimum focusing distance on the zoom lens can substantially change when switching in the extender. A zoom lens can usually focuses on closer subjects when not using the extender.

FOCUSING

Why Focus?

When you focus the camera, you are adjusting the lens to produce the sharpest possible image of the subject. Simple photographic cameras do not have a focus control, yet everything in the shot looks reasonably sharp. Why do television cameras need to be continually focused? There are several reasons why fixed-focus systems do not work with television cameras:

 They do not provide maximum sharpness of the subject.

 Because the lens aperture is reduced (small stop) in order to provide a large depth of field, high light levels are needed for good video images.

 Everything in the shot is equally sharp. That means there is no differential focusing in which subjects can be made to stand out against a defocused background (Figure 6.37).

 The camera cannot focus on close subjects (although a supplementary lens may help).

If needed, a camera can be put into fixed focus by using a lens with as wide an angle as possible and using the smallest possible aperture. This combination will give you the best images your camera can provide in that situation.

Focusing Methods

Two different methods are generally used to focus the camera’s lens system:

Focus ring: Lens systems on handheld and lightweight cameras can be focused by turning a ring on the lens barrel, until subject details are as sharp as possible (Figure 6.39).

Remote focus control: When a camera is attached to a tripod (or other mount), pan handles are usually attached to assist the camera operator in panning and tilting the camera. A variety of different focus controls are available to be clamped onto one of the pan handles to adjust the lens focus by remote control. The remote focus control is linked to the lens focusing mechanism through a flexible cable (Figures 6.40).

FIGURE 6.39
This cameraman is focusing an ENG/EFP camera by adjusting the lens’ focus ring with his left hand.

Dramatic projects often shoot with a focus puller (Figure 6.41). The focus puller is in charge of the sharpness of the image, letting the camera operator concentrate on framing the subject.

Consumer and prosumer cameras usually have automatic focusing features. Ideally, you just point the camera, and it focuses on the subject. Autofocus is particularly useful when moving around with a handheld camera, as it maintains focus wherever you move, allowing you to concentrate on framing the shot and checking out your route. However, it is best to think of the autofocus feature as an aid instead of thinking that it relieves you of all focusing worries.

Focusing the Zoom Lens

If a shot is correctly focused, zooming in or out should have no effect. Focusing during a wide-angle shot is easy, as there is plenty of depth. However, when you zoom in, the focused depth becomes progressively shallower as the lens angle narrows; then, the focus becomes much more critical. It is important to zoom in on the subject as close as you can, focus, and then zoom back out. The image should stay in focus now when zooming in and out on that subject.

FIGURE 6.40
There are a variety of remote focus controls that attach to the pan handle. The type in this photo, different from the twist handle in Figure 6.33, requires that the operator turn the spoked wheel, often called a capstan control, in order to focus the lens.

FIGURE 6.41
In situations where the camera operator needs to concentrate on framing, a focus puller (in the yellow shirt) may be used. This person attaches a follow-focus mechanism to the lens in order to adjust the focus from the side of the camera.

Adjusting the Zoom’s Back Focus

If the image does not stay focused during the zoom, once the lens has been focused during the close-up as mentioned earlier, it usually means that the lens needs the back focus adjusted. To ensure that the zoom lens maintains focus as it is zoomed (referred to as “correct focus tracking”), the lens system has to be carefully adjusted:

 With the lens set at the maximum aperture, zoom in close and adjust the lens for maximum sharpness using the focus ring on the lens.

 Zoom out to the widest angle, and adjust the internal back focus (flange) control for the sharpest image (Figure 6.42).

Now the zoom lens should be working effectively. If not, repeat the adjustment for optimum results.

FIGURE 6.42
The back focus flange needs to be adjusted whenever the zoom does not stay in focus when zooming in or out on the same subject. We are assuming that the lens was focused on the closeup of the subject. (Photo courtesy of Panasonic)

LENS APERTURE (f-STOP)

If you look directly into a lens, you will see an adjustable circular diaphragm or iris made up of a number of thin overlapping metal blades. The size of the hole formed by these plates is carefully calibrated in graduated stops (Figure 6.43). These f-stops are usually marked around a ring on the lens barrel. Turning the ring alters the effective diameter of the lens opening over a wide range (Figure 6.44).

When the lens aperture is adjusted, two quite separate things happen simultaneously:

 It changes the brightness of the lens image falling on the image sensor (exposure of the image).

 It alters the depth of field in the shot—which is also affected by the lens focal length.

FIGURE 6.43
The aperture is the opening in the lens that allows light to fall on the sensors. Each opening is carefully calibrated into a series of f-stops. These f-stops significantly affect the scene being shot by varying the amount of light and the depth of field. The larger the number (smaller the opening in the lens), the larger the depth of field.

f-STOPS (f-NUMBERS)

The larger the opening in the lens, the more light the lens will let through to the sensor. As the lens aperture is reduced (referred to as stopping down) the corresponding f-stop number increases. The lens smallest aperture may be around f/22, and the largest aperture opening may be around f/1.4. For each complete stop that you open the lens, its image brightness light will double (halved when stopping down). The standard series of lens markings is:

f/1.4 2 2.8 4 5.6 8 11 16 22 32

In reality, many intermediate points such as f/3.5, f/4.5, and f/6.3 are also used.

FIGURE 6.44
The aperture ring is used to adjust the f-stops. (Photo courtesy of Zeiss/Band Pro)

EXPOSURE

There is a lot of misunderstanding about “correct exposure.” A picture is considered to be correctly exposed when the subject tones you are interested in are reproduced the way you want them. Obviously, this may vary in different situations and is ultimately up to the director.

Because the camera’s image sensor can respond accurately over only a relatively restricted range of tones, brighter areas will crush out (become white) above its upper limits; darker tones are lost (turn black) below the sensor’s lower limits. The goal is to adjust the lens aperture to fit the director’s vision (Figure 6.45).

If more detail is needed in the shadows, the lens aperture will need to be opened in order to increase the exposure. But, of course, this will cause all the other tones in the picture to appear brighter, and the lightest may even crush out to a blank white. Occasionally, the director may choose to deliberately over-expose a shot to create a special high-key effect with bleached-out lighter tones.

Conversely, if you want to see better tonal gradation in the subject’s white dress, you may need to reduce the exposure by closing down to a slightly smaller f-stop. This will, however, cause all the other tones in the image to appear darker, and the darkest might now merge or even be lost as black.

As you can see, exposure is an artistic compromise. But it is also a way in which the image can be manipulated. The director may choose to deliberately over- or under-expose the image to achieve a certain effect such as stormy skies, mystery, or night effects. It is quite possible to set the exposure to suit the prevailing light levels, and shoot everything in the scene with that stop. But for more sensitive adjustment of picture tones, one really must be alert and continually readjust the exposure for the best results.

FIGURE 6.45
Exposing the image appropriately is incredibly important.

FIGURE 6.46
The auto-iris was used for both of these images. Left: The bright white sky threw off the iris, making the subjects too dark. Right: However, by adjusting the shooting angle and getting rid of the bright sky, the auto-iris was able to capture a well-exposed image.

Automatic Iris

Consumer and prosumer cameras are usually fitted with an auto-iris. When turned on, it automatically adjusts the lens aperture to suit the factory-set average light levels. The auto-iris can actually be quite helpful at times. The auto-iris can be used as a “light meter” to get the most accurate reading, as long as you know about some lighting situations that can fool it. Without it, you would have to continually check tonal gradation in the viewfinder picture and open the iris until the scene was correctly exposed. The auto-iris can also be especially helpful if the camera operator is very mobile, moving around quickly and concentrating on framing the shot.

Unfortunately, like any automatic function, the auto-iris cannot make artistic judgments, and can be easily fooled. Ideally, you want the exposure of your main subject to remain constant. But an auto-iris is activated by all other tones in the picture. Here are some examples of problem issues that will require the camera operator to manually adjust the aperture:

 Move in front of a light background, bring a newspaper into shot, or take off a jacket to reveal a white shirt, and the iris will close and reduce the exposure even though it is not important that there is detail in those white areas. The problem is that all of the other picture tones will now appear darker (Figure 6.46).

 If a large dark area comes into shot, the iris may open up “to compensate,” and all picture tones appear lighter.

 Walk through trees, where areas of sky and foliage come and go, and exposure can open and close, becoming very distracting to the audience.

 If shooting a concert where the lead singer is in a very bright spotlight, the auto-iris will usually adjust the camera so that the stage is black and the lead singer is pure white, with no detail.

Auto-iris systems work by measuring the brightness of the lens image falling on the image sensor. Most auto-iris systems concentrate on the center area of the frame. Some are designed to avoid being over-influenced by the top of the frame, where bright skies, for example, could falsely reduce the exposure. The best systems judge exposure by sampling all parts of the image.

Manual Iris Adjustment

Turning the iris/diaphragm/aperature ring on the lens barrel (Figure 6.44) allows the camera operator to decide exactly how the image should be exposed. The overall picture brightness can be adjusted and compensation can be made for features in the scene that would fool the auto-iris system.

Remote Iris Control

When a camera is connected to a CCU (Figure 6.20), usually in a multicamera situation, its lens aperture is usually set to suit prevailing light conditions by the video operator, who is also known as a shader. During a production, the lens aperture of each camera can be remotely controlled to vary exposure subtly for the best image quality.

FIGURE 6.47
Adjustable shutter speeds can be used for creativity in images. In this situation, a very slow shutter speed was used to cause a sense of action about the child.

SHUTTER SPEEDS

Selecting the correct shutter speed is very important in capturing the best video image. In some instances, a fast shutter speed should be used in order to get the clearest images of a speeding car. However, a slower shutter speed may be very appropriate for the same situation—although the final project will have some blurriness to it. In other situations, a specific shutter speed is needed in order to increase or reduce the depth of field in an image. Adjustment of shutter speeds is one of the creative tools available for the camera operator. (Figure 6.47)

VIDEO GAIN ADJUSTMENT

Video gain is the amplification of the video signal in order to shoot in extremely low light. Although there are times when this may be necessary in order to capture an image, it can substantially deteriorate the image. Some cameras allow the camera operator to set different levels of gain, such as 13, 19, and 118. However, it is important to know that the higher the gain level, the poorer the quality of the final video image. In summary, the gain should be adjusted only in situations where you must capture an image—even if you have to compromise some of the quality.

FIGURE 6.48
Filters come in a variety of shapes, sizes, colors, and effects. (Photo courtesy of Tiffen)

CAMERA LENS FILTERS

Filters of various kinds can be attached to the front of the lens, located in the camera’s internal filter wheel, or inserted into a matte box on the front of the camera (Figure 6.48). Another option for filters is applying them to recorded video during the editing process. The following subsections describe some of the most common lens filters.

Neutral-Density Filters

When the scene is too bright for the aperture you want to work at, a neutral-density (ND) filter is used to cut down the overall intensity. These transparent gray-tinted (neutral) filters do not affect the colors—just the overall brightness. Most cameras come with one or more of these filters built into the camera. If the camera does not have them, they must be attached to the front of the lens.

ND filters may be used when shooting in very strong sunlight to prevent over-exposure. Should you want to open up the aperture of the lens to restrict the focused depth for artistic reasons, an ND filter can be used to bring down the light level, allowing you to open up the aperture, which will give a smaller depth of field.

Corrective Filters

When there are changes in the color temperature of light sources, corrective filters can be used to compensate. For example, when moving from a daylight scene to a tungsten-lit area, a corrective filter should be used (Figure 6.49).

Star Filters

Star filters are clear disks with closely scribed grid patterns. These diffraction-effects filters can produce four- to six-point stars from bright points of light, including flames, reflections, and lamps. The star’s directions change as the filter is turned (Figure 6.50).

Diffusion Disks

Available in various densities, these filters provide general image softening through fine surface scratches or dimpling on a clear disk. Sharp detail is reduced and highlights develop glowing halos (Figure 6.51).

UV (Haze) Filters

One of the most common filters on lenses, the UV filter reduces haze blur (due to ultraviolet light) when shooting daylight exteriors, and protects the lens surface.

Polarizing Filters

Polarizing filters are occasionally used to reduce strong reflections or flares from smooth or shiny surfaces such as glass or water. (They have very little effect on rough materials.) Polarizing filters can be used to darken an overly bright sky without affecting overall color quality, although there will be some light loss. By rotating the filter, you can selectively reduce or suppress specific reflections (Figure 6.52).

FIGURE 6.49
The blue color-correction filter shown can be used to get rid of the warm tungsten light in the scene. (Photos courtesy of Tiffen)

FIGURE 6.50
The scribed grid pattern on the filter creates a star pattern at each point of bright light. (Photos courtesy of Tiffen)

FIGURE 6.51
A diffusion filter softens the image. (Photos courtesy of Tiffen)

FIGURE 6.52
Polarizing filters are used to reduce or remove distracting reflections, such as this window. (Photos courtesy of Tiffen)

FIGURE 6.53
Left: This is a graduated filter. Center: This image is a scene without a filter. Right: In this shot, the camera operator used a graduated filter to enhance the sky and mountains. (Photos courtesy of Tiffen)

Graduated Filters

When shooting in the field, there are times when the main subject is properly exposed, but distant skies are far too bright and distracting. This can be a particular problem when the foreground subjects are dark-toned. A graduated filter can often overcome this dilemma. Its upper section has a neutral gray tint that reduces the brightness of the image in that part of the picture. So it will “hold back” the overly bright skies while leaving anything in the clear lower section unaffected.

Graduated filters have a gradual tonal transition, giving a soft blend between the treated and untreated areas. There are also graduated filters than can be used to create a deliberate effect. One half of the filter may be orange and the other half clear or blue-tinted. Some color filters have a central horizontal orange or yellow band, which, with care, can simulate the effect of a sunset (Figure 6.53).

Camera Filter Wheel

Professional cameras generally include an internal filter wheel. The filter wheel can be rotated, placing the desired filter in front of the image sensors. The filters in the wheel usually include a 5600-degree daylight color-correction filter (used when shooting outdoors), a 3200-degree tungsten color-correction filter (for shooting indoors under tungsten light), and a couple of different ND filters. There are also usually blanks in the wheel so that additional filters can be added.

SUPPORTING THE CAMERA

When shooting while moving over uneven ground, climbing stairs, or in the middle of a crowd, the audience expects pictures to bounce around a bit. At times this “point-of-view” style of shooting can even add to the mood of the program. However, images that weave around, bounce up and down, or lean to one side soon become tiring for the audience to watch. Smooth subtle movement and rock-steady shots are usually essential for effective camera work, and there are various forms of support to help achieve this.

FIGURE 6.54
The shoulder-mounted handheld camera is steadied by the right hand, positioned through the strap on the zoom lens. That same right hand also operates the record button and the zoom rocker (servo zoom) switch. (Photos courtesy of Josh Taber and Sony)

What Type of Support?

Before beginning any project, consider whether you have an appropriate camera mount (or a suitable substitute). Otherwise, you may not be able to get the kind of shot that the director would like. The kind of camera support you need will depend on a number of very practical factors:

 The size and weight of your camera. Do you intend to hand-hold or shoulder-mount the camera? Will the shots be brief, or are you shooting sustained action?

 Are you shooting from a fixed position, moving only while “off-shot,” or moving while shooting (on-shot)? Will there be any quick moves to other camera positions?

 Will you want high/very high or low/very low shots? Will you be raising/lowering the camera to these positions or even swooping or gliding within the action?

 Your surroundings can influence the type of mounting you use—the floor surface, operational space, height. Does the mounting have room to move around within the scene, around furniture, through doorways, and between trees?

 Is the camera likely to be unsteady? Are you shooting while walking/running or from a moving vehicle?

 In some situations, the solution is a remotely controlled camera mounted on a rail system, a robotic pedestal, or even a self-propelled camera car.

The Handheld Camera

If you are hand-holding an ENG/EFP camera, the goal is to support it firmly, but not so tightly that your slightest movements are transmitted to the shot. Your right hand is usually inserted through an adjustable support strap near the zoom control. Your left hand usually holds the lens barrel. Holding the eyepiece viewfinder against an eye can even help to steady the camera (Figure 6.54). Whether you make hand adjustments or rely on auto-controls (autofocus and auto-iris) will largely depend on the camera design and shooting conditions.

The lighter the camera, the more difficult it is to hold it steady. Make use of a nearby stable structure such as a wall, if you can. (Various ways of steadying a handheld camera are shown in Figure 6.55.) Some camera lens systems include an image stabilizer that is built in or attached to the lens system to steady slight picture movements.

FIGURE 6.55
Keeping the handheld camera steady takes practice. Here are some techniques to handhold a camera:
A. Rest your back against a wall.
B. Bracing the legs apart provides a better foundation for the camera.
C. Kneel, with an elbow resting on one leg.
D. Rest your body against a post.
E.  Lean the camera against something solid.
F.  Lean your side against a wall.
G. Sit down, with elbows on knees.
H. Rest your elbows on a low wall, fence, railings, car, etc.
I.   Elbows resting on the ground. (Photos by Josh Taber)

Camera Stabilizers

The widespread technique of supporting the camera on one shoulder has its limitations. Its success largely depends on the camera operator’s stamina! Some people can continue shooting over long periods, without their images tilting or becoming unsteady. But arms tire and back muscles ache after a while, and it is not easy to sustain high quality camera work, particularly when shooting with a telephoto lens.

CAMERA TRIPODS

Tripods are the most common camera support. Although the tripod can’t always be repositioned quickly, it does have advantages. It is simple, provides solid camera support, is collapsible, and is easily transported. It can be used in a wide variety of situations: on rough, uneven, or overgrown surfaces; on stairs; and so on.

Basically, a tripod has three legs, each with independently adjustable length. The legs are spread apart to form a stable base for the camera. When moving to a new location, the tripod legs can simply fold together. The camera can be screwed directly to the tripod pan and tilt head or a quick-release mounting plate can be used, which allows the camera to be detached in a moment (Figure 6.56).

FIGURE 6.56
The collapsible tripod, a three-legged stand with independently extendable legs. (Photo by Paul Dupree)

Tripods are a great help when used properly, but they are not foolproof. Here are some useful warnings:

 Don’t be tempted to use the tripod legs partly open, as it can easily fall over. Instead, always adjust the camera height by altering the leg length, not by changing the spread.

 Fully extended tripods can be a bit unstable at times, especially in windy conditions. It may be necessary to use a sandbag to provide stability or fasten the tripod to the ground or a platform.

 Don’t leave the camera standing unattended on a high tripod. People (or animals) may knock it over or a pulled cable may over-balance it. It is much safer to drop the tripod to its lowest level (Figure 6.57).

Tripods usually have two types of feet: retractable spikes for use on rough surfaces and rubber pads for floors. Spikes can easily damage carpets and wooden floors.

The feet of a tripod can be fitted onto a “spreader” or “spider” in order to prevent its feet from slipping. (See the spreader in Figure 6.58.)

A tripod dolly, which can be folded for transportation, is added to the bottom of a tripod in order to allow it to roll across a floor (Figure 6.58).

Although the dolly moves around quite easily on a flat, level floor, uneven surfaces will cause a jerky image, especially when a telephoto lens is used.

CAMERA PEDESTALS

A pedestal (ped) is the most widely used studio camera mount. Fundamentally, it consists of a central column of adjustable height, fixed to a three-wheeled base that is generally guided by a steering wheel.

The rubber-tired wheels can be switched into either:

 A “crab” mode, in which all three wheels are interlinked to move together

 A “steer” or “dolly” mode, in which a single wheel steers while the other two remain passive

FIGURE 6.57
When not in use, the camera operator dropped the tripod to its lowest position in order to provide maximum stability for the camera.

FIGURE 6.58
A tripod dolly is attached to the legs of the tripod to enable it to roll over smooth surfaces.

FIGURE 6.59
A gorillapod’s legs can be twisted around to hold a camera securely in place. (Photo courtesy of Joby)

FIGURE 6.60
Beanbags can securely hold a camera in place without the need for a tripod. (Photos courtesy of The Pod and Cinekinetic)

Pedestal designs range from lightweight hydraulic columns on casters to heavyweight designs for large cameras. The ideal pedestal is stable, easy to move, and quickly controlled by one person (Figure 6.9).

GORILLA POD

The Gorillapod is actually a type of tripod. However, the difference is that its flexible, jointed arms allow you to wrap it around a railing, twist it around a tree branch, or loop it on the handle of a shopping cart. This type of camera support is extremely light and easy to travel with, as well as provides great camera support (Figure 6.59).

BEANBAG

Beanbag camera supports allow the camera to be positioned in all types of angles, while holding the camera steady. This type of support is very light and flexible. There are many different brands available. These bags are especially helpful when you need to operate your camera on a rough or uneven surface. Most bags are filled with foam balls while small bags may contain sand (Figure 6.60).

FIGURE 6.61
The monopod shown has additional support with the base. (Photo courtesy of Manfrotto)

FIGURE 6.62
A body brace helps to firmly support the camera. (Photo courtesy of Videosmith)

FIGURE 6.63
Small cameras can be supported by a handheld steady device like this Steadicam. (Photo courtesy of Steadicam/Tiffen)

FIGURE 6.64
Larger cameras need to be attached to a brace on the body in order to spread the weight over the body and not just the camera operator’s arms.

MONOPOD

The monopod can be easily carried and is a very lightweight mounting. It consists of a collapsible metal tube of adjustable length that screws to the camera base. This extendable tube can be set to any convenient length. Braced against a knee, foot, or leg, the monopod can provide a firm support for the camera, yet allow it to be moved around rapidly for a new viewpoint. Its main disadvantage is that it is easy to accidentally lean the camera sideways and get sloping horizons. And of course, the monopod is not self-supporting (Figure 6.61).

BODY BRACE OR SHOULDER MOUNT

A body brace or shoulder mount can be attached under the camera to make it more comfortable to support and keep the camera steady (Figure 6.62).

STEADICAM/GLIDECAM SUPPORT

One of the most advanced form of camera stabilizer, the Steadicam or Glidecam type system uses a body harness with ingenious counterbalance springs. Stabilizers of this kind will not only absorb any camera shake but actually allow you to run, climb stairs, jump, shoot from moving vehicles—while still providing smooth, controlled shots! The operator uses a small electronic viewfinder attached to the stabilizer. Near-magical results are possible that are unattainable with other camera mountings. But underneath it all, there is still a vulnerable human operator, and extended work under these conditions can be very tiring (Figures 6.63 and 6.64). Smooth camera work with a Steadicam type system is only attainable with lots of practice.

JIB ARMS

As filmmakers have demonstrated so successfully over the years, a large camera crane offers the director an impressive range of shot opportunities. It can hover, then swoop in to join the action. Or it can draw back, rising dramatically, to reveal the broader scene. It allows the camera to travel rapidly above the heads of a crowd, or to sweep around near floor level as it follows dancers’ movements. But such visual magic is achieved at a price! Larger camera cranes are cumbersome, need a lot of room to maneuver, and require skilled and closely coordinated crews. Today, relatively few TV studios make use of such camera cranes. Instead, the modern jib arm can satisfy most directors’ aims (Figures 6.65, 6.66, and 6.67).

Smaller lightweight jibs are easily disassembled and transported, and have proved to be extremely adaptable both in the studio and in the field. All the camera controls, including focus, iris, zoom, tilt, and pan, are adjusted by hand or by a remote control.

A jib is more compact than the traditional camera crane, much more portable, and a lot less costly to buy or rent. The camera on a jib arm may be handled by a single operator. It can stretch out over the action (like a crane), reaching over any foreground objects. It can support the camera at any height within its range, moving smoothly and rapidly from just above floor level up to its maximum, and swing around over a 360-degree arc.

CAMERA DOLLIES

Camera mountings that have been widely used in filmmaking have been equally successful in television production. Camera dollies work incredibly well at capturing “dolly in,” “dolly out,” and “tracking” shots. Dollies can use wheels that work on a smooth floor or can be designed to run on a track.

FIGURE 6.65
Camera jibs provide directors with an impressive range of shot opportunities. This large jib requires a specially trained operator.

FIGURE 6.66
The smaller jib shown in the foreground of this photo is much easier to use than the large jib shown in Figure 6.65.

There are a variety of dollies available, from very small dollies to larger systems designed to be ridden on (Figures 6.68–6.71).

CREATE A CAMERA MOUNT

Use your imagination, don’t be limited by the mounts available commercially. Today’s lightweight cameras can be mounted on almost anything. Look for creative ways that will allow you to move your story forward (Figure 6.72).

The Pan and Tilt Head

As you might expect, there are several types of camera head designed to suit different types and weights of camera.

If you simply bolted the camera onto a mounting, it could be held firmly, but would be unable to move around to smoothly follow the action. Instead, a pan and tilt head/camera head is needed, which goes between the camera and the top of the camera mount. It firmly anchors the camera, yet allows it to be turned (panned) and tilted, or fixed at any required angle (Figure 6.73).

Panning handles are attached to either side of the pan and tilt head for the camera operator to support and guide the camera. Zoom and focus controls are clipped to the panning handles (Figure 6.56).

FIGURE 6.67
Cranes, different from the jib, usually provide a seat for the camera operator.

FIGURE 6.68
This “skater” dolly provides an extremely low-angle dolly shot. Left: The top of the skater shows that it uses three skateboard-type wheels in order to glide silently and smoothly over the floor. (Photos courtesy of P1S Technik)

FIGURE 6.69
The camera operator is standing on this dolly, which is rolling on a dolly track.

FIGURE 6.70
This dolly utilizes a pivoting seat and camera support (or turret), allowing the camera operator to control camera pans by moving his feet. (Photo by Will Adams)

FIGURE 6.71
Dollies come in all shapes and sizes, based on the camera weight and movement requirements. (Photo courtesy of Indie Dolly Systems)

FIGURE 6.72
The director of photography for this music video attached a DSLR to an off-the-shelf remote-controlled truck.

If the camera head moves around too easily, it can be difficult to make smooth pans and tilts. So drag controls allow the camera operator to introduce a controlled amount of friction to steady movements. They should never be over-tightened to “lock-off” the camera. The separate head locks should be used to prevent panning or tilting (such as when leaving the camera).

Balance adjustments ensure that the camera remains level. Careful balancing is absolutely essential when you have large zoom lenses, prompting devices, and camera lights attached to the camera; otherwise, the camera will be front-heavy and very difficult to operate. In some situations, it might even over-balance the mount, causing the camera to fall.

FIGURE 6.73
Parts of a pan and tilt head. (Illustration courtesy of Vinten)
  1. Wedge adapter operating lever
  2. Sliding plate adjustment handle
  3. Carrying handle
  4. Center lock plunger
  5. Balance knob
  6. Tilt brake lever
  7. Pan brake lever
  8. Center lock release lever
  9. Illuminated level bubble
10. Timer button
11. Digital display
12. Illumination button
13. Graduated sliding plate
14. Wedge adapter
15. Wedge adapter mounting screw

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is the difference between an EFP camera and an ENG camera?

2. Why use a POV camera?

3. How does a wide-angle lens optically adjust the scene?

4. What are some of the challenges experienced when using a telephoto lens?

5. What are some of the advantages of using a zoom lens?

6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of automatic focus?

7. What are some of the types of camera supports, and what are their advantages?

INTERVIEW WITH A PROFESSIONAL: NATHAN WHITE

What do you like about being a videographer? Few positions within television production can put a person in the middle of the action quite like being a videographer. Whatever is unfolding in the production is literally taking place directly in front of the videographer. An example is that of the fall of the Berlin Wall. When looking back in history, the image that demonstrates what happened is not an anchor speaking; few remember what they said. It is the video of liberated East Germans tearing down the wall and standing above the crowd with arms raised in triumph. A videographer’s work lives forever in archives and the minds of viewers. There is nothing like having people all over the world coming to a stop to look at my video, it is an experience that few others will ever have.

How do you decide what shot to use? Shot selection for a videographer is an art. If the right angles are not shot then the whole piece may not edit together very well at all. When I was first starting out, editors complained that my video was a series of shots that were well composed, but did not fit together in a sequence.

Every shot conveys something different to the audience. When a videographer understands what each shot can do, they can better know what shot to get. Long shots establish context, close ups convey intimacy and emotion, and medium shots propel the piece along.

Long shots should only be used long enough to lead the viewer into a scene or away from it. If they are used too often the audience will become bored. Dramatic vistas look better as a painting than as video.

Close-ups bring viewers in very close to the action. A CU of a pair of hands putting something together, or of gears in a machine can show how something is done and they are easy to use as cut-away shots. CUs of a person’s face is an excellent way to show emotion. These make excellent cutaways. Shoot as many close ups as possible, because they are easily edited and and add intimacy.

Medium shots are the most used shot in videography. They are easily edited, close enough to show action and intimacy, and wide enough for the viewer to still see some context. If there is single event that can only be captured once, the MS is the best shot to use.

Do you ever use auto settings on your camera? It is best to learn how to use a camera without using any of the auto settings. It is rare that auto settings can completely ruin a shot, but manual settings put the control in the hands of the videographer. Auto settings can be very useful in situations where there is little time to make adjustments (on breaking news for example). Or, they can be used as a reference point when setting up the shot.

FIGURE 6.74
Nathan White, Videographer

Nathan White is a videographer for a local television station.