Avoid using examples that are culturally bound, such as names of places, public figures, or holidays that might be unrecognizable to people living in different countries.

If you do use examples that are culturally bound, use examples that represent a variety of cultures or that are internationally recognized. For example, you could use international cities, such as Paris, New York, Tokyo, London, and Hong Kong.

Avoid political or religious references.

Avoid gender-specific references.

Be aware that dates are displayed differently in different countries.

For clarity, write out dates. For example, write “6/28/03” as “June 28, 2003.” If abbreviations are necessary, define them and then use them consistently.

Be aware that times are displayed differently in different countries.

Time formats that use a 12-hour clock and the ante meridiem, post meridiem (a.m. and p.m.) system are not universally understood. Consider using a 24-hour system or describing the time in relation to the time of day. For example, you can write “1:00 p.m.” as either “13:00” or “1:00 in the afternoon.”

Ensure that address or telephone information is always complete.

Include telephone country codes, area codes, and time zones when you provide phone numbers and calling hours in a document that might be distributed internationally. Use “+1-” before the area code for phone and fax numbers within the United States. Be aware that any toll-free telephone numbers that you provide cannot be dialed from most countries outside the United States. Do not forget to specify the time zone if your readers are from more than one time zone.

Be careful when including information about warranties or technical support.

Be specific as to which countries honor the warranties or have technical support available, if possible.

Avoid humor.

What might be funny in one language, whether an illustration or written text, might be obscene in another language. Humor is strictly cultural, and it cannot be translated easily from one language to another language.

Avoid irony.

Even native speakers of English have difficulty discerning irony in writing.

Avoid idioms and metaphors.

If you use a metaphor to describe an action, provide additional contextual explanation so that the translator does not misunderstand and translate the text incorrectly. If the translator is unfamiliar with the metaphor, the translator might have to guess at the meanings of key terms.

For example, if you describe a file system hierarchy as a “tree structure,” or if you describe a “parent-child” relationship, include an illustration or example. That way the translator understands that you do not mean these terms to be interpreted literally.

Avoid using terms that can have several different meanings.

For example, the word “system” can refer to an operating system (OS), a combination of OS and hardware, a networking configuration, and so on. If you do use such a term, ensure that you define it and use it consistently in a document. Ensure that you also add it to the glossary.

Use terms consistently throughout a document.

Synonymous terms in a document can be troublesome for a translator. The words “show,” “display,” and “appear” might seem similar enough to use interchangeably. However, a translator might think you used the different words deliberately for different meanings, and a translator might interpret the text incorrectly.

Other inconsistent usage with which translators might have trouble include the following:

Be careful about using the word “available” because it can present difficulties to a translator with limited technical knowledge.

Instead, use definitive words such as “active” or “valid.”

Use uppercase and lowercase letters consistently in like elements throughout a document.

Using consistent case helps a translator determine the proper interpretation of a term. The use of consistent case is significant for reserved keywords, class names, and variables.

Avoid using abbreviations and acronyms.

Many languages do not have abbreviations and cannot accommodate them. If you use abbreviations and acronyms in your documentation, define them the first time you use them in text. Provide a list of acronyms and abbreviations at the end of the book as part of the glossary, in an appendix, or in a separate list of abbreviations. When you define the term, give the spelled-out version first, followed by the acronym or abbreviation in parentheses.

For example, using the initials “DT” for “directory tree,” has no Japanese equivalent. Instead, use “directory tree (DT)” initially and “DT” thereafter.

Avoid using abbreviations and acronyms in the plural form.

Avoid using contractions such as “can’t,” “ isn’t,” ”don’t,” and ”it’s.”

If you do use contractions in your documentation, follow the guidelines under “Contractions” on page 4.

Ensure that spelling and word usage are correct.

Use electronic spelling checkers and copy editors to ensure accuracy.

Do not leave out articles such as “the,” “a,” and “an.“

Include the word “that” when it is used to introduce a restrictive clause.

See “Differentiate Between Restrictive Clauses and Nonrestrictive Clauses” on page 68.

Avoid passive clauses, such as “the program was activated.”

See “Use Active Voice and Passive Voice Appropriately” on page 65.

Do not put a list in the middle of a sentence.

See “Introducing Lists” on page 35.

Check for the correct placement of prepositional phrases.

Be careful about using the same term in multiple grammatical categories, such as verb, noun, and adjective.

Using “plug” as both a verb and a noun is confusing to translators. Translators might have to use a different term in each case. Also, do not use several terms to refer to the same thing.

Be precise about using the words “when” and “if.”

Use “when” for an inevitable event and “if” for a conditional event.

Avoid using the word “may” unless you mean permission, as in “you may apply for an extension if you need one.“

Use the words “might” or “can” in place of the word “may.” The word “might” indicates a possibility, and “can” means the power or ability to do something. A translator who must translate the English word “may” in text often chooses whether to translate it as “can” or “might.” The original writer is in a better position to know which word is more accurate and should therefore use the correct word.

Avoid using the words “there” and “it” at the beginning of a sentence if those words take the place of the subject of the sentence and are followed by a linking verb such as “is” or “are.”

This construction delays the subject of the sentence, which can confuse translators.

Avoid ambiguous phrases.

For example, “first-come, first-served” is ambiguous. If possible, rewrite as “in the order received” or “in the order in which they are received.”

Be careful with compound modifiers.

Compound modifiers can be hard to understand and to properly translate. You might need to rewrite the sentence or hyphenate the phrase, for example, “real time-saver,” “real-time operation.” See “Hyphen” on page 23 for guidelines for hyphenating terms.

Avoid using general modifiers that might be interpreted in several ways.

The translation of a term with multiple meanings requires the ability to discern the appropriate equivalent in the target language, based on the context. However, most translators do not have as much technical knowledge as engineers, and they might translate questionable terms incorrectly.

For example, the following sentence presents a difficult translation:

The phrase “advanced Motif-based desktop” raises questions for a translator such as is it “a desktop that is based on advanced Motif” or is it “an advanced desktop that is based on Motif”? The sentence could be rewritten as follows:

Do not use noun clusters of more than three nouns.

Try to clarify noun clusters by using prepositions such as “of” or “for. “

An exception is a noun string that results when you use a three-word product name as a modifier. A product name that you use as a modifier counts as one word.

Repeat the modifier in noun phrases that are joined or are linked together.

Repeat the main noun in conjoined noun phrases.

Avoid vague and uncertain references between a pronoun and its antecedent.

A pronoun that forces a reader to search for an antecedent can frustrate or mislead the reader, as well as a translator. Ensure that the noun to which the pronoun refers is clear.

Do not use the following words as pronouns:

When these words are used as pronouns, their antecedent is unclear.

Avoid using pronouns, such as “it,” “its,” “this,” “they,” “theirs,” “that,” “these,” and “those,” especially at the beginning of a sentence.

Use these pronouns only when the noun to which the pronoun refers is clear.

Incorrect:

The software consists of four daemon processes that coordinate the scheduling, dispatch, and execution of batch jobs and monitor job and machine status, report on the system, and manage communication among the components.

Correct:

The software consists of four daemon processes. These processes perform the following functions:

Schedule, dispatch, and execute batch jobs

Monitor job and machine status

Report system status

Manage communication among the components

When providing U.S. measurements, include the metric equivalent in parentheses if it is appropriate for the product you are describing.

Most standard American English dictionaries contain a U.S.-to-metric conversion chart under the “metric” entry.

If you use the word “billion” or “trillion,” explain the word in a footnote so that the exact value is clear to readers in all countries.

If you are specifying prices, indicate the currency used.

For example, write “USD” for United States dollars and “EUR” for the European euro.

Do not use these symbols:

These symbols are not recognized in many countries outside the United States.

Avoid using symbols such as “/” and “&” in text.

Many symbols have multiple meanings, and translators might have difficulty deciding which meaning you intended. For example, the “/” symbol can mean “and,” “or,” “and/or,” “with,” “divide by,” “root,” or “path-name divider.”

See “Slash” on page 30 for acceptable uses of the “/” symbol.

Use illustrations instead of text whenever possible to convey a complex concept.

Ensure that the accompanying text complements the message conveyed by the illustration.

Do not insert an illustration into the middle of a sentence.

See “Placement in Relation to Sentences” on page 211.

Remember that not everyone reads from left to right. If necessary, indicate the intended sequence that you want a reader to follow in the illustration, as shown in the following example.

Example 7-1. Intended Reading Sequence in an Illustration

Use illustrations that are internationally acceptable.

For example, almost every country has its own type of power connector. Instead of illustrating each type of connector, use generic connectors and receptacles, as in the following illustration.

Example 7-2. Illustration of Internationally Generic Connectors and Receptacles

However, when describing various types of connectors and receptacles, illustrate and label the specific type used in each country, as in the following example.

Example 7-3. Illustration of Internationally Specific Connectors and Receptacles

Keep callouts short.

Leave ample space, both vertically and horizontally, for callout text in illustrations.

Translated text might require as much as 25 percent more space than English text.

Make certain that the callouts correlate with the paragraph text.

Use callouts instead of text if the concept can best be understood graphically and needs little explanation.

Format callouts so that you can edit them separately from the illustration.

Use charts and tables to clarify essential information.

Charts and tables are internationally recognized by readers as containing important material.

When formatting charts and tables, be aware that text can expand by up to 25 percent during translation.

Do not insert a table into the middle of a sentence.

See “Writing Text for Tables” on page 42.

Do not use sentence fragments for table column headings.

Incorrect:

Correct:

Do not use a hand in a symbolic gesture.

Almost any way that you position a hand can be considered an offensive gesture, depending on the culture, as shown in the following illustration.

Example 7-4. Illustration of Possibly Obscene Gestures

When using code examples or showing screen captures, make sure that the machine names, login names, and system names are not culturally offensive.

Avoid using road signs in illustrations because they differ from country to country.

Avoid illustrations that relate to alcohol or alcohol-related material, because those types of illustrations might be offensive.

Be careful when using everyday objects in examples.

Be certain that the object exists in most countries. Be aware that the object might be interpreted in various ways in different parts of the world.

For example, you can use a light bulb to indicate light, but not the concept of an inspiration.

Avoid using trendy objects, historical references, or film, cartoon, or video characters.

Avoid using animals, because they might carry symbolic significance.

For example, some web pages use a dog to indicate a “fetch” function. While this connection might be clear to readers from Western cultures, it might not be understood by readers from other cultures. Dogs are not kept as pets or used for hunting and retrieving in all cultures.

Do not use color to convey meaning.

Color communicates different meanings in different cultures. For example, the color green is sometimes used to indicate paper money in the United States. However, the color green does not work in many other countries where money is not green. The color red can signify “stop” or “danger” in the United States. But in China, the color red can indicate happiness, and in France, red can denote aristocracy.