As an academic rather than a member of the clergy, Marsilius of Padua was in a better position than theologians to state openly what many of them believed: that the Church, and the papacy in particular, should not have any political power.

In his treatise Defensor Pacis (Defender of the Peace)—written in defense of the elected Holy Roman Emperor, Ludwig of Bavaria, in his power struggle with Pope John XXII—he argues convincingly that it is not the function of the Church to govern. He refutes the claim made by successive popes of a God-given “plenitude of power,” believing that it was destructive to the state.

  Using arguments from Aristotle’s Politics, Marsilius describes effective government as originating with the people, who have rights that include choosing a ruler and participating in the legislative process. Management of human affairs is best conducted by legislation, administered by the people, not imposed by divine law, which even the Bible does not sanction. Christ himself, he points out, denied the clergy any coercive power over people in this world, stressing their role as teachers. The Church should therefore follow the example of Jesus and his disciples and return political power to the state. This secular state can then better manage the specialty areas of government, such as law and order, and economic and military matters, under a ruler chosen by a majority of the people.