CHAPTER 12

Backgrounds and Sets

“What we are looking for in a dramatic set is an imaginative substitute. Keep in mind, directors produce illusions. However basic the set materials really are, the end result can appear to the audience as the real thing.”

Gerald Millerson, Author

Chroma-key: Utilizing a production switcher, with this technique, the director can replace a specific color (usually green or blue) with another image source (still image, live video, graphics, prerecorded material, etc.).

Cyclorama (cyc): Serves as a general-purpose detail-less background. Cycloramas generally have a continuous, seamless background that can be projected on or keyed out to create unique backgrounds.

Flat: A panel usually created by building a frame and then either attaching a piece of wood or stretching cloth over it to create a wall for a set in the television studio.

Floor plan (staging plan, set plan): A rough plan of the staging layout usually begins with drawing potential scale outlines of settings, including their main features: windows, doors, stairways. Ensure that there is enough room for cameras, sound booms, and lighting.

Hand properties (props): Any items that are touched and handled by the talent during the production. These could include a pen, dishes, a cell phone, silverware, and so on.

Modular set units: Prebuilt set components that can be compactly stored and then quickly assembled and disassembled.

Stage props: The furniture on the set. These would include news desks, chairs, couches, tables, and the like.

Studio plan: The basis for much of the organization, showing the studio’s permanent staging area with such features and facilities as exits, technical supplies, cycloramas, and service and storage areas.

Virtual set: Uses a blue or green seamless background, for chroma-keying the computer-generated set into the scene. Most virtual sets employ sophisticated computer software that monitors the camera’s movements so that as the camera zooms, tilts, pans, or moves in any other way, the background moves in a corresponding way.

 

The background is much more than “whatever happens to appear behind the subject.” It directly affects the success of the program, and thus it needs to be carefully designed and controlled. Scenery can range in practice from a simple backdrop to extensive construction, but effective design is important to the success of any show (Figure 12.1).

FIGURE 12.1
This television set was designed by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) to show off the context of the Beijing Olympics, with two recognizable buildings in the background (the Olympic stadium and the aquatics center). This background adds credibility to the broadcast, allowing viewers to see where the anchors are located. (Photo by Mike Gilger)

THE INFLUENCE OF THE TELEVISION BACKGROUND

Television shows are shot in a wide range of locations: people’s homes, offices, factories, rooms, public buildings, studios, streets, and wide-open spaces. Where we shoot the program may be vital (contextually relevant) to what we want to tell our audience, or it can be merely incidental. To some extent, the importance of the set depends on the director, the way the subject is approached, and the chosen style and form. Effective backgrounds or sets are more a matter of making wise choices than having a big budget.

Surroundings have a considerable influence on how we feel about what we are seeing and hearing. It is not just a matter of choosing a background that looks appropriate or attractive, but determining whether its impact on the audience is right for the specific points being made in the program (Figure 12.2).

The background we choose for our action, and the way we shoot it, can affect how persuasively points are communicated to our audience. It is one thing to see a person standing on a street corner, recommending a type of medicine, and another when we see that same person wearing a white lab coat in a laboratory. The surroundings have swayed our reactions, yet they have nothing to do with the true quality of the product.

The camera cannot avoid being selective. For example, if a video camera is taken to an offshore oil rig, depending on which parts of the structure are shot, a very different view of life on the rig can be expressed. The final emphasis could be on its huge geometric structure or the isolation of this group of workers in treacherous seas, or it might appear as a scene of endless noise and tense activity. In the end, it is the shot selection and editing that will portray the concept of life on a rig to the audience. The result may be a fair cross-section of life there or it could be overly selective. Much depends on the point of view the director adopts.

BASIC ORGANIZATION

Staging begins with the demands of the script and the aspirations of the director. Much depends on how effectively these can be related to the facilities, time, and budget available. As with all craftsmanship in television, optimum results come from a blend of imaginative perception and practical planning. Television set designers achieve minor miracles in making ingenious use and reuse of materials.

FIGURE 12.2
The set pieces, the dressings, and the props give an authenticity to the time period this story takes place in. (Photo by Doug Smart)

Planning begins with discussions between the director and the set designer. Using sketches, scale plans, and elevations, production concepts are transformed into the practicalities of man-hours, cost, and materials. For larger productions, there is close collaboration with various specialists, who consider shot opportunities for cameras, talent action, and moves, and the various lighting, audio, camera treatment, costumes, makeup, and technical requirements. This type of project requires teamwork.

The Studio Plan

The basis for much of the organization is the standard printed studio plan, which shows the studio’s permanent staging area with such features and facilities as exits, technical supplies, cycloramas, service and storage areas, and the like (Figure 12.3).

The Floor Plan

Also known as the staging plan, ground plan, or set plan, the floor plan is a rough plan of the staging layout that usually begins with drawing potential scale outlines of settings, including their main features—windows, doors, stairways. Ensure that there is enough room for cameras, sound booms, and lighting (Figure 12.4).

Lighting Plot

The lighting director designs the lighting design, showing the battens, or lighting grid, and each of the lighting instruments on the staging plan.

Design Considerations

Television settings must satisfy several requirements (Figure 12.5):

 Artistically, settings must be appropriate to the occasion, the subject, and the production’s purpose.

 The staging must fit the production needs: its dimensions, facilities, and the production budget.

 The design should provide room for camera movement and shots, sound, and lighting.

FIGURE 12.3
Sample studio plan.

FIGURE 12.4
Sample floor plan.

FIGURE 12.5
The set design must provide ample shot opportunities. (Illustration courtesy of Fifteenhundred/www.fifteenhundred.tv)

Set Design for 16:9

HDTV and its 16:9 format have created some challenges. Sets that were acceptable on SDTV are no longer acceptable due to the high resolution of HDTV. Scratches and dents are much more apparent.

The 16:9 format has also changed the design of sets, and made it more complex, affecting also the locations of the talent. Until the 16:9 format becomes standard, viewers will see more header elements (high sections of the set), because camera operators need to frame for 4:3 as well as 16:9. This is especially true in wide shots. However, once 16:9 framing can be done exclusively, the header elements will be seen much less. It’s important to create clean, visually interesting header elements, while not dedicating too much of the budget to elements that may only be seen for a short period (Figures 12.7, 12.8, and 12.9).

Real and Unreal Backgrounds

Most audiences are not concerned about whether the background is real or an illusion. They usually don’t care if it is a real location or if it is computer-generated. It is the effect that counts. However, it is worth remembering that backgrounds can be derived in a number of ways:

Use of actual place: The action is really shot in the Sahara Desert.

Use of substitute: Shoot the action in a convenient location that looks sufficiently like part of the Sahara Desert.

Use of a set: Build a set that resembles the real thing in a studio.

Suggested location: The camera shows location shots of the Eiffel Tower (part of a still photo) intercut with shots of someone standing against a brick wall. Thanks to sound effects of traffic and so on, the viewer assumes that this is shot in Paris.

Virtual set: It is possible with various electronic equipment to insert the person standing in front of the camera into a separate background picture. With care, it can be done absolutely convincingly.

FIGURE 12.7
Today’s sets need to be created with both the 16:9 and the 4:3 formats in mind. (Photo courtesy of FX Group/www.fxgroup.tv)

The Neutral Background

There are times when we want the background to provide totally neutral surroundings for the action. In the extreme, this background could be just a blank white (limbo) or black (cameo) area, because we are concentrating on the performers. However, we usually want something rather more interesting to look at than a plain area of tone, and TV solved this problem by creating the neutral setting: a background that is visually attractive, without actually reminding us of any specific style, period, or place. You will see this sort of setting in broadcast talk programs, studio interviews, and discussions, or, in more elaborate versions, for game shows.

FIGURE 12.8
On all shots, including ones like this, it is important to remember that 4:3 viewers won’t see the areas to the far right and left areas of the screen, so it’s important not to put vital scenic elements or graphics in this space. However, 16:9 viewers do expect this area to be filled with visual elements. In this image, the grayed-out areas to the left and right won’t be seen by 4:3 viewers, while 16:9 viewers see the entire width, including the gray areas. (Photo courtesy of FX Group/www.fxgroup.tv)

FIGURE 12.9
Whenever two or more talent members appear in one shot, care needs to be taken to make sure that anchors don’t appear in each other’s shots. In this example of a one-shot, 4:3 viewers, who see only the area between the white lines, will see only the one anchor. However, 16:9 viewers, who see the entire image, see the co-anchor’s shoulder to the right. This issue is particularly important with anchor desks—a set needs a desk that seats anchors far enough apart to not encroach on each other’s shots, without making anchors seem too far apart. (Photo courtesy of FX Group/www.fxgroup.tv)

Basically, neutral backgrounds are usually made with scenic units, positioned in front of a cyclorama or cyc. A cyclorama is a curved wall that is used as a background for a television production. This curved wall suggests unlimited space when seen through the camera.

FIGURE 12.10
Economical sets can be created by using just a few elements.

ECONOMICAL SETS

People working on a tight budget and with limited storage facilities will have little opportunity to build much scenery. But that does not need to be a major limitation, as it is possible to develop very attractive sets, simply and economically, by using just a few multipurpose set units in front of a cyclorama or a background wall (Figure 12.10).

 Lighting alone can significantly change the appearance of a background, whether it is a plain wall or a cyc. The set can be lit evenly, shaded (bottom-lit from a cyc light), have shadows or patterns projected on it, or be used with plain or blended color areas.

 An open set can be created by carefully grouping a few pieces of furniture in front of the wall. Even as little as a couch, low table, table lamp, potted plants, screen, chair, and stand lamp can suggest a complete room.

Support frames can be constructed from lengths of aluminum or wood. They can be dismantled or folded, are easily transported, and require little storage space. Various materials can be stretched across these support frames to make flats; these are taped, nailed, or stapled on. Many materials can be used, including mesh, trelliswork, scrim, netting, cardboard, wall coverings, translucent plastic sheeting, and so on (Figure 12.11).

Modular units can be constructed out of many different materials, from wood products to plastic sheeting and aluminum. The modules can also be purchased commercially in a variety of configurations. The advantage to modular systems is that they can be assembled and disassembled quickly, are generally designed for minimal storage size, and can look quite professional (Figure 12.12).

Semipermanent Sets

Set design has become more and more complex over the years. Sets incorporate technology, special lighting, monitors, and areas for keying graphics (Figure 12.13). Dramatic sets are being built with such detail that they have become incredibly complex. Most complex sets are installed semipermanently. They are complicated enough that they are not worth installing and uninstalling on a regular basis, at least until they need to be updated or the show is cancelled. This means that they are built into the studio, bolted to the floor, and probably connected to the ceiling (Figure 12.14). When studio space is available, it saves a lot of time to have a set sitting waiting to be used. A regular show can be shot quickly, without all of the setup time.

A permanent or semipermanent set has the advantage that the majority of the set is assembled and ready to be used whenever needed, the set can be dressed and left in place (various props and furnishings), and the lights usually have already been hung and adjusted and then left in position.

FIGURE 12.11
A simple flat constructed with 1 × 4-inch wood and a sheet of ¼-inch plywood. This flat is a type of support frame that would require at least one stage weight to keep it from falling down.

When a studio regularly produces a specific program, it may have a permanent set installed, such as a kitchen, a laboratory, an office, a lounge, or a news-desk layout, all designed to fit the production.

FIGURE 12.12
Modular units provide a quick and easy way to build a set. They can be constructed or purchased commercially. (Photos courtesy of Uni-Set)

FIGURE 12.13
Sets have become more and more complex over the years, loaded with technology and multiple surfaces. (Photos by Jon Greenhoe and Josh Taber)

Pictorial Backgrounds

Because in a 2D television picture it is difficult to distinguish between distant objects that are flat and that are solid, you can simulate 3D effects convincingly using a flat pictorial background. Ideally, it would need to be free from blemishes, evenly lit, and show no shadows; its perspective, proportions, and tones would match the foreground scene; and it would be shot straight-on. In practice, you will find that even quite blatant discrepancies can still be very convincing on camera.

PAINTED CLOTHS (BACKDROPS, BACKCLOTHS, SCENIC CLOTHS, CANVAS DROPS)

Ranging from pure vaudeville to near-photographic masterpieces of scenic art, these large painted sheets are used primarily as window backings. Painted cloths are normally hung on battens, pipes, or wooden frames (Figure 12.15).

PHOTOGRAPHIC ENLARGEMENTS (PHOTOMURALS, PHOTO BLOW-UPS)

Although expensive, enlarged photographs represent the ultimate realism obtainable from studio pictorial backgrounds. Enlargements are made on sections of photosensitized material that can be frontlit or backlit on the set (Figures 12.13 and 12.16).

TELEVISION MONITORS

Television monitors are increasingly being used as pictorial backgrounds, from a single monitor, as shown in Figure 12.13, to a monitor wall that takes up a large part of the set’s wall.

FIGURE 12.14
A semipermanent dramatic set being built into the studio. The back of the “plaster” walls are wooden flats, shown in Figure 12.23.

Cyclorama

Even the smallest studio can make full use of a cyclorama as a general-purpose background. The cyc (pronounced “sike”) serves as a general-purpose detail-free background. Cycloramas generally have a continuous, seamless background that can be used for chroma-key (see next section) or projected on to create unique backgrounds. The cyc provides an extremely useful general-purpose background surface for studios of all sizes. The cyclorama can be the basis of a wide range of program backgrounds from the mundane to the spectacular. It can be built to fit the project and can range from a few feet long to a complete wall around the studio (Figure 12.17).

FIGURE 12.15
Painted backdrops, or canvas drops, can range from designs to near-photographic masterpieces of scenic art. (Background painted by John Coakley/Courtesy of JC Backings)

FIGURE 12.16
Photographic enlargements printed on vinyl can be created so that they are night and day backgrounds. When lit from the front they look like a daylight backing, when lit from the front and back it can look like the golden hour, and when just lit from behind, the same backing can look like night time. (Photo courtesy of J.C. Backings)

Cycloramas are usually illuminated by a row of cyc lights (see Figures 11.27 and 11.28 for examples of a cyc lights). It can be neutral, colored with lights, or include no light (black); also, video can be inserted into a blue cyclorama, providing a virtual set. Note that it curves between the wall and the floor. As corners are difficult to light and still look like corners, its corners are usually rounded so that the cyc can be effectively used as a virtual set.

The cyc is available in two primary forms: soft cyc and hard cyc. A soft cyc can be made of cloth, paper, or canvas. A cloth cyc is usually stretched taut by tubular piping along its bottom edge, where a totally wrinkle-free surface is required (Figure 12.17). Soft cycs are sometimes hung on a straight or curved track (cyc rail), allowing them to be repositioned, changed, and moved out of the way when not required. A hard cyc is created out of drywall, metal, or wood to provide a hard, continuous surface (Figure 12.18).

Chroma-Key/Matting

The easiest way to understand the matting processes is to imagine cutting a hole in one video image and inserting an area from another picture that corresponds exactly. Within the area covered by the matte, the studio switcher or postproduction software switches from the main picture channel to a second picture source. The edges of this insert may be sharply defined (hard-edged) or diffused (soft-edged) so that they blend unobtrusively into the composite.

Matting/keying techniques have endless potential as background and as special effects. In television, chroma-keying is used extensively to create backgrounds and is based on a very simple principle. Wherever a chosen keying color (usually blue or green) appears in the on-air shot, it is possible to insert a second source (the background). Chroma-key replaces the blue or green area (determined by the user) with the corresponding section of the second source (Figure 12.18). This keying technique can be created by using a production switcher in a multicamera production or with a nonlinear editing system equipped with the appropriate software.

Basic one-camera chroma-key techniques have the major disadvantage that unless attached to a computer tracking program, the camera needs to hold a steady shot—it’s unable to pan, tilt, zoom, or move, because this would immediately destroy the realism of the scene. However, even simple chroma-key systems can be extremely effective.

Chroma-key is probably most often used to give the illusion that a person is standing in front of a real location such as a castle, standing in a field, standing out on the seashore, or standing in a town square—merely at the press of a button. If done well, this technique can be very convincing and effective with an audience.

When utilizing the chroma-key technique, the entire background does not need to be keyed out. Instead, any part of the background or foreground may be chroma-keyed, as long as the appropriate keying color is used. Because the image can be as large as the key color, it offers a very economical method of providing an impressive giant display screen in a shot (Figure 12.19).

FIGURE 12.17
This television news station uses a green chroma-key background for its weather reports. Note the final combined image on the monitor behind the talent. The foot pedal in front of the talent is for changing background images. The talent is looking at another monitor (not shown in the photo) to know where to point. (Photo by Josh Taber)

Virtual Sets

The use of virtual sets continues to grow. This sophisticated type of chroma-key is changing the way sets are designed in many studios. Although in the beginning the cost of setting up a virtual set system integrated with cameras can be quite significant, the savings of not having to quickly change many different kinds of sets can pay for itself in the long run. Studio space requirements and construction times are reduced with the use of these sets. Virtual sets use a blue or green seamless background, chroma-keying the computer-generated set into the scene. Most virtual sets employ sophisticated tracking computer software that monitors the camera’s movements so that as the cameras zoom, tilt, pan, or move in any other way, the background moves in a corresponding way. This system automatically adjusts the background with each shot change, changing the background size and angle to simulate a real set (Figure 12.20).

FIGURE 12.18
A hard cyclorama was used to allow China Central Television (CCTV) the flexibility of quickly changing sets. (Photo by Claro Cortes IV/Reuters/Landov)

FIGURE 12.19
The first image shows the set with a section that can be keyed out in blue. The second image is the external video shot and the third image shows what the viewers would see. Any appropriately colored portion of the set can be chroma-keyed. (Photos by Tyler Young)

Outside/Backlot Sets

Building an outdoor backlot set requires quite a bit of financial commitment in terms of both building the set and maintaining it. It is far beyond the means of a small-budget project. However, these sets can be rented and do offer a lot of flexibility. The nice thing about them is that, if designed effectively, they can be reused multiple times. The outdoor set shown in Figure 12.21 was built decades ago and has been used in many different films and television productions. These can be decorated to match the time era; most viewers do not realize that it is the same location that was used for earlier shows.

FIGURE 12.20
The women sitting on the blue cyc are being shot by a camera that is connected to the virtual set computer located in the foreground of this photo. Notice on the middle monitor that the computer-generated set can be seen. In the monitor on the right, you can see the combined virtual set and keyed talent.

The Location As a Background

Location backgrounds bring context to the production. They make the production look real and genuine in a way that is hard to imitate in any studio. It usually brings a credibility and urgency to the production. However, any time the production is moved out of the studio, a little control is lost in audio, lighting, camera placement, and so on.

However, unless it is a very famous place, all the audience knows about the location background is what is shown to them. It is possible to go to an exotic place, and shoot someone leaning against a tree that looks just like one back home. If you’re shooting on location, make good use of it. Ensure that there are sufficient visual clues for people to benefit from the specific atmosphere of the place (Figure 12.22).

In the “busyness” of shooting a production, it is so easy to overlook things in the background that can become a distraction in the final image. On the spot, they are just accepted as part of the scene. In the final production, they distract the audience’s attention. Even major films often have a microphone sneaking into the shot at the top of the picture, or a shadow of the camera crew, or prominent lighting cables, in spite of all their vigilance.

Sometimes these odd things are puzzling or disturbing to the audience; at other times, they look funny, such as someone standing with a flagpole “growing out of their head,” or a circular ceiling light hovering like a halo. Some of these distractions are impossible to avoid, but they are worth looking out for. The remainder of this section details some of the typical things that can spoil the image.

FIGURE 12.21
Left: The buildings and street are part of a set used in a network television production. Right: The back of the same set. Notice that the back has been designed so that actors can appear in windows or move in and out of doors.

FIGURE 12.22
This ESPN production wanted to show where it was being shot, so the city’s skyline was included in the background. (Photo by Dennis Baxter)

Windows can be an embarrassment when shooting interiors. A large patch of sky in the shot can create problems. Even if the interior is exposed properly, this bright blank area still grabs the audience’s attention. Although corrective filters can be used to compensate for the high color temperature of the daylight, its intensity can easily overwhelm the interior illumination and prevent the camera from getting a good tonal balance.

In addition to all that, if the audience has a good view of what is going on outside the window, there is always the chance that they will find this more intriguing than the real subject. The simple remedy is to keep the window out of the shot, or close the shades.

Reflective surfaces in the background are difficult to avoid. But glass, plastic, and even highly polished furniture can be very troublesome. These surfaces can even reflect the camera and its crew. So instead of admiring the gleaming new automobile, the audience watches the interesting reflections in its door panel.

Worse still is that shiny surfaces reflect lamps. If a camera light is being used, its beam will bounce straight back into the lens. When the camera is moved, the blob of light will move along with the camera.

Low-intensity reflections give sparkle and life to a surface. Strong light reflections are a pain, both technically and artistically. Apart from avoiding shooting straight-on at these surfaces, or keeping them out of the shot, the quick solutions are to change the camera’s location, cover them up (position something or someone so that the highlight is not reflected), or angle the surface.

Any strong lights directly visible in the background of the shot can be similarly troublesome. But unless their intensities can be controlled, or kept out of the shot, the director will probably have to accept the results.

Flashing signs, prominent posters, direction signs, and billboards are among the visual diversions that can easily ruin a shot. They are all part of the scene, but if a dramatic situation is taking place anywhere near an animated advertising sign, do not be surprised if part of the audience’s attention is elsewhere.

Even if shooting in a busy spot, it is often possible to find a quiet corner in which there are not too many interruptions. Try to avoid including a door or busy corridor in the background, or similar areas with a continually changing stream of people. People staring at the camera and bystanders watching (particularly the hand-waving types) are a regular problem, and there is little one can do, except try as much as possible to keep them out of the shot.

SET COMPONENTS

There are many different types of set components used for production. Here are some of the most common.

Standard set unit: Used instead of interior or exterior walls. A flat is a good example of a standard set unit (Figure 12.23).

Hanging units: Basically, any background that is supported by hanging on a wall, a lighting grid, or another overhead support. These include curtains, rolls of background paper, and canvas (Figures 12.15, 12.16, 12.17, and 12.24).

Platforms: Used to elevate the talent or set (Figure 12.25).

Set pieces: Usually three-dimensional objects used on a set. These would include modular set systems, steps, pillars, and so on (Figure 12.12).

Floor treatment: Includes rugs, wood, rubber tiles, paint, and so on.

Stage props: The furniture on the set. These would include news desks (Figure 12.25), chairs, couches, and tables.

FIGURE 12.23
These flats, or standard set units, are the back of the walls seen in Figure 12.14. This photo reveals how the walls were constructed.

FIGURE 12.24
Left: This photo shows a cityscape hanging unit (far right of photo) hanging behind the actual set. Right: This photo was shot from inside the set, showing the cityscape.

FIGURE 12.25
In this situation, a platform is used to bring the talent up to eye level with the camera.

Set dressings: Set decorations are used to create the character of the set. They can establish the mood and style of the production. The dressings can include fireplaces, lamps, plants, pictures, or draperies (Figures 12.26 and 12.33).

Hand properties (props): Any items that are touched and handled by the talent during the production. These could include a pen, dishes, a cell phone, or silverware (Figures 12.27 and 12.28).

SET CONSIDERATIONS

Camera Height

The camera’s height has a significant effect on how much of the scene is visible in the shot. From a lower viewpoint, less of the middle ground is seen, which reduces the feeling of space and distance in the picture. Things nearer the camera become more prominent—perhaps overly so. Even very small foreground objects nearby can obscure the shot. But raise the camera just a little, and not only will it shoot over them, but the audience will not even realize that they are there (Figure 12.29).

As the camera’s height is increased, more of the middle ground comes into view, and the audience gets a greater impression of space and distance. However, if the scene is shot from a very high angle, or overhead shots are used, the audience will no longer feel that they are within a location, but will find themselves looking down, inspecting it instead. Of course, the audience is also affected by the speed of the camera move and the content of the shot.

FIGURE 12.26
These set dressings will be used to establish the character of the set.

FIGURE 12.27
Prop room showing the various props available for use in a production.

Foreground Pieces

Objects can also be deliberately positioned in the foreground of an image to improve its composition, to increase the impression of distance, or simply to hide something in the scene. Many exterior shots have foliage hanging into the top of the frame. It is almost a visual cliché. But the camera operator has done this because the picture looks more complete, and it gives a better sense of scale, than if there were just a blank open sky. With this “frame,” the picture tends to look more balanced and no longer bottom-heavy. When there does not happen to be an overhanging tree to shoot past, a piece of a tree branch can always be held above the lens. If this positively affects the look of the picture, do it—and your audience need never know.

Although the television’s picture itself usually has a fixed horizontal aspect ratio (4:3 or 16:9), a foreground window, an arch, or a similar opening can be used to provide a border that alters the apparent shape of the picture.

By carefully framing foreground objects, it is possible to hide things in the background that would be distracting to the audience. They might ruin the shot in some other way. For example, if an historical drama is being re-enacted, it is very convenient (to say the least) if a carefully positioned gatepost, bush, or even a person in the foreground hides the modern signs, power lines, and other elements (Figure 9.6).

Creating Depth

Foreground pieces can add depth to a limited background. Depth is created by shooting through things, like a bookshelf, a fence, or flowers. Usually the foreground is kept slightly out of focus, so that the attention is drawn to the primary subject. However, the foreground can also help bring context to the image, by using something in the foreground that adds information to the scene (Figure 12.30).

Versions of “Reality”

Obviously, the camera does not “tell the truth.” It interprets. Each aspect of the picture and the sound influences how the audience responds to what they see and hear. A slight change in the camera position can entirely alter the picture’s impact. If the sun comes out, what was a drab threatening block of building can become transformed into an attractive, interesting piece of architecture. In the winter, we see a dull-looking street planted with stark, leafless trees. In spring, it becomes a charming avenue, where sidewalks are dappled with shade.

A location can be shot so that the audience envies its inhabitants, or pities them for having to live there. It can appear like a fine place, or an eyesore. It’s all a matter of what the director chooses to include, and omit; what is emphasized, and what is suppressed.

As the camera moves around the scene, it can dwell on busy purposeful bustle, as people go to work, or it can linger on those who appear to be lounging around with nothing to do. (In reality, they might be waiting for a bus, but at the moment the camera captures them, they are “aimlessly inactive.”) The director can suggest spaciousness by shooting with a wide-angle lens. Use a telephoto (narrow-angle) lens instead, and the same streets can look congested.

FIGURE 12.28
This prop was used during a production of The X-Files. The actor bent the “pipes” and climbed through the “concrete.” In reality, the pipes were bendable rubber and the concrete was foam. The “metal” edges and bolts were actually plastic.

FIGURE 12.29
By moving the camera to a high angle on a jib, the audience becomes curious, inspecting the scene. (Photo courtesy of Sony)

In most cities, one can find litter, decay, and graffiti; conversely, there will be signs of prosperity—attractive buildings, green spaces, fountains, wildlife, plus things that are amusing and others that are touching. How the images are selected and related will significantly influence how the viewing audience will interpret the scene.

What Can We Do about the Background?

If the director is shooting in a studio and the background is unsatisfactory for any reason, he or she can usually improve it in some way or other. But what can be done when on location if the background proves to be unworkable?

When a guest in someone’s home, the answer may be disappointingly little. So much depends on the people involved, and the director’s diplomacy. If the hosts are not accustomed to appearing on camera, they will probably be disturbed when it is suggested that things need to be moved around to any extent.

They may even feel uncomfortable if they are not sitting in their customary chair. There is little point in doing things that will jeopardize the interview. However, there are various little things that can be done unobtrusively to improve matters:

 Natural lighting can be used, rather than introducing lights. The person being interviewed will probably feel more at ease. The problem is that additional lighting cannot be avoided in most interiors in order to get good images.

 Although a room’s tones cannot necessarily be changed, it may be possible to shade your lamps off a light-toned surface to prevent them from appearing too bright (using a barn door, flag, or partial diffuser). A little illumination may be able to be added to dark corners.

 If there are reflections in glass-fronted pictures or cabinets, and the lights and camera cannot be moved in order to avoid them, slightly angling the frame or furniture may resolve the dilemma. A wall picture or mirror can often be tilted up or down a bit by wedging something behind it. To avoid seeing the camera in a glass bookcase behind the talent, it may be possible to slightly open its doors.

 Closing or partly closing the room’s curtains may help to adjust the lighting balance in a room.

 If shooting in a corridor or hallway, it can help if doors in a side wall are opened enough to let extra light in.

 Even if shooting in daylight, it may provide more interesting images if the table lamps or other lights in the room are turned on.

 It may even be possible to conceal low-powered lamps behind furniture or wall angles in order to illuminate distant parts of the room; but be careful that they do not over-light or even burn nearby surfaces.

Rearranging the Background

Most of the time, the director will be able to alter the background to achieve the best possible scene. Again, this has to be done diplomatically, but if the host’s confidence is gained, and the director seems to know what he or she is doing, there should be no difficulties. The simplest changes usually involve moving around what is already there to avoid any unnecessary distractions or unwanted effects (glares) in the picture.

FIGURE 12.30
Foreground subjects add depth to the images.

It is important to look at the background of any location to make sure that nothing is apparently growing from the talent’s head, or balancing on it, and that no vertical or horizontal lines cut through the center of the head or across the shoulders. These visual “accidents” can make the picture look contrived or comic (Figure 12.31).

Altering the Background

As mentioned earlier, there are times when the background must be altered to improve the appearance of the room for television. There are a number of quick, inexpensive, and simple things that can be done to adjust things for the camera:

 Rearrange the furniture.

 Replace furniture with other pieces from nearby rooms.

 Add or remove rugs.

 Hide a doorway with a folding screen.

 Attach display posters to the walls.

 Position indoor plants (such as ferns) to break up the background.

 Introduce notices and signs on walls, doors, or elsewhere.

When shooting outside, there are relatively few things that can be done cheaply and easily to change the background.

FIGURE 12.31
People’s homes are designed to be comfortable and to be lived in—they are not designed for television. When going into a home with a camera, it is common to have to move some furniture, things hanging on the wall, rugs, and knick-knacks in order to create an effect that works on television.

Partial Settings

This is a strategy for convincing your audience that a very modest setting is not only the real thing, but even that it is much more extensive than it actually is. Yet the cost and effort involved are minimal (Figure 12.32).

If the camera does not move, it can only show a limited amount of the scene in a medium or close-up shot. With partial settings, it is important to concentrate on building up a section of the scene, just large enough to fit the camera’s shot, and no more. Within the scene, enough features are included to allow the audience to interpret where the action is supposed to be taking place.

Do not underrate this idea. It has been used successfully in film and television for many years. The result does not need to look amateurish. Add the associated sound effects and the combined image can be indistinguishable from the real thing.

Typical Examples of Partial Settings

Creating sets that impact the audience can often be simply designed without building huge complex backgrounds.

 An “instant store” can be created by putting the appropriate type of merchandise on a foreground table (the “counter”), an advertisement or two on the back wall, and a shelf behind the salesperson, holding some more products.

 Sometimes even a single feature in the picture can suggest an environment. A stained-glass window and organ music become a church interior. (The window could even be projected.)

FIGURE 12.32
By putting the crowd in just the right place, repositioning the camera so that the crowd is directly behind the batter and catcher, and zooming in the lens to a closeup or medium shot, the viewing audience will assume that the baseball stadium was filled with a cheering audience.

 A convincing “room” can be created in a studio with just a couple of flats or screens and a chair. Add an extra item or two, such as a side table with a potted plant and a picture, and it begins to take on its own character. If a curtain is hung on one of the walls, a window is assumed to be there. Whether it is interpreted as being someone’s home, or a waiting room, for instance, largely depends on the way people in the scene behave. If they’re lying back casually dressed, reading a paper, it is obviously their home. In outdoor attire, sitting upright and anxious, they are waiting.

 Replace the plant with a computer, and the picture with a framed certificate—magically, the setting becomes an office.

On location, the same concept is still useful: restrict the shot and “doctor” the background. Suppose that a nineteenth-century drama is being shot, in which somebody visits their lawyer. A house exterior of about the right period is found, but the rest of the street is obviously busy and modern. Fortunately, all that is needed is a shot of the house doorway with the appropriate business sign attached to it, and the picture explains itself to the viewing audience. Have the actor go up to the door, or pretend to leave the house, and the audience will immediately accept the location as the lawyer’s office. It needs only the sounds of horse-drawn vehicles to replace modern traffic noise, and the period illusion is complete. With a little care and imagination, locations can be created from a minimum of scenery and work.

It is incredible how seemingly trivial techniques can give a totally convincing effect on camera:

 The camera rhythmically tilting up and down sells the illusion of a ship at sea.

 The wafting breeze may really be the result of an assistant waving a piece of board.

 The shuddering camera accompanied by things falling to the ground (pulled by unseen fishing line) implies an explosion or an earthquake. A hanging lamp swings alarmingly—tugged by an out-of-shot line.

 The flickering flames of a nearby fire come from a stick of cloth strips waved in front of a ground lamp.

These are just a few examples of how little ingenuity can apparently achieve the impossible, and create a strong impression in your audience’s minds.

Facing Reality

It is one thing to have dreams about creating a program, but it is quite different to turn them into reality. Among the problems facing all directors are the inevitable limitations of budget and facilities. Some of the things that are needed may not even be available.

When faced with such problems, it is tempting to think small: to cut back on the ambitious goals, and to do a simpler version. Do not immediately abandon your ideas! Instead, ask yourself whether there is another way of tackling the situation to get virtually the same effect. How can you get around the difficulty?

What we are looking for are imaginative substitutes. Keep in mind that directors produce illusions. However basic the materials really are, the end result can appear to be the real thing (Figure 12.33).

As an example, let’s look at an actual scene that was used on the air. The scene was the banquet hall of an ancient castle. The king sat on a throne at one end of a long table, eating from golden dishes. That was the illusion.

FIGURE 12.33
Sometimes ingenuity needs to be used instead of reality. A fireplace was desired for this NBC set, but it was impossible to have a working fireplace in the building in this specific situation, and the heat would have been a problem. So an HD monitor (with a video of fire) was used inside the fireplace as a substitute. (Photo courtesy of LPG/NBC)

What was reality? Two small foreground flags on wooden floor stands masked the edges of the shot, so that no one could see the rest of the small studio. The “wooden table” was created from painted boards placed on sawhorses. The far “stone wall” was photographic wall-paper attached to a flat (and was slightly sprayed black in order to “age” it). The “throne” was an old wooden armchair with a red drape thrown over it. The “gold dishes” were sprayed plastic plates. A “window” was painted, black on white, and stuck to the “stone wall.” But no one in the audience could recognize all of this in the long shot. Of course the scene would not have worked for close-up shots, but under patchy lighting, it was seen as it was intended to be—the banquet hall of an ancient castle.

Set Problems

Here are some of the more common problems that you might have to address when working with sets:

 Check the set for distracting features. This could include things such as bright surfaces or reflections. Check to see whether the lighting can be adjusted to correct the problem. Other options may be using dulling spray, repainting the area with a different color, covering it, or removing that item from the set.

 Colors or tones may be unsuitable (subject merges with background). Modify the background, lighting, or subject (for example, change the clothing).

 Background blemishes (dirty marks, tears, scrapes, wrinkles, etc.) may be visible. HD is very unforgiving and seems to show every mark. Correcting the problem may require refurbishing the area, covering it, or possibly changing the lighting.

 Distracting shadows may appear on the background. This usually means that the talent or scenery is too close to the background. This often requires moving the scenery/people or relighting the shot.

What Can You Shoot?

Intellectual property (IP) is everywhere. Unless you have permission from the respective copyright and trademark owners, you can’t include logos on your sets or in your production. IP-protected material is everywhere, including posters, product labels, paintings, billboards, books, toys, storefront signs, clothing insignias, and sculptures. If you plan to distribute your production, all IP material needs to be cleared. If you can’t get permission to use the logos, it would be best not to use them. Otherwise you jeopardize the marketability of your project.

Just because you have a valid release from a location owner does not mean that you have the right to shoot any IP-protected material at the location. Location releases do not cover IP rights.

There are exceptions to the rules, including some educational uses, news reporting, research, teaching, criticism, and parody.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. How do the various format ratios (4:3 and 16.9) affect the set design?

2. What are some of the advantages of a modular set?

3. Why would someone want to use a cyclorama?

4. Explain the relationship between a virtual set and chroma-key.

5. What is a contextual set?

6. Name three types of props and explain how are they are used?

7. How is depth created on a set?

INTERVIEW WITH A PROFESSIONAL: JOHN DECUIR

Why is design important? I would like to think that what separates the design professional from other ways of life is that we are constantly on the look-out for the new idea; a better way to say, package, or construct our work. For better or worse we seem to be dedicated to a life of rolling over those “idea rocks” never too sure what just might crawl out.

What advice do you have for the beginning designer? Develop a working set of professional tools that have proven value. Here are a few of the tools you might wish to consider investing your time in developing.

 Master the technology of your craft. It is safe to assume that the technical knowledge we employ can make or break a project. In judging the value of a new idea, always consider the skill level of the person who has created it.

 Apply storytelling techniques to your project. Understanding the narrative of your project will insure you are able to communicate its value both to the client, the world, and most importantly to yourself. The professional simply can’t design effectively unless he or she can communicate a project’s narrative, tell its back-story, and define the theme.

 Understand and respect the project environment. You can’t design well unless you first understand, then respect, then influence, then reshape the environmental issues surrounding a project. As an example: in a program scene, everything from the religious beliefs of the next-door neighbor, to the objects on the dresser, to the snow falling outside create a contiguous “design biosphere.” This biosphere or “story ecosystem” must be allowed to impact each and every choice the designer makes. Essential in this process is how the interaction of two elements create a third, new idea, and how the new idea and its component parts all need to exist in a harmonious framework.

What are the challenges that you have to deal with as a designer? The most important challenge you will face is to maintain a high state of energy and enthusiasm for your work. Then there is the challenge of maintaining a balanced attack. To create a quality solution the designer must balance issues of budget, time, and quality. As money becomes less available, time may have to expand. If a super emphasis is placed on quality then perhaps both time and budget will need to expand. When deadlines are shortened, budgets may have to be increased and perhaps quality (at some acceptable level) will need be sacrificed. Balancing these three factors at every step in the development process is one of the young professional’s great challenges. Managing the client–designer relationship The designer must earn the client’s respect so that he or she can operate in a professional atmosphere.

FIGURE 12.34
John DeCuir, Set Designer

John DeCuir designs sets for network television series as well as major motion pictures.