Once the objectives of the system are defined and agreed on by the client, it will be necessary to survey the property to determine what types of devices to specify and how to coordinate their interface to the environment, the buildings, other systems, and users.

Access Control and Alarm Placements

Similarly, locations of proposed access control points should be determined based on compliance to stated security policy and in conformance with the basis for design.

Vehicular Access Control

Access provisions should be considered for visitor and employee/contractor/vendor vehicles and special cases, including close-in parking access for handicapped people and pregnant women. Although traffic flow is a separate discipline and can easily require its own book to describe, access control measures for each class of vehicle should be considered. This will include both card and intercom access control and appropriate barrier types. Additionally, traffic flow may dictate that lanes change direction by time of day (bidirectional lanes). All this will dictate appropriate parking control hardware, signage, directional instruction signage (red/green lights or text), and placement of equipment and signage.

Public Access to the Buildings

The building should be surveyed for access control and alarm points for both appropriate public entrances and back-of-house entrances and exits, including the loading dock and any other similar portals.

Public entrances may be configured for after-hours access and/or to lock automatically after hours. Signage may be necessary to direct the public to an appropriate entrance, and the use of intercoms may be indicated to help visitors find the correct entry.

Access Beyond the Public Lobby

After September 11, 2001, it became commonplace to screen the public at the main lobby of the building rather than to allow the public to roam freely on upper floors without proper vetting at the front lobby. This may require the use of a visitor badging system and possibly electronic turnstiles to control public movement beyond the main lobby. Electronic turnstiles should be coordinated with the placement of the lobby desk to ensure that the lobby desk security officer has a good view of the electronic turnstiles in case anyone needs assistance or attempts to circumvent them. It is common for visitors new to the building not to realize that a visitor badge is required to enter the elevator lobby (Fig. 9.1).

Access Within Semipublic Spaces

Semipublic spaces include the elevator lobby, if it is beyond the electronic turnstiles, and certainly upper floor public corridors.

Semipublic access can often be controlled by either floor-by-floor elevator control or control of elevator lobby doors. Both methods have their advantages and limitations.

Floor-by-floor elevator control helps ensure that users have access credentials to enter the floor in question from a given elevator. However, this is by no means guaranteed because anyone can get off on any floor when the elevator doors open.

A somewhat more secure means is access control of the doors on the elevator lobby. In nearly every case, this will require a code variance unless there is a fire stairwell within the elevator lobby. This method is still not entirely certain to prevent unauthorized people from entering the floor because they can accompany an authorized user through the door.

Access to High-Security Areas

For buildings with high-value assets to protect, including proprietary information assets, it is often advisable to utilize access control readers, sometimes coupled with a secondary access control credential such as biometric readers or keypads used on doors along semipublic hallways. These are often used on server rooms, research and development labs, and executive office suites. Some organizations make heavy use of access control doors along semipublic corridors to help ensure that unauthorized people do not enter private office areas.

Emergency Egress

At all times and in all areas, fire egress safety must be observed. All fire exit doors must be configured for free mechanical egress, and some of those doors are also appropriate for access control measures. These fall into two broad classes—a fire stairwell is used as an example:

• Access control from the stairwell side is required to prevent entry from one floor to another.

• The stairwell is off-limits except in an emergency to prevent private conversations, such as in a research and development area.

In the first case, it is common to place an access control reader within the stairwell, using a Hi-Tower lock on the stairwell door with a variance from the fire authority. It is common for the authority to require every fifth floor to be unlocked, although most authorities will accept an intercom to a 24-hour staffed desk with a door release and a fire alarm override as a substitute for this requirement. Local authorities have differing opinions on this, and their preferences must be observed.

In the second case, a variance is required. Security policy and architectural design go hand in hand, each one affecting the other. Sometimes it is necessary to reconfigure a space architecturally in order to meet both the security and the egress requirements.

Positive Access Control

Positive access control is a principle of access control in which the desired goal is to ensure that every person must check in and out through an access control portal to enter or leave a space. This can be accomplished by man-traps (not popular with fire authorities), revolving doors, and electronic turnstiles equipped with mechanical paddles. In each case, the user must both check in and check out of the area through an access control portal and cannot “tailgate” through with another user, as can be done through an elevator, a door, or an electronic turnstile not equipped with mechanical paddles.

Lighting

A lighting survey helps assure that lighting meets the minimum level required for security video cameras. Lighting should be a minimum of 1 foot-candle measured at 1 meter above the ground in all vehicle and pedestrian pathways, and 5 foot-candles at pathway nexus points and building entrance areas. Use an “incident-type” rather than a “reflectance-type” light meter to measure light levels.

Codes and Regulations

It is obviously imperative for the designer to observe all applicable codes and regulations. These may include NFPA Section 101 (life safety), MARSEC, and ISPS codes for water-based facilities, and Class 1, Division 1 and Class 1, Division 2 requirements for environments with flammable or explosive environments. There may also be numerous other codes and regulations. It is advisable to get to know the local building code enforcement agencies and fire authorities.

Building Shell and Core and Interiors Architects

This will commonly involve ceiling access panels, aesthetic issues, coordination of lines of sight for video cameras, fire code questions, door finishes, and other aesthetic and code issues. The architects will also have their own preference on when and how to issue addenda and bulletins,¹ when and how to “cloud” drawing changes,² for instance.

Specifications Consultant

The specifications consultant will determine what specification format will be required for the project. Typically, this will be the Construction Specifications Institute format, although others may apply. Another common format in Europe and the Middle East is the FIDIC format.

Door Hardware Consultant/Contractor

Door hardware interfaces are arguably the most difficult and complicated part of any access control system design. The door hardware consultant or contractor will provide information on what door types, frame types, fire rating, and door hardware will be used. The security designer will provide access control requirements to the door hardware consultant or contractor. This may include a sequence of operation for vestibule doors and other security operational requirements. Additionally, aesthetic and electrical considerations will be discussed.

My practice is that the door locks, electric hinges, and door position switches are furnished and installed by the door hardware contractor, and the card readers, request-to-exit devices, and wiring are provided by the security contractor.³ The door hardware contractor will hand over the door hardware to the security contractor, and the whole assembly is warranted by the security contractor.

Electrical Consultant/Contractor

Because electronic security systems work on electricity, it follows that it is a good idea to coordinate their electrical requirements. I am an advocate of low-voltage systems design. I use as few high-voltage connections as possible, so virtually every device is powered by low voltage, and the power supplies for that are centralized in just a few locations. Nonetheless, certain edge devices beg for a high-voltage connection. These may include parapet-mounted or pole-mounted pan/tilt/zoom video cameras, parking gates, and doors with certain types of electrified panic hardware.

The electrical load for these should be calculated along with any uninterruptible power supplies, battery chargers, or other things. When this information is provided to the electrical consultant or contractor, the security designer should request a list of electrical panel and breaker assignments for each circuit so identified.

HVAC/Building Automation Consultant/Contractor

There are a variety of possible coordination factors for the HVAC/building automation consultant or contractor, including (1) coordination of fire stairwell pressurization with the fire alarm system and access control system and (2) lighting systems that are coordinated to light the way into the user’s office suite from the parking structure. Interfacing the irrigation system to the perimeter intrusion detection system is also an effective deterrent for intruders on the property. The list of interfaces with building automation systems can be nearly endless.

Landscape Architect/Contractor

The landscape architect and contractor can assist in the coordination of perimeter intrusion detection systems, irrigation systems, vehicle barriers, underground conduit, and the like.

Parking Consultant/Contractor

The security designer will coordinate parking controls, parking access control system pedestals, underground conduit, and overhead vehicle access control tag readers.

Elevator/Escalator Consultant/Contractors

Coordination with the elevator consultant or contractor involves a variety of factors, including coordination for access control, video, and voice communications.

There are two types of access control systems for elevators, hall call button control, and floor-by-floor access control. Placing a card reader at the hall call buttons in the elevator lobby effectively secures the elevator by prohibiting its use except for people holding an access credential. This method is useful in areas where an elevator is designated for specific individuals only or where it is desirable to limit the use of the elevator during certain hours, such as at night. Also, hall call card readers are generally much less expensive to implement due to the fact that only one contact is required (to enable the hall call buttons, such as to their ground circuit), whereas floor-by-floor control requires a more elaborate interface.

There are a variety of floor-by-floor elevator control systems. The basic objective of floor-by-floor access control is to use a card reader within designated elevator cars to permit credentialed access to only the floors for which that credential is authorized. This involves several elements:

• A card reader in the elevator car.

• Some kind of control interface to the elevator control system that enables and disables the elevator occupant’s ability to select certain floor buttons.

• Optionally, the elevator control system may also record which of several floor buttons the occupant has selected among those several buttons for which he or she may be authorized to select.

In the simplest kind of access control interface, the access control reader is located on the surface of the elevator’s swing return panel (the panel on which the elevator floor select switches are located). Care should be taken to ensure that handicapped users can reach both the card reader and the floor select buttons. The card reader may also be mounted behind the swing return or side panel. This is a more aesthetic installation, concealing the card reader. In such installations, it is desirable to provide a visual indicator to knowledgeable users as to where to present their access card (where the access card reader is located). This is often achieved by placing an icon of the building or organization in that location or sometimes simply a dot or location marked by a pattern or color change from the background surface. If the concealed card reader is to be located behind the elevator’s swing return, then a glass or Plexiglas™ panel should be installed in the surface of the swing return in order to provide a radio frequency (RF)-friendly path between the card reader and the credential. It is common to mark this panel with the building or organization’s logo as an indicator of where to present the credential.

The other end of the elevator connection is the circuitry or interface that provides the actual floor-by-floor control. There are three common methods for this. By far the most common today is a software interface between the alarm/access control system and the elevator controller. This can be accommodated in a variety of ways, most typically with a RS-232 or Ethernet interface between the two systems. Commonly, the interface may occur between the elevator controller and the alarm/access control system elevator control system panel, but the connection may also be between the elevator controller and the alarm/access control system host computer or host server. Some systems can accommodate Ethernet interfaces. The software interface may be a database exchange, such as SQL, the passing of an ASCII string from the alarm/access control panel/server to the elevator controller, or an XML or API interface. Usually, choices exist, and the dialog between the security system designer and the elevator consultant/contractor will establish the options and preferences.

Another interface that works with older elevator controllers establishes a dry contact connection between the elevator controller and the alarm/access control system controller. This will typically require one dry contact for each floor for each elevator controlled, plus usually an extra contact to place the system in free or access control mode. The additional contact can be eliminated on some systems if the floor control contacts are used for both purposes; that is, free access is enabled simply by energizing all contacts to all floors. This interface facilitates placing the elevator on free access during daytime business hours and on access control mode after hours, weekends, and holidays. For both of these cases, the relays are typically placed in or near the elevator control room, which can be in the penthouse upstairs or in the basement depending on whether the elevator is a traction type (controls upstairs) or a hydraulic type (controls downstairs). A recommended practice is to place the alarm/access control electronics in a room near but not in the elevator control room and an interface terminal cabinet inside the elevator control room. This ensures that maintenance on the alarm/access control panel can be accommodated without necessitating an untrained person to enter the dangerous elevator control room, where an errant tie or pants cuff can be lethal.

A very old method of interface that is rarely used today is to use dry contacts directly in the circuit of the floor select buttons on the elevator car. This requires that an alarm/access control system controller or relay board must be on the elevator car, not in or near the elevator control room.

Communication between the elevator devices and the alarm/access control system is typically over the elevator traveling cable. This may be either a ribbon or a bundled cable, depending on the elevator’s manufacturer and model. Another method is to use a wireless transmitter or laser in the elevator hoistway. This may be a good solution if no extra traveling cables exist. There are a few manufacturers that make appropriate wireless devices. A data format converter may be required.

One common problem with elevator access control systems is that elevator power is notoriously dirty, with lots of voltage fluctuations, spikes, and inductive surges. A separate uninterruptible power supply (UPS) for the elevator access control electronics (both on the car and in or near the elevator control room) is often a good idea in order to ensure a reliable system. Alternatively, very good AC surge suppression and DC power filtering is appropriate.

Telecommunications Consultant/Contractor

Telephones may be located at the security command center, lobby console, guard station, security manager’s office, and parking security office, and hands-free stations may be located at parking entries and remote doors. The security force may use its own internal telephone system in lieu of an intercom system, or it may use a system that is a subset of the larger facility telephone system.

The security system designer should make a spreadsheet identifying what type of telephone receiver is required at each location; the number of outside lines available; the number of station sets; and whether they are to be handset, headphone equipped, hands-free, or some other option. Some may have direct access to outside lines, and in some locations a direct central office line may be required in case of power failure affecting the private automatic branch exchange (PABX). Certain phones may have direct inward dialing, whereas others may go through the PABX or automated attendant. It is best not to leave these details to the telecommunications consultant or contractor, even in consultation with the client, because they may not be sensitive to or aware of any special operational needs of the security force that may affect the design of the telephone system.

Additionally, on enterprise security systems, the telephone system may be integrated with the two-way radios, intercoms, or cell phones using specialized software with which the telephone vendor or consultant may not be familiar. Such software is generally not off-the-shelf but may require the assistance of a specialized communications integration consultant to develop it or to customize an off-the-shelf package. Customizable, off-the-shelf packages have been offered by Motorola, Plantronics, and others.

Information Technology Consultant/Contractor/Information Technology Department Director/Manager

Increasingly, security systems are themselves information technology (IT) systems, making a high-level of knowledge of IT systems a fundamental requirement for a security designer. In any event, the IT department and the organization’s IT consultant and vendor will be very interested in the issues that the security designer is addressing.

Is the security system using any part of the organization’s existing or planned IT infrastructure? How are those interfaces defined? What data are being exchanged or what data paths, switches, routers, or servers are being shared? Will the security system server be housed within the organization’s existing or planned server room? Who will maintain the servers, mass storage, the operating systems, the connections to other systems, and the security system software? Does the organization have any specific standards as to brand/models of servers, workstations, switches, routers, or other devices? Does the organization have standards about system scalability, and how is that addressed in the selection of switches, servers, mass storage, or other items?

Be assured that the organization’s IT department or vendor will have something to say about some or all of these issues. Be advised that it may be difficult to arrange for a meeting early on in the project. IT departments and especially vendors are well known for having disruptive last-minute input on such subjects. Best practices indicate an early discussion of these items. If none can be arranged, it is highly recommended to publish a memo to the client’s project manager requesting the meeting and, failing that occurrence, to publish a memo outlining the direction of the IT-related decisions so that it can be circulated, reviewed, and approved. The memo should include a date by which review must occur and language stating that cost increases and schedule changes could result if review occurs later. If a last-minute meeting then occurs, the designer should come prepared with the request for the meeting and the memo outlining the decisions requesting review. When the IT department or vendor inserts its last-minute dictates, the security system designer will not be placed “on the spot” to make the changes on an impossible schedule, and the client will understand any extra costs related to the changes.

Access Control System Placements

Card readers should be placed in a manner that easily facilitates travel through the door or portal—that is, typically on the side of the door with the handle and near the door handle. Where the door serves many users with carts, and where such doors are operated by automatic operators such as in a hospital or maintenance corridor, the card reader may be placed far enough back from the door to conveniently present the access credential while the user is behind the cart.

Push-to-exit buttons should be placed on the exit side of the door in a location that is intuitive to users for its purpose. Signage lettering should be of a contrasting color to its background and of a size dictated by local code or 3/4 in. high if there is no relevant code.

Keypads should be placed similar to card readers and in a manner that, if possible, obscures the key code being entered.

Biometric readers should be placed similar to card readers and in a manner suitable for their environment. For example, voice recognition systems are not appropriate for high-noise environments, facial recognition systems require certain lighting conditions in order to work reliably, and fingerprint systems and hand geometry may work less well in high dust and dirt environments.

Alarm/access control controllers should be placed in a clean, dry environment (avoid janitor closets) and should be powered from a dedicated circuit, not from a plug pack into an electrical outlet. Such placements permit interruption of the power, whereas power within a conduit is more difficult to interrupt. Ideally, the alarm/access control electronics should be installed in a larger custom-fabricated “security terminal cabinet” that would also house the power supply, terminals, and other sensitive electronics. This method is always appropriate in outdoor environments.

For outdoor equipment, the selection should include sensitivity to weather and extremes of heat or cold. Where appropriate, include heaters and air-conditioning or ventilation in the design. Best practices indicate the use of an uninterruptible power supply in outdoor enclosures to help ensure power continuity.

Camera Placements

Cameras should always be placed where they will have an unobstructed field of view of the desired scene and where they will not be subject to vandalism or environmental damage.

The security system designer should carefully consider what level of detail is desired in the view and what additional surrounding activity is desirable to view or record. Sometimes, this creates a conflict that dictates the use of more than one camera for a particular view. For example, if a proprietor wants to see the details of the face of a person entering a building but also wants to see the type of car that the person parked in front of the building, this may require two separate cameras.

It is common for security system designers to exhibit a preference for either pan/tilt/zoom or fixed cameras. However, each has its distinct advantages and limitations. Pan/tilt/zoom cameras can provide precise close-up views or wide-angle views in virtually any direction, whereas a fixed camera has a set field of view at all times. However, pan/tilt/zoom cameras cannot view areas opposite where they are pointed, so activity can occur outside the field of view that could be important but unavailable later. Pan/tilt/zoom cameras are more expensive than fixed cameras and often require additional high-voltage power, complicating and adding cost to their installation. Sometimes, it is better to apply several fixed cameras in lieu of a single pan/tilt/zoom camera, and sometimes it is better to have the pan/tilt/zoom camera due to its flexibility of view.

There is also a camera that has unique attributes of both pan/tilt/zoom and fixed cameras. It is a single-megapixel camera equipped with a fish-eye lens that is pointed into a specially formed mirror that, when coupled with appropriate software, results in an infinite number of possible views, even from the recorded image. This can provide the security manager or director with the ability to pan, tilt, and zoom in history, which pan/tilt/zoom cameras cannot do. The trade-off, however, is that megapixel cameras consume much digital storage space, making storage of their images somewhat costly.

Another application of megapixel cameras is on towers on large sites, coupled with a very long zoom lens and a pan/tilt mount. Because of the stunning resolution of megapixel cameras, a single camera can often be used to view a large area from a single very high tower with a commanding view of the entire site that would normally require up to seven lower resolution cameras from several towers. This approach can result in considerable cost savings in towers, cameras, power connections, and RF transmitting equipment, making the additional cost of storage quite attractive.

Intercom Field Station Placements

Field intercom stations should be placed where they are accessible to the user and where the user can clearly hear the console security officer and vice versa. Factors for consideration include the height of the intercom station. For example, handicapped-accessible stations should be mounted at 30 in. above grade or above the finished floor, whereas intercoms intended for use by drivers in vehicles should be mounted at a height that accommodates the intended vehicles and their occupants. That could mean that two intercoms are needed if the range includes sports cars and four-wheel-drive SUVs. Certain environments absolutely dictate two intercoms, such as entries accommodating both cars and semi-tractor/trailers.

There are two types of intercom systems, half-duplex and full-duplex. Half-duplex intercoms allow the console guard to control the conversation by pressing a push-to-talk switch, whereas full-duplex intercoms allow for free communications from both sides continuously. A variation on the half-duplex model is a Vox (voice-activated) function, in which the half-duplex control is yielded to whoever is talking, typically with preference to the calling party (the person at the field intercom station). Outdoor intercoms should almost always be configured for half-duplex, push-to-talk operation, where the console operator controls the conversation. This will prevent a high noise level at the field intercom station from locking the conversation in the Vox circuit of the intercom system, which will try to keep the field intercom channel open in response to the background noise.

Note that in areas where people have a right to expect privacy, it is unwise for the designer to configure the system for open-microphone operations. The designer should know that there is legal precedent for this.

Following the selection of device locations, attention should be paid to functional needs and environmental needs. For each device in the security system, a list of desirable and undesirable functions can be defined. It is often useful to spreadsheet these issues, particularly where a novice designer is involved, in order to have more intuitive insight into the process of selection not only of the appropriate devices but also of their configuration. For every selection, both intended and unintended functions result. It is highly useful to have insight into the unintended (and sometimes undesirable) functions as well as those that are intended.

Define Environmental Needs

For each device, it is also useful to spreadsheet the environmental requirements that the device should meet—outdoor, cold, heat, chemical, salt air, inconsistent power, for example. After using this exercise for a few to a dozen projects, the process may become intuitive, and the spreadsheet approach can be discontinued.

From the spreadsheet, a clear picture will emerge that may reduce the types and numbers of different devices for each application. Often, it is possible to find a single device that can meet the needs of several to many applications. The client will often appreciate that there are fewer types of equipment used, even if there is a slight cost delta to achieve this. The cost delta will be paid for many times over as the system ages and it requires only a few rather than many different types of components to replace parts.

Define Communications Means

Each system element communicates as part of the larger security system. Increasingly, security systems are being digitized, and a single communications infrastructure is emerging. Soon, virtually every component may communicate via TCP/IP. In the interim, various systems may have their own communications needs, which may include RS-485, RS-232, analog, POTS (“plain old telephone system”), proprietary cabling and protocol schemes, and dry contact.

It is important to remember that for many installations, the system wired infrastructure can represent up to 40% of the cost of the entire system. In outdoor systems, that percentage increases to nearly 80%. So it pays to shop around for alternatives to wired infrastructures, especially where several different wiring schemes and thus cabling types are required to accommodate the systems.

In typical systems, it is likely that there will be one scheme for the alarm/access control system, a second for the video system, and a third for voice communications. Thus, this would result in three separate sets of cables or fibers in the ground or in the conduit of the building. Reducing that to a single TCP/IP infrastructure can save tens of thousands of dollars.