17

Editing Picture and Sound

Post-production in the entertainment business is one of the fastest-changing fields in the industry. New software and techniques are developed each year that have an impact on the process of post-production. The purpose of this chapter is to describe the people that work in post-production and to describe the process. Because of changing and sometimes expensive technology, this process varies greatly in different production levels. It should be noted that this chapter does not attempt to provide the technical aspects of post-production such as what editing program to use and how that system functions. There are many books that cover those subjects in great detail. These books also quickly become dated as the process changes. This chapter concentrates more on the people and the process. Figure 17.1 illustrates the post-production hierarchy.

Post-Production Supervisor

The post-production supervisor is the person who makes sure that everything in the post-production process is coordinated and completed on time. This person tends to the details of each point in the process, ensuring for the producer that the project is proceeding well and on time. She may begin work during principal photography or shortly after principal is completed. A general list of duties follows:

• Answers to the producer and director.
• Meets with the producer to discuss a possible post-production schedule and delivery date.
• Creates and publishes a post-production schedule (in consultation with the director and producer). This schedule articulates deadlines for different steps in the process.
• May arrange for picture and sound editing facilities.
• May coordinate the scoring sessions, including communicating with the composer and renting the stage.
• May manage the post-production budget (sometimes done by the editor).
• May rent a sound mixing facility for the final sound mix.
• Meets with the DP and editor to determine the post-production workflow.
• Provides communication between the editors and producer or production staff.
• May work with film labs to ensure timely transport and delivery of materials.
• May work with the special/visual effects team to coordinate delivery of the effects.

Figure 17.1 Post-production hierarchy

Editor

The editor’s job is to cut the picture together. In low budget this could mean that the editor not only cuts picture but also cuts and mixes the sound. In medium- to higher-budget projects, the editor will only cut picture, along with the help of a few assistants. In this case, the editor’s job is highly creative. He not only cuts a scene according to the footage that was shot but also uses the shots to tell the story. As the head of the editing department, the editor is also in charge of and responsible for the editing budget (unless this is done by the post-production supervisor). The editor starts work as soon as footage is turned in. Following is the process the editor may go through to accomplish a final edit:

• Receives dailies from the production office.
• Receives notes from the script supervisor. These notes tell the editor how a scene was covered and how each shot was named.
• Has one assistant or more to digitize or load the footage into the editing system. Digitizing is the process of recording the dailies into the computer. This is used when you have shot on film and transferred the film to a digital format. The only time digitizing is not needed is when you shoot with a camera that records your footage on a hard drive. In this case, the drive is hooked up to your computer and the footage is uploaded in the editing program as files, with each take being a different file.
• May look over the footage to see what has been shot.
• Begins to choose takes, either with the director or alone (depends on the director).
• Once takes are chosen, may have an assistant assemble the footage into a first cut (or do this himself).
• As further footage is sent in, repeats the process of cutting together scenes.
• May then edit a first cut of the film, either alone or with the director. Different producers and directors have varying styles when it comes to their involvement in the editing process. Some directors and producers prefer to sit in on almost every editing session, influencing how each scene takes shape from start to finish. Other directors only prefer to sit in on the process after the first scenes are cut together.
• Each time a cut is ready, the editor will arrange for a screening with the producer and director.
• Continues with further cuts of the picture until the final cut is achieved.
• May need to edit a television version, if applicable.
• Turns the rough cuts and final picture over to the sound editors and composer.
• May in some cases cut the trailer.

Assistant Editors

The 1st assistant editor on a project supports the editor. Depending on the personal style of the editor, these duties may vary. For instance, one editor may be comfortable with letting the assistant editor put a first cut of a scene together. Some editors may even give certain scenes to an assistant to take to the first or second cut. Another editor may only want the first assistant editor to log and load footage.

The 2nd assistant editor on a project assists the first assistant editor. Having any assistant editors on a project at all has become more of a luxury because of faster and easier-to-use editing systems. There is always an assistant needed, though, to load and organize footage. In this case, that task usually falls to the second assistant editor. If there were no second, this duty would fall to the first. The second may also be asked to put first assemblies of the footage together, or even first and second cuts if there are tight deadlines.

The apprentice editor is much like a production assistant in other departments. Her main job is to assist the other members of the editing team. This may include getting them coffee, logging footage, and organizing files. The apprentice is usually someone with little experience who is looking to move up the editing ladder.

Sound Designer

The sound designer is the person responsible for the aural concept of a project. The aural concept is a kind of aural vision for the film. If you listen to different films, you will notice that some projects may sound grittier and noisier; some may sound quieter and more peaceful. This is not by accident. The sound designer has created an aural concept (in consultation with the director) of how the final film will sound. It is then her job to see that vision realized on the sound track. To do this, the sound designer discusses the vision with the director and producer. Then she supervises all aspects of audio post, from hiring a post-production crew to supervising the sound editing and mixing. The sound designer oversees the creation of sound effects tracks, Foley tracks, and especially the music track. She may also work with a music supervisor to ensure that the aural vision and the vision of the director are accomplished on-screen.

The sound designer is a position mostly seen on high-budget films. In high-budget projects you would have a sound designer, possibly an assistant, and an array of sound editors. In very low budget, you may have one person who records the location sound. You then may have only one other person who completes the entire sound edit and mix. In medium budget you may have more than one person working on your sound in post-production, and one of them may be given sound designer credit (mainly because it looks good on the resume).

Sound Designer/Editor

The description of the sound editor varies greatly on projects because of budget. In low budget your sound editor may be the person who performs the duties of the sound designer, dialogue editor, sound effects editor, automated dialogue replacement (ADR) editor, and music editor. In medium- to higher-budget projects, the sound editor may work on putting together the tracks that other editors have built and supervise the other sound editors (in this case, he would be called the supervising sound editor). The process for the sound editor is as follows:

• May receive a first cut of the picture. Often the post-production schedule dictates that sound editing needs to begin before a final cut of the picture is achieved. In this case, as the picture editor finishes final scenes, they are sent to the sound editor(s) until the final cut of the picture is achieved (which is then sent to the sound editor).
• May receive a final cut of the picture to begin working on.
• Receives original sound recordings and sound reports. These recordings may be needed because they contain room tone, which is placed under scenes to provide a consistent background ambience.
• Holds spotting sessions with the director. A spotting session is a meeting between the sound editor and the director. In this meeting they watch the film and discuss possible problems with the sound, placement of sound effects, Foley, and sometimes music. See Figure 17.2 for an example of a spotting sheet.
• Begins building the sound tracks, including the dialogue track and possibly the ambience, sound effects, ADR, and music tracks.
• Brings in the director and producer at various points to listen to the tracks and discuss changes.
• Continues to work on the tracks until the director and producer are satisfied.
• Adds in the special effects, ambience, ADR, Foley, and music tracks.
• Once the tracks are finished, prepares the tracks for the sound mix. The process of preparing usually means making sure all the tracks are in proper order, labeled properly, and volume levels are consistent.
• May then output the tracks to another format to send to the mixing session. This may not need to happen if the project will be edited and mixed on the same sound editing system, such as Pro Tools, which has both sound editing and mixing functions. Note that in lower-budget productions the audio is sometimes edited and mixed by the picture editor. In this case, the tracks merely stay in the original editing program and are built and mixed there.

Figure 17.2 Spotting sheet

Dialogue Editor

The dialogue editor heads up the sound editing team. His main job is to take the dialogue that has been recorded on a project and clean it up. The dialogue editor adds crossfades to smooth out the ambience differences of different takes and removes unwanted background noises. He may edit ADR into the main dialogue (if there is no ADR editor) or replace lines with alternate takes of the original production track dialogue.

The dialogue track of a film is usually the prominent track. Filmmakers know that if the dialogue of the actors cannot be heard clearly, they will lose their audience. Dialogue editors are knowledgeable about speech patterns and speech rhythms. Consequently, dialogue editors are extremely meticulous people, having to deal with the minutiae of a sound track in order to make it sound its best. Following are some general guidelines for the process of dialogue editing:

• Listens to the dialogue track, looking for problems.
• Completes a spotting sheet, making notes of items that need improvement. For instance, you have a scene with two actors talking. In between their dialogue a bang is heard off set (someone dropped something during shooting). The dialogue editor makes a note to remove that sound. On the other hand, perhaps in the same scene that bang is heard on top of an actor’s dialogue. The dialogue editor would make a note that ADR will need to be recorded for that line.
• Adds crossfades between dialogue cuts to create smoothness.
• Fills in any missing ambiences between words.
• Adjusts levels and pitches of voices so they are consistent.
• May work on the music and effects (M&E); sometimes this is completed by the sound editor.

Sound Effects Editor

The sound effects editor is the editor who adds or creates sound effects that are then added to the sound effects tracks. Sound effects editing is arguably the most creative of the editing jobs. These people are known for creating something out of nothing. For instance, the sound of a waterfall can be recreated using tissue paper. Sword fight sounds can be created using two kitchen knives. Whatever the scene calls for, or whatever effect might add sonic quality, it is the sound effects artist who can provide. The sound effects artist also uses sound effects to define space, establish locale, and create humor or counterpoint. The purpose of sound effects is to direct a viewer’s emotion and enhance the dramatic impact of a scene. Following is a list of general guidelines for the sound effects editor:

• Holds spotting sessions with the director and/or producer.
• Inserts any needed sound effects via a sound effects library.
• Records any effects that cannot be found in a library. An assistant or a Foley artist may also accomplish this job. A Foley artist is a person who performs actions to create sounds such as footsteps or any sound that needs to be synchronized to the picture.
• If necessary, holds Foley sessions to get needed sound effects.
• Continues to build the sound effects tracks until all are completed.
• If applicable, sends the sound effects tracks to the main sound editor.

Music Editor

The music editor is the person who adds music to the picture. While music itself has many purposes in a project, the placement of that music also has a purpose. Music is used to intensify action, depict identity, establish place, and recall or foretell events. There are certain guidelines for a music editor when placing or using music. These guidelines are as follows:

• Music can be used to overlap or segue between scenes.
• If a piece of music starts within a scene, it should play all the way through (there are exceptions to this based on artistic choice).
• Music should start only when the dramatic emphasis of a scene changes.
• Music should always reflect the emotional state of the character.
• If the music does not have a purpose, you do not need it.

The music editor will follow some of the same procedures for the music editing process, as follows:

• Holds spotting sessions with the director or music supervisor. At these sessions, the placement of each piece of music is chosen.
• As pieces of music are received, places them accordingly.
• Holds meetings with the director or music supervisor to adjust music as needed.
• If applicable, sends the music tracks to the main sound editor.

ADR Editor

The ADR editor is the person who records and then adds ADR to the picture. ADR is needed when an actor’s dialogue either was not recorded well on set or is bad because of some unwanted background noise. It is advisable to do as little ADR as possible. ADR is sometimes recorded because the director wants a different “read” on an actor’s line. In low budget, because of scant resources, it is not always advisable to do much ADR. This is especially true if your re-recording mixer is inexperienced. Combining ADR with production dialogue and making it sound seamless is an art, often acquired only by years of experience. Too much ADR that does not match the production dialogue will make your project sound amateurish. Alternately, if your production sound is unintelligible, you may have to do ADR. Sometimes the choice is the lesser of two evils. The ADR editor will go through the following process:

• May hold spotting sessions with the director, dialogue editor, or main sound editor.
• Will work with the post-production supervisor to schedule ADR recording sessions.
• Records actors’ dialogue at the looping/ADR session.
• Edits the ADR into the ADR tracks.
• May send the ADR tracks to the sound editor.

Looping/ADR

Looping, also known as ADR, is the session where the actors come in during post-production and redo their dialogue in a looping facility. Looping is usually part of an actor’s contract. Looping sessions involve the following:

• After principal photography, the producer, director, and sound editor determine how much and which lines of dialogue will need to be looped.
• The post-production supervisor books a facility that does ADR.
• The producer or UPM contacts necessary cast and arranges for a looping schedule.

Following are the steps to take to achieve a successful ADR session.

What to Do before the Session

1. Hold a spotting session with your director or producer to determine exactly which lines need to be recorded.
2. Have production call and schedule each actor; you should allow approximately ten to fifteen minutes for completing each line.
3. Make sure your spotting sheet tells you at what time code each line exists.
4. If you don’t already have one, create a new track in your session that will contain only ADR.
5. Arrive at least a half hour before the session is to begin.
6. Test the microphone in the booth and test recording into your computer or recorder.
7. Double-check to make sure all of the lines to be recorded have a memory location.
8. Make sure the producer provides script pages for each actor.

What to Do during the Session

1. Once the producer and actor arrive, make the actor feel comfortable; actors are often nervous and inexperienced at this.
2. Place the actor in front of the microphone at the proper position.
3. Have the actor read a few lines, and adjust the level on the mixing board for optimum recording.
4. If using computer software, call up the first memory location.
5. Select the line and let the actor rehearse.
6. When the actor is ready, begin recording.
7. Keep recording until you feel proper synchronicity (sync) has been achieved.
8. Be sure to make a note on the ADR cue sheet about which take the director/producer liked the best.
9. Repeat the above steps until all lines are recorded.

Re-recording Mixers

The re-recording mixer, also known sometimes as the sound mixer, is the person who mixes all the tracks of a project together to reach a final mix. In low-budget pictures, the re-recording mixer mixes all of the tracks, including dialogue, sound effects, ambience, and music. In higher-budget productions, the dialogue editor may become the main re-recording mixer, accompanied by two other mixers who all work together in one mixing session. One will mix the sound effects, and the other will mix the music.

The purpose of the mixing session is to sweeten the sound or, in other words, blend the sound tracks and adjust levels and add digital signal processing (DSP) so that the final sound of the picture is achieved. DSP is the practice of processing different sounds with effects such as reverb or equalization (EQ). For instance, if a person’s voice is heard over a telephone, the sound mixer will “EQ” the voice (decreasing the mid-frequency range) to make it sound electronic. Generally, the sound mixing session would be attended by the mixer(s), producer, and director and could take anywhere from one week to one month, depending on the complexity of the picture. The session could proceed as follows:

1. All parties watch the project scene by scene and give notes, and the sound mixer makes adjustments.
2. The re-recording mixer adds digital effects to certain sounds as needed, or directs the dialogue or music mixer to do so.
3. The re-recording mixer adjusts volume levels so they are consistent throughout the piece and the dialogue is prominent.
4. The director and/or producer add suggestions throughout the session. These suggestions are talked about and implemented as needed.
5. The mixer(s) proceed through the show until all scenes are completed.
6. The parties will then listen to the project one last time to determine if any adjustments need to be made.

The Sound Mix

When your mix is complete, your sound mixer may “bounce,” or combine, all of your sound tracks to achieve the number of tracks that will accommodate your format.

The kind of mix your re-recording mixer completes depends on the format and distribution of your piece. In the past if your show was shot on 16mm film and intended to be projected that way, you would do a mono mix. A mono mix has all of the sound tracks combined into one channel. That channel is the white squiggly line you see on a 16mm film print.

If your piece was shot in another film format or shot digitally for theater release and will be projected on film, the mixer will complete a mix for 5.1, 7.1, or 10.2 surround sound. This kind of mix directs different channels to different speakers. Surround sound is now found in most theaters and is the kind of mix that is used on DVD.

If your project will be shown internationally, the editors will also create an M&E, which stands for music and effects. Completing the M&E is the process in which any sounds from the dialogue track that are not dialogue are moved or reproduced onto another track. This leaves one track of dialogue only and other tracks filled with all of the M&E. Then, when a different country wants to create a different language version of your piece, they can lay down the dialogue in their language. They will then combine that with the other M&E tracks.

The Post-Production Process

The post-production process is an ever-changing practice. What was done as recently as ten years ago no longer exists. What follows is a description of the various ways to shoot and edit a project. These descriptions are not meant to be exhaustive in the technological sense (there are many sources with updated technological practices, such as trade magazines and editing textbooks), but are meant to be a thorough treatment of the steps of the process.

When I talk about “finishing on” a certain format, I am referring to the final format of the piece. A work may be finished on film because it will be projected in a theater on film. A project may be finished digitally, either because it is going straight to DVD or Blu-ray for distribution or because it will be projected digitally. Each production is different. The finished format of your piece is determined by what kind of distribution you have. If your project is not going for theatrical distribution, it may be shot on film, edited by computer, and then directly output to the current format for distribution.

The Digital Workflow

Some projects that would normally be shot on film are now being done digitally because of the cost savings. Many feature films are shot digitally and shown in major theaters. Shooting and finishing digitally has fast become the way many projects are done. Many projects are still shot on film but finish digitally because they are never intended to be shown in theaters. The process, staying in the digital realm, might seem easier, but is not without its bugs.

The process here is relatively simple, but realize not all of the steps follow chronologically, but may happen simultaneously.

• Shoot with a digital camera.
• The DIT checks and transcodes footage into your editing format.
• The assistant editors import the files into your editing system.
• Assistants also organize the footage into a predetermined file system.
• Input the sound and synchronize to the picture.
• Put together your first cut; some call it the assembly.
• You can then, on some systems, edit your sound on the same system.
• Alternatively, you can output your cut sound to a sound editing system for more precise sound editing.
• Or, after first cut, send picture to the sound editors and they begin building tracks.
• Hold various screenings with director and producers and make changes as needed.
• Hold ADR and Foley sessions as needed.
• Once picture and sound edit are locked, the elements are brought back together.
• Hold color correction sessions.
• Conduct a sound mix and then output to your final format.

Main Titles and End Credits

The process of putting together the final credits of a film can be very complicated. Many of the film’s main titles and end credits are determined contractually. Stars may have a certain size font that must be used or a specific placement where their names must appear. Unions have rules about credits for the director, UPM, assistant directors, director of photography, editor, art director, set decorator, costume designer, and makeup artist. For instance, the Directors Guild of America (DGA) requires that a director’s credit appear last in the opening credits and not be smaller than 50 percent of the size of the project title. It also requires that a producer send the guild a copy of the main and end titles so the DGA can review them for compliance to guild rules.

Some unions are more specific than others when it comes to defining how their members receive credit. It is wise to always check with each union for its specific rules. If your show is nonunion, you may choose to write your credits however you see fit. There is a general guideline for the order of main and end credits: see Figure 17.3 for an example. Keep in mind that the example credit list may have more than or not all of the personnel in your project. Each credit list is particular to each show. Furthermore, many projects could have multiple people in one position. For instance, a show may have more than one assistant props person. In this case, each of the assistants’ names is grouped under the assistant props credit.

Aside from union rules, the order of the credits can be at the discretion of the producer. As such, usually someone will be given a credit that has not existed before. I once worked a show where I was the director’s assistant in pre-production. I was moved to doing travel for the run of the show, and then returned to being the director’s assistant in post-production. The producer of the show gave me an option as to what credit I could have. We settled on “production associate.” In addition, each person’s name in the credits must be spelled correctly. This is accomplished by using the crew deal memos and cast contracts. These contracts have a section where the person prints his name as he would like it to appear in the credits. If during the course of your show someone is fired, she may or may not receive screen credit. Generally, producers will still give that fired person credit but put her name second, after the person who completes the project.

Other credits that may appear in a project are specific to that piece. For instance, I worked once on a feature film that used military equipment and vehicles, so there were numerous credits for military advisors, consultants’ drivers, and pilots. Essentially, anyone who has helped in the making of a picture could receive screen credit at the discretion of the producer.

Figure 17.3 Main titles and end credits

The process begins in the production office, generally at the end of principal photography.

1. The UPM will have one of the coordinators type a preliminary list of credits based on the crew list. The UPM will inform this person what names go in what order in the main titles.
2. Once completed, this first draft is sent to the producer for approval.
3. Changes are made as necessary. The final credits are not completed at this time, because other personnel, such as sound editors, may still need to be hired in the post-production process.
4. Once the film is closer to completion, a final list of credits will be generated and approved.

Because some editing systems have the capability, some credits in low-budget projects can be done in the editing system. These types of main titles and end credits may be limited by the scope of the software.

Some main titles require that you see moving picture under the titles. If you are shooting digitally, it is fairly easy to accomplish this with editing software.

There’s an App for That!

When it comes to post-production, the first apps you will find are the video editing apps, which can be nice on the run but are low in deep functionality needed for professional work. Still, there are some useful apps that help the process. There are a few calculators out there that will calculate digital file download time, file storage, feet and frames, aspect ratio, and more. There are apps that act as a remote control for your editing software, so you can play, fast-forward, rewind, and even set markers and in and out points. There’s an app that will jam time code to your footage and one that will calculate a file size based on the codec you are using. Finally, there are quite a few apps that have tips and tricks for various editing software.

Summary

The post-production process continues to change as new technologies are developed. It is important early in production to know what your delivery format is, as this will affect the steps of post-production. Your post-production supervisor will monitor the post-production process, ensuring that all deadlines are met. Your editor works to edit the picture while your sound team works to build the sound tracks and complete a final sound mix. The involvement of the producer and director in this process varies. Some directors prefer to sit in on most editing sessions, while others prefer to come in only when scenes are completed. Finally, the choice to shoot on film or in a digital format is determined by your director and/or producer. This choice depends on the aesthetics of the show, its budget, and the final delivery format.