CHAPTER 24

CREATIVE THINKING HABITS

A crucial step in the creativity cycle is to actively explore the connections between ideas. Tons of books have been written about this topic,1 and in this chapter we highlight some of the more useful thinking techniques. We call them creative thinking habits to emphasize two points. First, a thinking habit is a way of thinking that has become second nature. By making it a habit to apply these techniques we can make our minds more flexible and so more creative. Second, a way of thinking becomes a habit only after extended practice. The emergence of a new idea might only take seconds, but the thinking habits that allow the idea to emerge can take years of hardwork and discipline to cultivate.

24.1 CREATIVE THINKING HABITS

All these thinking habits are based on one fundamental principle—a new idea is made up of old ideas combined in a new way. The simplest way to do this is by adding, replacing, or subtracting ideas. Suppose you sell simple hamburgers made of a bun and a beef patty in the middle. To explore new products, you can add one more beef patty in the middle for those who love meat (addition). Or you can replace the beef patty with chicken, mushrooms, or even ice cream (replacement)! Or you can sell just the patties without the bun for people to cook at home (subtraction).

24.1.1 SCAMPER

SCAMPER is a mnemonic for a list of ways to get new ideas.2 The instructions are pretty self-explanatory. There is of course some overlap in the instructions—for example, modify is so general as to include all the other cases. But the point is that the distinct wordings might inspire us to think along different directions.

One way to apply SCAMPER is to draw up a list of features about the thing or problem you are working on. It can be a list of activities for a school open day, or a list of features of a website you are trying to develop. When you have written it down you can go through the SCAMPER instructions one by one and see whether there is anything that can be changed so that you might end up with something better. Let’s say we want to design a table. We can apply SCAMPER to come up with some interesting designs:

• Substitute: Substitute the typical material for making tables with unusual material, such as recycled paper.
• Combine: A table top that is a computer touch-screen or an aquarium.
• Adapt: Use an antique door as a table. Or the stump of a tree as the leg.
• Modify / magnify: A table with lots of very thin legs?
• Put to some other use: A table with adjustable height that can double as a bed. A table with different removable tops (such as a chessboard) for different functions.
• Eliminate: How about a table with no legs? It might hang from the ceiling. Or it can be supported by an extended arm attached to the wall.
• Reverse: Change how people sit. Make a big ring-like table with a hole in the middle so people can sit inside as well.

24.1.2 Analogy

George de Mestral (1907–1990), a Swiss inventor, took his dog for a walk one day, and when he came back he noticed that the seeds of the burdock plant had attached themselves to his clothes. Using a microscope to examine the seeds, he noticed they are covered with tiny hooks that cling to fur and fabric. De Mestral realized that this could form the basis of a new type of fastener. The result was Velcro, consisting of two strips of fabric, one covered with small hooks, and the other with lots of tiny loops. When pressed together, the two pieces join together strongly, but can be easily separated. These reusable fasteners can now be found in sportswear and all kinds of products around the world.

The story of Velcro is a good example of analogy at work. By seeing how the burdock seed might be analogous to a manmade fastener, an idea was borrowed from nature and turned into a product. Mimicking nature is a powerful technique in creative thinking, especially in engineering. Many biological features serve useful functions as a result of evolution, and these ideas can often be borrowed to solve analogous problems in engineering.

Analogies are important not just for technical inventions. When we face a difficult problem, it is often useful to compare it to similar problems that we were able to solve. Or we might try to solve a simpler version of the problem first, and see if it would provide any useful hints.

24.1.3 Brute search

Sometimes the solution to a problem is to be found in a long list of possible solutions, and we just have to try them out one by one until we find the one that works. This can be a rather boring and frustrating process, but we should not underestimate the power of brute search. Chess for example requires creativity and imagination. But supercomputers can search many steps ahead to check the pros and cons of a particular chess move, and chess programs can now defeat most human beings and sometimes even the best players in the world.

A good example of the use of search is when inventor Thomas Edison (1847–1931) was designing the electric light bulb. One crucial task was the search of a suitable filament that conducts electricity well enough to give off light, but that will not burn up or melt as a result. So he tried all sorts of organic and inorganic material, testing over 6,000 different types of material. This is what he said about the endeavor:

The electric light has caused me the greatest amount of study and has required the most elaborate experiments.… Although I was never myself discouraged or hopeless of its success, I can not say the same for my associates.… Through all of the years of experimenting with it, I never once made an associated discovery. It was deductive.… The results I achieved were the consequence of invention—pure and simple. I would construct and work along various lines until I found them untenable. When one theory was discarded, I developed another at once. I realized very early that this was the only possible way for me to work out all the problems (Churchill, 1905).

As we can see, creativity is not always a matter of waiting for inspiration. It sometimes requires going through possible solutions patiently. The Nobel laureate physicist Richard Feynman [1918–1988] has even suggested that this is one way to become a genius!

You have to keep a dozen of your favorite problems constantly present in your mind, although by and large they will lay in a dormant state. Every time you hear or read a new trick or a new result, test it against each of your twelve problems to see whether it helps. Every once in a while there will be a hit, and people will say, “How did he do it? He must be a genius!” (Rota and Palombi, 2008).

Note that the search technique need not be a haphazard process, trying out whatever that pops into your mind one at a time. An efficient search process often involves a systematic classification of the different types of solutions, followed by an analysis of their special features, so that a more efficient search strategy can be devised. For example, to formulate an investment strategy, we can start with an overview of the different types of investment classes: real estate, commodities, equities, bonds, currency, and so on. After deciding what to invest in, we can do a more detailed search within the selected classes to identify the best investment opportunities. When it comes to creativity in solving problems, the generation of new ideas and careful analysis often go hand in hand.

24.1.4 Perspective shift

When Einstein was asked which single event was most helpful in developing his theory of relativity, he answered, “figuring out how to think about the problem.” The perspective we use to approach a problem has a profound effect on the kind of solution we come up with. This is why it is important to examine a problem from multiple perspectives. We get a more comprehensive picture and might come up with better ideas. Here are some contrasting perspectives to explore:

• Positive vs. negative: The pros and cons of a proposal, supporting evidence vs. counterevidence, gain vs. loss.
• Fact vs. value: What is currently happening vs. what should be happening, what a person is doing vs. what he or she ought to be doing.
• People: Adopt the perspectives of other relevant parties, for example, teacher vs. student; employer vs. employee vs. client. Try to understand their different concerns and priorities.
• Discipline: Insights and analyses from different theoretical disciplines, such as politics, economics, law, psychology.
• Level: A complex system can be understood at different levels. Same for theories and proposals. Think of policies (such as public health) at the international, national, institutional, social, family, and personal levels.
• Order: Sometimes it is easier to solve a problem by working backward. We might be able to infer what must come first if we know the final step.
• Timescale: Long term, medium term, short term. A problem that seems important right now can be quite insignificant in the long run.
• Types of solution: Quick-fix solutions might work only for a little while and suffer from other problems. Ideal or perfect solutions can be impractical or expensive. We might modify and combine them to come up with a solution that is effective and realistic.
• Change focus of question: Think about the different parts of a problem. Take the question, “Why did Adam eat the apple?” Shift emphasis by asking: Why Adam (and not someone else)? Why did he eat the apple (as opposed to, say, save it for later)? Why did he eat the apple (and not an orange)?

When we are dealing with problems in our own lives, sometimes what is needed is not an alternative solution but a different attitude. Here, a change of perspective can have a profound effect on the way we react emotionally to our problems. There is the saying that given the same glass of water, an optimist is someone who sees a glass that is already half-full, whereas a pessimist grumbles that the glass is still half-empty. When we are in a difficult period and there is nothing much we can do, we feel better if we think about the positive aspects rather than the negative ones. Instead of dwelling on obstacles that we cannot remove, we might lessen our frustration if we think of them as opportunities for personal growth and stamina training. When we feel we are not as fortunate as other people, we might remind ourselves that many people are in an even worse situation. These suggestions are not meant to encourage us to ignore problems or to adopt a sour grapes mentality. They should rather be seen as important ways to bring about positive attitudes and emotions to deal with the inevitable frustrations of life.

24.2 BRAINSTORMING AND GROUP CREATIVITY

The creative individual is not always the lone inventor. Many so-called creative geniuses were nurtured by a supportive family or mentor, or they might collaborate with others within an organization. These days, more than ever, developing a successful idea often requires teamwork from people with different areas of specialized knowledge. Promoting and managing group creativity is therefore an increasingly important task.

Brainstorming is a method for generating ideas in a group. It was first popularized by Alex Osborn, an advertising executive, around the 1950s. It has now become a standard technique used by companies and organizations. In a typical brainstorming session, participants are supposed to create a relaxed and uninhibited atmosphere to come up with as many ideas as possible, including far-fetched ones. The initial objective is to simply to collect the maximum number of ideas. At this stage it is crucial not to criticize or evaluate these ideas for fear of inhibiting the expression of ideas. But after a sufficient number of ideas has been collected, they can then be examined, thrown away, combined or improved on to find the best solution to a problem.

However, the effectiveness of brainstorming is controversial. Some researchers in social psychology even argue that individuals working in isolation will achieve better performance than if they brainstorm together. Here are some relevant considerations about the limitations of brainstorming.

• Various factors can diminish the effectiveness of brainstorming. There is the problem of production blocking—only one person can speak at a time, during which other ideas might get forgotten or ignored. Some people might be shy. Others want to avoid criticism, or they succumb to conformity. There is also the possibility that members have less incentive to think really hard and contribute because they can free ride on other people’s effort. Finally, once a good idea has emerged, group members might naturally fixate on it and so fail to discover an even better idea.
• Groupthink is a more extreme problem where the pressure to conform hinders critical analysis and creativity, resulting in poor decision making. The symptoms might include self-censorship, suppression of dissent and stereotyping of outsiders who disagree, and the illusion that the group is infallible and morally superior.
• Related to the phenomenon of groupthink is the observation that a tight-knit group with a fixed set of people is detrimental to creativity. These members are likely to feel more comfortable with each other, but they might also mistakenly perceive themselves as creative. Research suggests that we might improve the creativity of a group by introducing outsiders, although this might decrease the comfort level of the group members (Nemeth and Ormiston, 2006).

There are still many controversies about the effectiveness of brainstorming, but the bigger picture suggested by empirical research is that unstructured brainstorming is unlikely to enhance creativity. Brainstorming might be more suitable when dealing with manageable real-life problems that require different people to pool together their knowledge. Even then the brainstorming session should be properly organized to make the thinking process more effective. Whether we are talking about an individual or a group, creativity involves a delicate balance between freedom and discipline. Here are some measures that might be useful for more effective brainstorming:

• An impartial group leader to structure the discussion without introducing biases.
• A devil’s advocate to challenge assumptions.
• Consultation with outside experts.
• Break up a big group into smaller ones for discussion before reporting back.

24.3 CREATIVITY AND SELF-MANAGEMENT

Ellis Torrance (1915–2003) was an American psychologist famous for his work on creativity. He developed a test of creative thinking that is widely used to evaluate creativity in children. In one large-scale longitudinal study, he followed the lives of lots of people as they progressed from children to adults, and tried to understand the secrets behind a successful and creative career. His findings were published in Torrance (2002), but the following remark in the preface is particularly striking:

It became obvious that after thirty years, other things became more important than intelligence, creativity, and academic achievement-such characteristics as persistence, courage, tolerance of mistakes, feeling comfortable as a minority of one, not being well-rounded, and having a sense of mission. I have coined the term “Beyonder” to describe such people, and call the above traits “Beyonder Characteristics.”

At first, it might seem paradoxical to be told that creativity is not the most important condition for having a successful creative career. But the reason is perhaps that having lots of creative achievements over a long period of time requires more than just the mental capacity to think creatively. The other character traits mentioned play an even more important role in translating your capacity to deep and lasting successes.

This is one reason why we emphasize the importance of attitude and practice in this book. Lifelong excellence in thinking requires more than just knowledge of the principles of critical and creative thinking. You need to have the passion to improve yourself through application and practice, and only then will these thinking techniques make a big difference to your life. Drawing upon his own research, Torrance wrote the following Manifesto for Children on how to live more creatively. These inspiring words seem a fitting end to this book, but they ought to be the beginning of a lifelong journey of learning and self-discovery:

EXERCISES

24.1 In this exercise, your task is to connect all nine dots in the diagram using only four straight lines, to be drawn in one continuous stroke without the pen ever lifting off the paper. How would you do it?

24.2 Refer to the nine-dot diagram again.

a) Can you connect all nine dots using only three straight lines with no lifting of the pen?

b) Do you think it is possible to do it with just one line?

24.3 Suppose there is a bakery that sells cookies. Business is fine but could be better. Apply the SCAMPER technique to think of ways to improve business which might be worth exploring.

24.4 Go through the seven items in Torrance’s Manifesto for Children. Have you been following these guidelines? To what extent? Is there any item which you think you ought to pay more attention to? What concrete steps can you take to make this happen?

24.5 We have talked a lot in book about how critical thinking and creativity are relevant to our careers. But more generally, good thinking is crucial for the future of humanity. Think about this quote from Csikszentmihalyi, a famous author on creativity:

Humanity needs a creativity that can help us find our place in this evolving cosmos, so that we can respect one another, live together peacefully, and not destroy one another in order to feel good about ourselves.

What is your own perspective on these issues? Do you think you are able to contribute to these goals in any way?

1 Polya (1971) is a classic on creativity in problem solving.

2 Michalko (2006) is a good book which talks more about SCAMPER and related techniques.