PROGRAM FORMATS

“The devil is in the details,” wrote famed French author Gustave Flaubert, and for our purposes in this chapter, we could say that the devil is in the programming. Alternately, we could opt for the observation of revered U.S. Navy Admiral Hyman Rickover, who concluded that “The Devil is in the details, but so is salvation.” Indeed, designing a radio station’s sound continues to be a bedeviling yet emancipating task, its intensity amplified in an environment complicated by station ownership consolidation and the resultant clustering of stations within markets. More than 15,500 AM and FM stations compete for audience attention, and additional broadcasters continue to enter the fray. Other media have emerged and proliferated to further distract and dilute radio’s customary audience. The government’s laissez-faire, “let the marketplace dictate” philosophy concerning commercial radio programming gives the station great freedom in deciding the nature of its air product. Yet determining what to offer the listener, who is often presented with dozens of audio alternatives, involves intricate planning. Consultant and Programmer Mike McVay of Cumulus Media underscores the role good programming plays in achieving station success:

Radio stations are simply a platform for distribution. The content of a radio station is what makes it a success or a failure. Great programming is targeted to the largest possible audience, designed based on research that enables one to know what needs should be satisfied, easy to understand and memorable. If you are to succeed with a product, particularly in an era when mass media still dominates niche media, the most popular widespread formats (talk or music) should be what is presented. Bigger is better. It enables you to overcome rating wobbles. Without good programming you have nothing,

Tommy Castor, PD of iHeartmedia’s Channel963 in Wichita, sums it up this way:

I strongly believe that good programming on radio, in many cases, can be the ultimate deciding factor between consumers using radio and using a curated or on-demand service. While curated and on-demand services and radio share a similarity in that the consumer doesn’t usually have ultimate control of the selection of the music, radio programming differs because rather than guessing what the consumer might like to listen to (based on an artist or song selection on the curated service), radio program directors use a variety or research, metrics and strategies to put together a playlist of music.

The bottom line, of course, is to air the type of format that will attract a sizable enough piece of the audience demographic to satisfy the advertiser. Once a station decides on the format it will program, it must then know how to effectively execute it. Since 1998 Edison Research has reported on radio audience demographics in its annual Infinite Dial studies. In its most recent study of 2,000 participants, Edison and research partner Triton Digital affirm the diversification within traditional radio and online audio services. Podcast listening continues to make double-digit percentage advancements. As a result of recent gains researchers say the platform as of 2017 qualifies for “mainstream media” status. They estimate 112 million listeners have sampled podcasts. The report reveals that 45% of respondents listen to “most of the podcast,” while another 40% hear the podcast in its entirety. Terrestrial (AM and FM) stations, according to the research, remain the most popular audio medium across all respondent ages for the discovery of new music (but rank third for 12- to 24-year-old listeners, behind YouTube and “friends and family”). In the so-called “battle for the dashboard,” AM and FM stations dominate, outdistancing the runner-up (CD listening) by 30 percentage points. Pandora awareness and listenership remains high. Yet, despite the inroads the pureplay has made in selling advertising in individual markets, it hasn’t yet achieved granularity in terms of providing local information and entertainment— the content that attracts an audience. Thus, if “location, location, and location” are the three keys to success in selling real estate then “local, local, and local” emerges as the guiding principle for programmers at FM and AM stations to follow in creating the types of compelling radio programming that pureplays have yet offered.

Brief descriptions of several of radio’s most widely adopted music formats today are presented in this chapter (for a discussion of nonmusic program formats, see Chapter 5). There are, however, more than 60 distinct music and nonmusic formats recognized by the audience research firm Nielsen Audio. The reader should keep in mind that formats morph and evolve as new trends in lifestyle and culture emerge.

Changes in audience measurement methodologies can influence programming decisions, as well as the outcomes of the research. Inside Radio, an industry newsletter, reported a correlation between format changes and the markets in which Nielsen Audio had implemented its Portable People Meter (PPM) system. Chapter 6 details PPM history and explains how Nielsen Audio continues its transition from a diary-based, listener-recall data collection method to an electronic, passive system for audience measurement. Most importantly, it bears observing that radio formats are dynamic and malleable, and the impetus for change is driven by various, largely economic factors.

Adult Contemporary

In terms of the number of listeners, adult contemporary (AC, and offsprings hot AC, lite AC, modern AC, rhythmic AC, soft AC, and urban AC) continues its four-decade popularity trend. The core AC format, according to Inside Radio, is programmed on approximately 600 stations. When the various subformats are included in the count, the total station count springs to more than 1,400 outlets. It’s radio’s second most listened-to music format, trailing only contemporary hit radio (CHR). A notable characteristic of AC is its widespread appeal to women. The format attracts radio’s most evenly distributed audience of listeners aged 12 to 64. AC is ethnically diverse, targeting female listeners aged 25–54 and focusing on a core of females between 30 and 45 years old. AC popularity is trending upward with teens and young adults. Almost one-third of listeners are college-educated. This programming approach is prone to fragmentation, a phenomenon ascribed to the notable population diversity across the subgroups of the core format.

Because AC is very strong among the broader 25–54 age group it is particularly appealing to advertisers. Two core audience characteristics—above-average disposable income and the responsibility for managing day-to-day household spending—make this group a desirable advertiser target. Also, some advertisers spend money on AC stations simply because they like the format themselves. In sum, the AC format is one of the most effective in attracting female listeners.

AC outlets emphasize current and not-so-current (all the way back to the 1970s at some AC stations) pop standards, sans raucous or harsh beats. In other words, there’s no hard rock, although some AC stations could be described as soft rockers. Nonetheless, the majority of stations mix in enough ballads and easy listening sounds to justify their title. The main thrust of this format’s programming is the music. Programming consultant Alan Burns has studied the relationship between females and radio listening. One of the more telling pieces of information to appear in his study Here She Comes—Insights Into Women, Radio, and New Media underscores the importance of music to adult females. Data revealed that, for two of every three listeners surveyed, music is the primary reason for tuning in. Despite the popularity and perceived importance of the morning show to a station’s success, only one in four survey respondents cited it as the principal reason for listening. More music can be aired whenever the chatter is deemphasized. Songs are commonly presented in uninterrupted sweeps or blocks, perhaps 10–12 minutes in duration, followed by a brief recap of artists and titles. Despite the importance of music to the success of the format high-profile morning talent or teams remains a contributor to station popularity at certain AC stations. Commercials generally are clustered at predetermined times, and midday and evening deejay talk is minimal and is often limited to brief informational announcements. News and sports are secondary to the music. In recent years, ACs have spawned a host of format permutations, such as adult hits and adult standards. In the late 2000s, according to Arbitron, the AC subgenre showing the most growth was urban AC.

FIGURE 3.1
America’s top formats, ranked by share of total listening

Source: Courtesy of Nielsen Audio

Adult Hits/Classic Hits

Programmers seized the opportunity to meld aspects of traditional classic hits, pop, and alternative radio formats, widening the depth of the playlist to create what is popularly known as the adult hits or classic hits format. An esoteric format derivative, known variously as “Jack,” “Bob,” “Dave,” and other names, predominantly of the male gender, evolved as one of the more successful programming approach variants. “Jack” and its masculine siblings represent attempts at humanizing a radio station, imbuing it with personality in efforts to evoke and grow listener affinity. Influenced by user experience with the iPod, and its ability to shuffle the playback of users’ massive song collections in creating a randomized playback sequence, “Jack,” “Bob,” and “Dave” programmers thumbed their noses at radio’s tightly controlled playlist approach, on occasion venturing as far back as the 1960s for music selections.

By tapping into the mindset of listeners who had grown tired of the predictability and repetition of the music presentation, “Jack” outlets have proven to be particularly successful in attracting the attention of males and females aged 35 to 44. A commonly heard positioning catchphrase, expressed in slightly different versions by stations in their on-air imaging (i.e., the airing of creative audio elements that establish and promote station personality), alludes to this approach. Buffalo’s 92.9 “Jack FM,” Baltimore’s 102.7 “Jack fm,” and Sacramento’s 93.7 “Jack fm,” among others, proclaim that music variety is achieved by “Playing what we want.” In Nashville, 96.3 “Jack fm” asserts: “We play what we want.” Despite variations in the phrasing, the approach remains the same. Classic hits popularity waned in the early 2000s but, according to industry observer and columnist Sean Ross, the format is resilient and relevant.

FIGURE 3.2
In the mid-2000s, radio programmers conceived a format for emulating the diversity of song choices available on an iPod

Source: Courtesy of Jack FM 105.9

Soft Adult/Easy Listening/Smooth Jazz

Instrumentals and soft vocals of established songs are a mainstay at soft adult/easy listening stations, which also share a penchant for lush orchestrations featuring plenty of string orchestrations. Talk is deemphasized, and news presentation is limited to morning drive time. These stations boast a devoted audience of typically older listeners.

Efforts to draw younger persons into the easy listening fold have been moderately successful, but most of the format’s primary adherents are over 50 years old. Music syndicators provide satellite-delivered, preproduced programming to approximately half of the nation’s easy listening/soft adult stations. Easy listening lost some ground in the 1990s and 2000s to AC and other adult-appeal formats such as album adult alternative and new age. A more recent format variant, smooth jazz, fuses the sounds of jazz, pop, rock, and other music genres in a low-key presentation that features minimal announcer presence and interruption. Following a decade of popularity, the format declined in the mid-2000s. One reason for this, it appears, is that its core audience purchased few artist CDs or downloads. Devoted listeners were satisfied instead by whatever selections their stations offered and weren’t especially interested in product ownership.

Soft adult, lite and easy, smooth jazz, adult standards, and urban AC have become replacement nomenclatures for easy listening, which, like the related moniker Beautiful Music, also began to assume a geriatric connotation.

FIGURE 3.4
Audio Brand Awareness. From The Infinite Dial 2017 study

Source: Courtesy of Edison Research and Triton Digital

Urban Contemporary

Considered the “melting pot” format, urban contemporary (UC) attracts more than 31 million African-American listeners each week, a statistic that Nielsen Audio says translates to 92% of the AA population— with a near-equal mix of males and females—that radio reaches each week. Hispanic listeners, who constitute the largest minority in the nation, and whites are also in the mix; together they account for one in five audience members. As the term suggests, stations employing this format are usually located in metropolitan areas with large, heterogeneous populations. Interestingly, however, the format currently exhibits higher than national average audience shares across the deep South, which include several urban markets (although Atlanta is the only one that is considered to be a “major market”). A descendant of the heritage black program format, UC was born in the early 1980s, the offspring of the short-lived disco format, which burst onto the scene in 1978. At its inception, the disco craze brought new listeners to the black stations, which shortly saw their fortunes change when all-disco stations began to surface. Many black outlets witnessed an exodus of their younger listeners to the disco stations. This prompted a number of black stations to abandon their more traditional playlists, which consisted of rhythm and blues, gospel, and soul tunes, for exclusively disco music. When disco perished in the early 1980s, the UC format emerged. Today, progressive black stations, such as WBLS-FM, New York, combine dance music with soulful rock and contemporary jazz, and many have transcended the color barrier by including certain white artists on their playlists. In fact, many black stations employ white air personnel in efforts to broaden their demographic base.

FIGURE 3.5
More than 80% of black Americans use radio each week

Source: Courtesy of Nielsen Audio

UC is characterized by its upbeat, danceable sound and deejays that are hip, friendly, and energetic. Stations stress danceable tunes and their playlists generally are anything but narrow. However, a particular sound may be given preference over another, depending on the demographic composition of the population in the area that the station serves. For example, UC outlets may play greater amounts of music with a Latin or rhythm and blues flavor, whereas others may air larger proportions of light jazz, reggae, new rock, or hip-hop. Some AM stations around the country have adopted the UC format; however, it is more likely to be found on the FM side, where it has taken numerous stations to the forefront of their market’s ratings.

The UC influence on the formats of traditional black stations is evidenced by the swell in popularity of the urban adult contemporary (urban AC) variant and in the age alignment of audiences for the two formats. Urban AC listeners are predominantly middle-aged (35–54) African Americans who tend to stay tuned to stations for longer periods than do similarly aged listeners to other formats. This information correlates with the finding that in 2016 urban AC was the top-rated format among blacks aged 12+. UC has had an impact on urban AC stations, which have experienced erosion in their youth numbers. More than a third of listeners to the nation’s 270 UC stations are aged 23 and younger and a substantial amount of listening occurs in the after-school hours. Many UC stations have countered by broadening their playlists to include artists who have not traditionally been programmed. Because of the format’s high-intensity, fast-paced presentation, UC outlets can give a Top 40 impression. In contrast, they commonly segue songs or present music in sweeps and give airplay to lengthy cuts that are sometimes six to eight minutes long. Although top 40 or CHR stations seldom program cuts lasting more than four minutes, UC outlets find long cuts or remixes compatible with their programming approach. Remember, UCs are very dance-oriented. Newscasts play a minor role in this format, which caters to a target audience aged 18–34. Contests and promotions are important program elements.

A portion of urban outlets have drawn from the more mainstream CHR playlist in an attempt to expand their listener base. Several large-market stations transitioned from rhythmic CHR to hip-hop since the previous edition of this book was published. Further evidence of format splintering can be found in the recent emergence of classic hip-hop, a descriptor that consultant Harry Lyles suggests could be more fittingly termed “Old School Hip Hop.” Programmer Mike McVay notes a trend that classic hip-hop stations start strong but begin to experience ratings erosion a year or so later. Meanwhile, the old-line, heritage R&B and gospel stations still exist and can be found mostly on AM stations in the South.

Classical

Approximately 200 stations—the overwhelming majority of which are licensed as noncommercial outlets—program classical music. For the few remaining commercial stations, a loyal audience following enables owners to generate a modest to good income. Over the years, profits have remained relatively minute in comparison to other formats. However, member stations of the Concert Music Broad casters Association reported ad revenue increases of up to 40% in the 1980s and 1990s with continued growth, albeit modest, in the 2000s. Owing to its upscale audience, blue-chip accounts find the format an effective buy. This is first and foremost an FM format insofar as the nature of the program content necessitates delivery via a high-fidelity medium.

In many markets, the performance of commercial classical stations has been affected by public radio outlets that program classical music. Because commercial classical stations must break to air the sponsor messages that keep them operating, they must adjust their playlists accordingly. This may mean shorter cuts of music during particular dayparts—in other words, less music. The noncommercial classical outlet is relatively free of such constraints and thus benefits as a result. A case in point is WCRB-FM in Boston, the city’s only full-time classical station. Although it was attracting most of the area’s classical listeners throughout the afternoon and evening hours, it lost many patrons to public radio WGBH’s classical segments with fewer programming interruptions. In 2010 WGBH purchased WCRB-FM, relegating its classical music programming to the former commercially operated station and repositioning its programming approach to news and information.

FIGURE 3.6
Radio stations pay an annual fee to music licensing services such as ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC

Source: Courtesy of ASCAP

Classical stations target the 25- to 49-year-old, higher-income, college-educated listener. News is typically presented at 60- to 90-minute intervals and generally runs from five to 10 minutes. The format is characterized by a conservative, straightforward air sound. Sensationalism and hype are avoided, and on-air contests and promotions are as rare as announcer chatter.

Religious/Christian

Live broadcasts of religious programs began while the medium was still in its experimental stage. In 1919, the U.S. Army Signal Corps aired a service from a chapel in Washington, D.C. Not long after that, KFSG in Los Angeles and WMBI in Chicago began to devote themselves to religious programming. Soon dozens of other radio outlets were broadcasting the message of God.

FIGURES 3.7A AND 3.7B
The executive summary for Christian radio stations airing both music and several hours of talk programs comes from data collected in Spring 2016, part of the Finney Media Why Listen national survey of Christian radio station listeners in the U.S. and Canada. Additional detail at finneymedia.com under the WHY LISTEN tab

Source: Courtesy of Finney Media

Religious broadcasters typically follow one of two programming approaches. One includes music as part of its presentation, and the other does not. Contemporary Christian-formatted stations feature music oriented toward a Christian or life-affirming perspective. Nielsen Audio estimated in 2016 that almost 900 stations representing all geographic areas attracted listeners across a wide range of ages. The typical listener is almost twice as likely to be female than male and of above-average education. Finney Media, a program consultancy specializing in service to Christian-formatted stations, says listeners to the format have two clear expectations. According to results of its 2016 Why Listen? survey, “77% come to Christian radio to be encouraged” and “a full 79% said that a main reason they listen is for worshipful Christian music.”

A notable presence to emerge in recent years is K-Love, the contemporary Christian music service that operates a nationwide network of 400-plus FM full-power and translator stations. Operated by the California-based nonprofit Educational Media Foundation, K-Love offers a music-focused presentation with minimal interruption.

What innovation could propel the format to its next level? Consultant and talent coach Tracy Johnson told Inside Radio:

Well-programmed contemporary Christian stations have the most loyal fan base I’ve ever seen. With the right moves, the format could greatly expand its appeal beyond the religious base, especially in a society where consumers are so stressed. How about adding more reasons to listen, like highprofile air talent?

Faith-affirming gospel stations feature music that has its origins in the black church; Southern gospel-formatted stations are mainstays of the South and Midwest; their music appeals to white listeners. Gospel programming can be heard mostly on AM stations. In all instances, music-intensive stations include the scheduling of blocks of religious features and programs. Nonmusic religious outlets concentrate on inspirational features and complementary talk and informational shows.

Hispanic

Hispanic or Spanish-language stations constitute another large ethnic format, reaching 40 million persons weekly, an impressive 97% of Hispanic listeners. KCOR-AM, San Antonio, became the first All-Spanish station in 1947, just a matter of months after WDIA-AM in Memphis put the black format on the air. Cities with large Latin populations are able to support the format, and in some metropolitan areas with vast numbers of Spanish-speaking residents—such as New York, Los Angeles, and Miami—several radio outlets are devoted exclusively to Hispanic programming. Nielsen Audio predecessor Arbitron reported in 2008:

As their population continued to surge in the United States, Hispanics increased the percentage of their representation in 15 of the 20 non-Spanish language formats in our report, averaging 1.1% more in audience composition than in spring 2006. The only formats where Hispanics made up a smaller proportion of a format’s listenership were UC, Oldies, Alternative and Active Rock.

FIGURE 3.8
Hispanic listenership: Radio’s fastest-growing audience. Ranking of sources listeners use to keep up to date with music

Source: Courtesy of Nielsen Audio

Programming approaches within the format are not unlike those prevalent at Anglo stations. That is to say, Spanish-language radio stations also modify their sound to draw a specific demographic. For example, many offer contemporary music for younger listeners and more traditional music for older listeners. Talk-intensive formats parallel those popular with English-language stations and the approaches are similarly segregated by Nielsen. Thus, advertisers are able to differentiate and effectively target listeners who prefer Spanish news/talk from other Spanish-language formats including sports, religious, and variety.

Houston-based consultant Ed Shane observed in 2013 that Hispanic radio is diverse and vibrant, and reflected an impressive multiplicity of programming styles and approaches. He cited Houston as an example of market diversity, where two brands of tejano, one of exitos (hits), a lot of ranchera, and a couple of talk stations vie for listeners. Miami, by way of contrast, is a top market in which tropical is the dominant Hispanic, and is programmed on two outlets. Yet tropical is absent from the roster of formats found in Houston, where regional Mexican and Spanish contemporary occupy places within the top 10 of 12+ listeners.

Spanish media experts predicted that there would be a significant increase in the number of Hispanic stations through the 2000s, and they were right. Much of this growth occurred on the AM band but later spread rapidly on FM. Leading the station count is the Mexican regional format, found on close to 400 stations. The format ties urban contemporary (UC) for tenth place of Nielsen Audio’s 2016 ranking of top formats, and is heard by an estimated one in five Hispanics. In terms of listenership, males slightly outnumber females.

Ethnic

Hundreds of other radio stations countrywide apportion a significant piece of their schedules (more than 20 hours weekly) to foreign-language programs in Portuguese, German, Polish, Greek, Japanese, and so on. Nielsen Audio characterizes this program approach “world ethnic.” Around 30 stations broadcast exclusively to American Indians and Eskimos and are licensed to Native Americans. Today, these stations are being fed programming from the AIROS Radio Network, and other indigenous media groups predict dozens more Indian-operated stations to be broadcasting by the end of the next decade. Meanwhile, the number of stations broadcasting to Asians and other nationalities is rising.

FIGURE 3.9
Ranking of sources listeners use to keep up to date with music

Source: Courtesy of The Infinite Dial 2017 from Edison Research and Triton Digital

Full Service

The full service (FS) format (also called variety, general appeal, diversified, etc.) attempts to provide its mostly middle-aged listeners a mix of all programming genres—news, sports, and information features blended with a selection of adult-oriented, pop music standards. This something-for-everyone approach initially straddled the “middle of the road” musically and subsequently became known as MOR. Over time programmers have strengthened the format’s public service aspect with the inclusion of additional information programming. It is really one-stop shopping for listeners who would like a little bit of everything. Today, this type of station exists mostly in small markets where stations attempt to be good-citizen radio for everyone, although listeners tend be 40 years and above in age. It has been called the bridge format because of its “all things to all people” programming approach. It has lost much of its large-market appeal and effectiveness due to the diversification and rise in popularity of specialized formats. In some major markets, the format continues to do well in the ratings mainly because of strong on-air personalities. But this is not the format that it once was.

FIGURE 3.10
A striking visual identity for Niijii Radio

Source: Courtesy of KKWE

FS is the home of the on-air personality. Perhaps no other format gives its air personnel as much latitude and freedom. This is not to suggest that FS announcers may do as they please. They, like any other announcer, must abide by format and programming policy, but FS personalities often serve as the cornerstone of their station’s air product. Some of the best-known deejays in the country have come from the FS (MOR) milieu. It would then follow that the music is rarely, if ever, presented in sweeps or even segued. Deejay patter occurs between each cut of music, and announcements are inserted in the same way. News and sports play another vital function at these stations. During drive periods, FS often presents lengthened blocks of news, replete with frequent traffic reports, weather updates, and the latest sports information. Many FS outlets are affiliated with professional and collegiate athletic teams. With few exceptions, FS is an AM format. Although it has endured ratings slippage in recent years, it will likely continue to bridge whatever gaps may exist in a highly specialized radio marketplace.

Niche and HD2 Formats

When it comes to format prognostication, the term unpredictable takes on a whole new meaning. Indeed, there will be a rash of successful niche formats in the coming years due to the ever-increasing fragmentation of the radio audience, but exactly what they will be is anyone’s guess. A common thread that weaves throughout the discussion is the almost surety that format experimentation is more active on the AM, satellite, and HD bands and less so on FM. For example, several years ago Radio Disney largely withdrew from radio station ownership, opting instead to deliver its programming via HD. Xperi, the parent of HD Radio, disseminates Radio Disney over a de facto network it created, utilizing the HD2 bands of medium- and large-market stations owned by CBS, Beasley, and Entercom.

New niche or splinter formats emerge frequently—bluegrass, Christian talk and K-Mozart classical are good examples—in an industry always on the lookout for the next big thing and competing with a myriad of other listening options. In terms of future format innovations, the rollout of HD2 and HD3 side channels (see the discussion of HD Radio in Chapter 9) has contributed somewhat to the development of new niche formats. Whether formats such as Russian American or traditional Christian hymns could become successful as primary channel services is debatable, but a recent perusal of the HD Radio Station Directory reveals that these formats have found a home on HD2 side channels. Experts remain divided in their opinions about the role that HD Radio plays in enlarging format diversity. Experimentation with an even wider variety of listening choices is evident with online radio, where many formats are streamed exclusively by the pureplays. A useful portal for discovering the variety of programming available from Internet-only radio stations is maintained by Grace Digital, a manufacturer of Internet radio tuners, at https://myradio.gracedigital.com.

FIGURE 3.11
Nielsen estimates more adults use radio each month than any other media form

Source: Courtesy of Nielsen Audio

As far as the future goes: who knows? Radio is hardly a static industry, but it is one that is subject to the whims of popular taste. When something new captures the imagination of the American public, radio responds, and often a new format is conceived.

Public Radio

Like numerous college stations, most public radio outlets are noncommercial in operation and program in a block fashion. That is to say, few employ a primary (single) format, but instead offer a mix of program ingredients, such as news/information and entertainment features. National Public Radio (referenced nowadays as “NPR” during the network’s on-air identifications), American Public Media, Public Radio International, and Public Radio Exchange, along with state public radio systems, provide a myriad of features for the hundreds of public radio facilities around the country. Topping the list of prominent music genres are classical and jazz. Public radio news broadcasts, among them NPR’s Morning Edition and All Things Considered and PRI’s The Takeaway, lead all radio in audience popularity for information focused on national and world events.

The popularity of NPR and its programming is reflected by a shift in the way that listeners access the network’s content. Pew Research Center statistics indicate that for the period 2010–16 NPR’s audience held relatively steady, fluctuating between 26 and 27 million weekly listeners. NPR continues to be a vanguard in the spread of podcast popularity, growing its weekly unique podcast total in 2015 to 2.5 million users—a 25% increase over the previous year.

FIGURE 3.12
Mike Janssen

ON PUBLIC RADIO

Mike Janssen

Public radio continues to be defined by the service’s hallmarks for decades: in-depth news and public affairs programming, along with genres of music that commercial radio largely ignores. But with digital platforms continuing to draw an ever-growing share of listeners’ time and attention, public radio stations and networks are putting more and more effort into reaching their audiences in earbuds, on smartphones and wherever the fractured media landscape is taking us next.

Despite these trends, traditional broadcast radio is far from obsolete. NPR has been touting recent gains in its radio audience, possibly bolstered in part by the intense news cycle of an election year and the ongoing aftermath of Donald Trump’s move into the White House. Anchored by NPR’s newsmagazines, Morning Edition and All Things Considered, the news format remains a staple of public radio. In 2015, nearly a quarter of public radio stations aired mostly news, according to an analysis by the Station Resource Group using NPR data. Meanwhile, public radio music formats such as classical, jazz and adult album alternative maintain a presence on hundreds of stations across the country.

But this relatively unchanging mix of programming on public radio’s FM stations belies the creative explosion taking place off air, with a good deal of that energy focused on podcasts. With origins in the early 2000s, podcasting is hardly a new technology. But the smash success of the 2014 podcast Serial—itself a spinoff of public radio’s This American Life—changed everything. The in-depth examination of the mysterious death of a Baltimore high school student riveted listeners, in turn reigniting the interest of program producers in exploring the potential of the intimate, episodic medium. Suddenly, it seemed that everyone wanted to emulate whatever it was that made Serial—and 2017 successor series S-Town—so addictive.

So far, few have cleared that bar. But NPR, American Public Media, and public radio stations have redoubled production and promotion of podcasts. Some have borrowed from Serial’s playbook to present localized variations of the cold-case inquiry. (One, American Public Media’s In the Dark, won a Peabody award in 2017.) But other station-produced podcasts are content to explore various local and regional issues while enjoying the relative freedom afforded by the podcast medium—a less formal tone, variable episode length (no pesky newscasts to work around or time posts to hit), and more flexibility with advertising than FCC limitations allow for broadcast programming. That latter factor is no small consideration. NPR in particular has enjoyed strong growth in ad revenue in recent years, thanks largely to podcast sales. No wonder the network is continuing to unveil new podcasts on a regular basis— recent popular additions include Invisibilia, Embedded, and Hidden Brain.

Given this growing split between public radio’s broadcast and digital activities, where will the medium go from here? It seems difficult to imagine a time when FM stations are no longer important to the system—they draw large audiences and still drive much of public radio’s fundraising from listeners. But some observers wonder whether the advent of self-driving cars, crazy as it may seem, could be a cloud on the horizon. If your “drive” to work someday frees you to read news on your smartphone or listen to a podcast, will you still tune into your local NPR station?

These innovations stem from the realization that today’s media consumers are getting news from a growing array of platforms and devices. Radio remains a popular medium on its own, but consumption on digital platforms continues to grow, particularly on portable devices such as smartphones and tablets. The emergence of a new platform demands that station and network leaders once again consider how to allocate resources to best take advantage of the opportunities presented. Managers often speak of the importance of being agile, innovative, and flexible as the system strives to remain relevant. Some stations paired with public television stations have responded by consolidating their newsrooms among all media, assigning their producers and reporters to create content for radio, TV, and online all at once. KPBS, a joint licensee in San Diego, was a trailblazer in this trend of “convergence.” It has had such success that it now offers “boot camps” to other stations that seek to follow its example.

What kinds of programming are filling up all of these new platforms and broadcast schedules? NPR news programming has continued to expand its reach and popularity, while news stations that can afford the expense are developing their own midday news and talk shows to complement and extend the news offerings from NPR and its competitors, Public Radio International and American Public Media. In attempts to appeal to younger listeners and ethnically diverse audiences and keep pace with the growing diversity of the American public, stations and networks have also launched shows that aim for a fresher sound or take advantage of social and mobile media.

Public radio’s traditional music formats of classical and jazz persist on many stations, while adult album alternative (also known as triple A) music has become a staple as well. But classical has lost ground on a number of stations as they have acquired or started to produce more news and talk programming. Regardless of format, for listeners seeking thoughtful, in-depth news and musical genres that get little airplay elsewhere, the lower end of the dial remains a go-to spot on FM radio and is likely to remain so for years to come.

___________________

Mike Janssen is Digital Editor for Current, the trade publication covering public and nonprofit media in the U.S. He is also Supervising Producer of The Pub, Current’s biweekly podcast about all things public media. Mike’s writing has appeared in the Washingtonian, the Washington City Paper, the LA Weekly and In These Times, among other publications. Mike lives in Washington, D.C., where he enjoys biking, cooking, and playing his banjo.

THE PROGRAMMER

PDs are radiophiles. They live the medium. Most admit to having been smitten by radio at an early age. “It’s something that is in your blood and grows to consuming proportions,” admits programmer Peter Falconi. Entercom Program Manager (PM) Brad Carson confesses to this ulterior motive: “I was always glued to (hometown station) WSMI (Litchfield, Illinois) to find out on ‘snow days’ if my school was cancelled or not. (I always rooted for cancellations.)” As a teen, Carson prepped for his first real job by producing “a series of ‘fake’ radio shows on a cassette player mixing music, announcing, and incorporating various entertaining ‘impressions’ of my high school teachers.” What was the response? “My friends seemed to think they were hilarious,” he says, “so I continued.” The customary route to the programmer’s job involves deejaying and participation in other on-air-related areas, such as copywriting, production, music, and news. Success largely depends on the individual and where he or she happens to be. In some instances, newcomers have gone into programming within their first year in the business. When this happens, it is most likely to occur in a small market where turnover may be high. On the other hand, it is far more common to spend years working toward this goal, even in the best of situations. “Although my father owned the station,” recounts longtime PD Brian Mitchell, “I spent a long time in a series of jobs before my appointment to programmer. Along the way, I worked as station janitor, and then got into announcing, production, and eventually programming.”

Experience contributes most toward the making of the station’s programmer. However, individuals entering the field with hopes of becoming a PD do well to acquire as much formal training as possible. The programmer’s job has become an increasingly demanding one as a result of expanding competition. “A good knowledge of research methodology, analysis, and application is crucial. Programming is both an art and a science today,” observes general manager Jim Murphy. Programmer Andy Bloom concurs with Murphy, adding, “A would-be PD needs to school himself or herself in marketing research particularly. Little is done anymore that is not based on careful analysis.”

Radio Ink publisher B. Eric Rhoads echoes this stance: “The role has changed. The PD used to be a glorified music director with some background in talent development. Today the PD must be a marketing expert.” The complexity of radio marketing has increased, due in particular to the juggernaut of social media, which, along with database marketing activities, have helped elevate the PD to the role of brand manager. “Radio itself is changing,” Rhoads added, “and the PD must adapt. No longer will records and deejays make the big difference. Stations are at parity in music, so better ways must be found to set stations apart.” In Radio Ink, the industry newsmagazine he publishes, Rhoads reported that Saga Communications, a corporate operator of 90 AM and FM stations, adopts the “brand manager” title, applying it to personnel formerly known as “program directors.” The charge to the brand manager: take ownership of all delivery platforms and extend your oversight of content beyond the air signal by proactively managing your online presence as well as your social media activities.

The concept of “brand management,” when applied to a day in the life of programmer Brad Carson’s world, means taking on multiple responsibilities:

My normal day includes writing and producing promotional announcements and station “imaging”, creating marketing plans/promotions with clients and creative partners, logistical planning for talent who are traveling around the country covering sports, deejaying, and even voice tracking a radio show in another city. In the last three years creative planning and marketing have become more important. If you don’t understand the nuts and bolts of what talent do and put into the best shows, you’re not going to be a strong programmer. There are some obvious “tricks of the trade” that we use to create the secret sauce just like every brand. Talent coaching and creativity are at a premium.

Cognizant of this change, schools with curricula in radio broadcasting emphasize courses in audience and marketing research, as well as other programming-related areas. An important fact for the aspiring PD to keep in mind is that more persons than ever before who enter broadcasting possess college degrees. Even though a degree is not necessarily a prerequisite for the position of PD, it is clearly regarded as an asset by upper management. Joe Cortese, syndicated air personality, contends that:

It used to be that a college degree didn’t mean so much. A PD came up through the ranks of programming, proved his ability, and was hired. Not that that doesn’t still happen. It does. But more and more the new PD has a degree or, at the very least, several years of college. … I majored in communication arts at a junior college and then transferred to a four-year school. There are many colleges offering communications courses here in the Boston area, so I’ll probably take some more as a way of further preparing for the day when I’ll be programming or managing a station. That’s what I eventually want to do.

FIGURE 3.13
Program directors’ cubicles inside the programming bullpen at SiriusXM offices in Washington, D.C.

Source: Courtesy of SiriusXM and Marlin Taylor

Cortese adds that experience in the trenches is also vital to success. His point is well taken. Work experience does head the list on which a station manager bases his or her selection for PD. Meanwhile, college training, at the very least, has become a criterion to the extent that, if an applicant does not have any, the prospective employer takes notice.

THE PD’S DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES

Where to begin this discussion poses a problem because the PD’s responsibilities and duties are so numerous and wide-ranging. Tommy Castor views it this way: “I don’t have a large staff, but large expectations, and so it can be very easy for me to fall into the mentality that I need to always do everything I possibly can to improve my radio station.” Second in responsibility to the general manager (in station clusters, the individual station programmer reports to the director of operations, who oversees all programming for the various stations), the PD is the person responsible for everything that goes over the air. This involves working with the station manager or director of operations in establishing programming format policy and overseeing its effective execution. In addition, he or she hires, mentors, and supervises music and production personnel, plans various schedules, manages the programming budget, develops promotions (in conjunction with the promotion or marketing director, if there is such a person in this role), monitors the station and its competition, assesses research, and may even pull a daily air shift. The PD also is accountable for the presentation of news, public affairs, and sports features, although a news director is often appointed to help oversee these areas.

The PD alone does not determine a station’s format. This is an upper management decision. The PD may be involved in the selection process, but, more often than not, the format has been chosen before the programmer has been hired. For example, the ownership and management of fictitious station WYYY has decided on the basis of declining revenues that the station must switch formats from country to CHR to attract a more marketable demographic. After an in-depth examination of its own market, research on the effectiveness of CHR nationally, and advice from a program consultant and national advertising rep company, the format change is deemed appropriate. Reluctantly, the station manager concludes that he must bring in a CHR specialist, which means that he must terminate the services of his present programmer, whose experience is limited to the country format. The station manager advertises the position availability in various industry trade publications and their websites, interviews several candidates, and hires the person he or she feels will take the station to the top of the ratings. When the new PD arrives, he or she is charged with the task of preparing the new format for its debut. Among other things, this may involve hiring new air talent, acquiring a new music library or updating the existing one, creating and producing promos and purchasing jingles, developing external promotions and a social media presence, and working in league with the sales, traffic, and engineering departments for maximum results.

On these points, Corinne Baldasano, Senior Vice-President of Programming and Marketing for Take On The Day LLC, observes:

First of all, of course, you must be sure that the station you are programming fills a market void, i.e., that there is an opportunity for you to succeed in your geographic area with the format you are programming. For example, a young adult alternative Rock station may not have much chance for success in an area that is mostly populated by retirees. Once you have determined that the format fills an audience need, you need to focus on building your station. The basic ingredients are making sure your music mix is correct (if you are programming a music station) and that you’ve hired the on-air talent that conveys the attitude and image of the station you wish to build. At this stage, it is far more important to focus inward than outward. Many stations have failed because they’ve paid more attention to the competition’s product than they have their own.

Once the format is implemented, the PD must work at refining and maintaining the sound. The deejay staff must be monitored and mentored to ensure the cohesiveness of the on-air product. Speaking about the importance of good mentoring, Leslie Whittle, PD of Houston’s 104.1 KRBE, says, “It’s absolutely necessary to the future of any business to mentor.” Named “One of the Best Program Directors in America” by Radio Ink in 2016, Whittle explains that mentoring is an activity that can extend beyond on-air performance review and coaching:

This doesn’t only take time, it takes understanding of the goals and capabilities of those you mentor. What do they REALLY want? A career as a Program Director? To be a DJ? To produce audio? Do they want to hear their music on the radio? Put together great events for clients? And most importantly, CAN you help them accomplish these goals with the right guidance? Today’s technology means less chances to get on-air experience, so it’s more important than ever now to know the potential of those you mentor.

After a short time, the programmer may feel compelled to modify air schedules either by shifting deejays around or by replacing those who do not enhance the format. Efforts to maintain consistency between the weekday and weekend “sound” of the station also have to be made. The PD prepares weekend and holiday schedules as well and this generally requires the hiring of part-time announcers. A station may employ as few as one or two part-timers or fill-in people or as many as eight to 10. This largely depends on whether deejays are on a five- or six-day schedule, as well as the extent to which the station utilizes automation and voice-tracking (see Chapter 8). Air personnel often are hired to work a six-day week. The objective of scheduling is not merely to fill slots but to maintain the continuity and consistency of sound. A PD prefers to tamper with shifts as little as possible and fervently hopes that he has filled weekend slots with individuals who are reliable. Brian Mitchell says:

The importance of dependable, trustworthy air people cannot be overemphasized. It’s great to have talented deejays, but if they don’t show up when they are supposed to because of one reason or another, they don’t do you a lot of good. You need people who are cooperative. I have no patience with individuals who try to deceive me or fail to live up to their responsibilities.

A station that is constantly introducing new air personnel has a difficult time establishing listener habit. The PD knows that to succeed he or she must present a stable and dependable sound, and this is a significant programming challenge, albeit one that has been mitigated somewhat by the practice of voice-tracking “unstaffed” overnight and weekend air shifts. The techniques of voice-tracking assist the PD in maintaining a consistent 24/7 on-air sound.

Programmer Brad Carson defends the practice: “Talent-sharing from station to station,” he says, “using voice-tracking and other methods (networks, for example) has helped many stations, regardless of market size or format, put the best voices and talent in radio markets across America.” Detractors of voice-tracking criticize the practice, claiming that owners’ primary objective in eliminating local talent is the reduction of expenses. Carson, however, believes that this viewpoint can be inconsistent with a PD’s objectives:

While many have demonized voicetrackings and network radio because of cost reduction (which is not always the case when using these tools) radio groups want to put the very best content on the air. Content is still king. High quality content and entertaining content are always the goal.

Marlin R. Taylor, Founder of Bonneville Broadcasting System and veteran major-market station programmer and manager, underscores the need for station personnel to support their nonlocal air talent:

In most cases, if a station is to truly stay connected to the listener, “local” is an element that must be factored in. If you’re talking about a voice-tracker from outside the market, he/she needs to be provided with information that enables the person to include content relevant to the local community. If it’s a network music show, there should be timely local information included in the local breaks beyond just commercial spots. Otherwise, a properly run station that utilizes either of these extensively on weekends and even overnight hours needs to have someone available to communicate information should an emergency or other major newsworthy event occur in the community or region that the listener should be aware of.

PD/midday air personality Randi Myles of Detroit’s Praise 102.7 notes not only that successful programming must be local, but that the programmer should be sensitive to the innate needs of listeners. She explains:

Programming radio is a way to cater to the overall ‘needs’ for the market you work in. In my case, Inspirational music caters to those who love gospel music, who go to church (mostly) or for the person who needs to be lifted up after a hard day or unfortunate situation. That is a small group of people in some areas, but in a larger market like Detroit … it’s a bigger group of listeners. The same goes for any format really. You look for the need and then program the station accordingly.

FIGURE 3.14
Mike McVay

Production schedules also are prepared by the programmer. Deejays are usually tapped for production duties before or after their airshifts. For example, the morning person who is on the air 6–10 am may be assigned production and copy (commercial scriptwriting) chores from 10 am until noon. Meanwhile, the midday deejay who is on the air from 10 am until 3 pm is given production assignments for 3–5 pm, and so on. Large radio stations frequently employ a full-time production person. If so, this individual handles all production responsibilities and is supervised by the PD.

A PD traditionally handles the department’s budget, which generally constitutes 30–40% of the station’s operating budget. Working with the station manager, the PD ascertains the financial needs of the programming area. The size and scope of the budget vary from station to station. Most programming budgets include funds for the acquisition of program materials, such as subscription music services, network and syndicated program features, and contest paraphernalia. A separate promotional budget usually exists and this too may be managed by the PD. The programmer’s budgetary responsibilities range from monumental at some outlets to minuscule at others. Personnel salaries and even equipment purchases may fall within the province of the program department’s budget. Thus, Brian Mitchell believes that “an understanding of the total financial structure of the company or corporation and how programming fits into the scheme of things is a real asset to a programmer.”

Devising station promotions and contests also places demands on the PD’s time. While large stations often can afford to appoint a promotion director, the same cannot necessarily be said of situations in the smaller markets. In instances where full-time promotions directors are employed, the PD and promotion director work together in the planning, development, and execution of the promotional campaign. The PD, however, retains final veto power should he or she feel that the promotion or contest fails to complement the station’s format. When the PD alone handles promotions and contests, he or she may involve other members of the programming or sales department in brainstorming sessions designed to come up with original and interesting concepts. The programmer is aware that the right promotion or contest can have a major impact on ratings. Thus, he or she is constantly on the lookout for an appropriate event partner or sponsor. In the quest to find the promotion that will launch the station on the path to a larger audience, the PD may seek assistance from one of dozens of companies that offer promotional services.

The PD’s major objective is to program for results. If the station’s programming fails to attract a sufficient following, the ratings will reflect that unhappy fact. All medium and larger markets are surveyed by ratings companies, primarily Nielsen Audio. Very few small, rural markets, with perhaps one or two stations, are surveyed. If a small-market station is poorly programmed, the results will be apparent in the negative reactions of the local retailers. Simply put, the station will not be bought by enough advertisers to make the operation a profitable venture. In the bigger markets, where several stations compete for advertising dollars, the ratings are used to determine which is the most effective or cost-efficient station to buy. PDs constantly monitor the competition by analyzing the ratings and by listening. However, rather than contrast with each other, pop stations tend to reflect one another. This, in fact, has been the basis of arguments by critics who object to the so-called mirroring effect. What happens is easily understood. If a station does well by presenting a particular format, other stations are going to exploit the sound in the hopes of doing well also. WYYY promotes commercial-free sweeps of music and captures big ratings, and soon its competitor programs likewise. PD Myles cautions against becoming a “reactionary” programmer. One of the principal challenges she faces is

worrying too much about what other stations are doing. If you focus on your station, the listeners’ needs and being in the community, you win. Yes, ratings are important, but you can’t achieve them if you are not in touch with your audience.

Keeping in step with, or rather one step ahead of, the competition requires that the PD knows what is happening around him or her at all times.

Jingles are an imaging element used as a means of establishing a station’s position in the minds of listeners. Greg Clancy, GM and Vice-President, Creative, at TM Studios in Dallas, recounts the history of jingle pioneer and programming icon Gordon McLendon in the late 1950s:

Gordon pioneered the Top 40 format on the Mighty 7–90, KLIF in Dallas. He thought if people heard the station name put to a melody, they would have more top-of-mind recall of the station name. This was important when listeners filled out ratings sheets. It turns out Gordon was correct in his assumptions, and a cottage industry was born.

FIGURE 3.15
A jingle recording session. Clustering around studio microphones enhances vocalists’ performances

Source: Courtesy of TM Studios/WestwoodOne

Decades later, “jingling” continues to be a viable approach for creating and building station identity and position with audiences.

Thomas Giger, of the Netherlands-based production studio Pure Jingles, concurs. Giger adds that Pure Jingles, whose work is heard on numerous U.S. outlets, “help[s] radio stations to put their brand out to the listener in an auditory way that captures attention and brands the logo melody of the station into the listener’s mind.” Whether Nielsen Audio measures radio listening with the traditional diary or the newer, electronic Portable People Meter (PPM), the end result, Giger says, is the same. “It’s important to make your brand memorable in listeners’ heads.” “Jingles are heard on all formats,” Clancy notes, and says that “the music styles vary greatly. For example, we might use orchestral music for a news imaging package and use a full synthetic composition with effects for a CHR station. We use different vocal configurations for different formats as well.”

Probably 60% of the nation’s PDs pull an airshift (go on the air themselves) on either a full-time or part-time basis. A difference of opinion exists among programmers concerning their on-air participation. Many feel that being on the air gives them a true sense of the station’s sound, which aids them in their programming efforts. As PM Brad Carson sees it, being an on-air personality enables him to stay on top of a station’s performance. “How could it not?” he questions. “Your colleagues you work closely with respect you more. Being ‘hands on’ helps with understanding. You know what is going on. I think there are obvious benefits.” Others contend that the three or four hours that they spend on the air take them away from important programming duties. Major-market PDs are less likely to be heard on the air than their peers in smaller markets because of additional duties created by the size and status of the station. Meanwhile, small- and medium-market stations often expect their PDs to be seasoned air personalities capable of filling a key shift. “It has been my experience when applying for programming jobs that managers are looking for PDs with excellent announcing skills. It is pretty rare to find a small-market PD who does not have a daily airshift. It comes with the territory,” says consultant and voiceover talent Gary Begin.

Whether or not PDs are involved in actual airshifts, almost all participate in the production of commercials, public service announcements (PSAs), and promos. In lieu of an airshift, a PD may spend several hours each day in the station’s production facilities. The programmer may, in fact, serve as the primary copywriter and spot producer. This is especially true at non-major-market outlets that do not employ a full-time production person.

FIGURE 3.16
Pure Jingles logo

Source: Courtesy of Thomas Giger and Pure Jingles

FIGURE 3.17
Lorna Ozmon

The PD must possess an imposing list of skills to perform effectively the countless tasks confronting him or her daily. There is no one person, other than the general manager, whose responsibilities outweigh the programmer’s. The PD can make or break the radio station. Summing things up, Chief Programmer Jimmy Steal states:

A programmer must possess balance and understanding of both the science and art of show business. A station needs someone who understands that strategies and tactics are for the conference room, and fun, engagement, buzz, innovation, and exceeding listener’s expectations are for over the air and online.

Of course, programming “magic” does not create itself. It is, rather, the product of careful, attentive show preparation activities, or “show prep.” The PD must prep not only for his or her on-air appearance but also lead by example in assisting the airstaff in the choices of appropriate content in order to achieve consistency in the station’s sound and position.

Air personnel typically prep for their shows by one or more of three methods: (1) conducting their own research, (2) subscribing to syndicated show-prep services, and (3) relying on the assistance of the station programming consultant. Seth Resler is a former major-market air personality who now serves as consultant for Jacobs Media’s Digital Dot Connector. In-house show-prep activities, in his opinion, are excellent supplements to consultants’ services to clients in the major markets. But what about on-air talent in the smaller markets that are just beginning to get a foothold in the business? Resler views the in-house research as a viable, standalone activity, one that clusters around the use of RSS (really simple syndication) feeds. “It doesn’t cost anything” to use feed-aggregating software, Resler observes, and it can be extremely helpful in monitoring the activities of what he terms the local-market “influencers.” Such persons, he says, are

Big enough that they have their own following—their own audience—in your market but at the same time are small enough that they’re still impressed when the station or its deejay re-Tweets them or shares their content on Facebook.

He explains, “The idea here is that if we can reach that ‘Influencer,’ then they can turn around and they can reach their audiences … and they can share and expose you, and that helps expose you to their audiences.” He recommends that PDs convene a meeting of the staff and brainstorm to identify “Influencers” within the market and then enter their social media contact information into the aggregation software. He suggests Feedly (www.feedly.com) as one example of free, easy-to-use software.

FIGURE 3.18
A model of a station’s competitive environment as conceived by Arbitron

Source: Courtesy of Arbitron/Nielsen Audio

PROGRAMMING A CLUSTER OPERATION

The widespread ownership consolidation of the radio industry that began in the late 1990s has resulted in a paradigm shift in programming responsibilities. Radio clusters may consist of as many as eight stations. In this situation, one individual is usually assigned to perform the function of general supervisor of all cluster programming, and each of the stations within the cluster has a designated PD, who reports to this person—typically referred to as the director of operations. Radio corporations see it as a macrocosm/microcosm overseer design and arrangement.

As might be imagined, the challenges of programming a cluster are compounded by the very number of the stations involved. Gregg Cassidy, who programmed stations in Chicago, Denver and Milwaukee, observes:

Programming a single station is very simple versus programming a cluster. In programming a single station you have all the time necessary to evaluate all areas of your station daily. You can check your air talent each week, reevaluate your music and music rotations, be very creative with your on-air promotions, and take the necessary time to create clever and compelling production. Programming a cluster is like being a father of many children rather than one or two. Time becomes very valuable. In the simplest form, I would devote all my energy to one station per week.

FIGURE 3.19
Brad Carson

The twin activities of listing and prioritizing are part and parcel of Tommy Castor’s workday. The iHeartmedia programmer observes:

I only have so many hours in one day and it’s so important to me to prioritize and work smart while working hard. I have to have a daily to-do list where not only do I list all of my tasks for that day, but I always prioritize them so I know what the most important duties that day will be. Usually these are items that I believe may make the most difference in improving the sound of my radio station, gaining (and sustaining) listeners, improving revenue opportunities, maximizing our digital and social media brands and managing my staff so they are achieving success at a high level. Not all of these are possible to accomplish all of the time, so I just need to be realistic with what I can improve and change.

According to WIZN/WBTZ’s Matt Grasso, consolidation has created other problems for programmers:

Ironically, if not paradoxically, many quality radio pros making top dollars were cut out in the downsizing and consolidation frenzy. This often left lesser talent in markets with clusters. Worse yet, with many passionate, quality pros out of work, no one has been minding the store and developing new talent. This has become today’s major challenge—finding and developing new talent. There used to be a line out the door of people wanting to be on the radio, but the perception that consolidation and downsizing have killed the job market has dramatically changed that.

FIGURE 3.20
Music cataloging and scheduling is managed by apps such as RCS GSelector

Source: Courtesy of RCS

SATELLITE RADIO PROGRAMMING

In laying the foundation of satellite radio with the creation of the Digital Audio Radio Service (DARS) by the FCC in 1992, almost another decade would pass before the first signals would bounce down from space to listeners. XM Radio came first, in late 2001, with the successful launch of its two satellites, appropriately named “rock” and “roll.” Competitor Sirius followed several months later. What follows is a brief sketch of the original concept for the organizational structure that was put into place at the time of the creation of XM Satellite Radio in the early 2000s. XM’s Chief Creative Officer, the legendary programmer and consultant Lee Abrams, served XM as its original Chief Creative Officer. In recounting the early days of the satcaster, Abrams described his role in the launch of digital radio broadcasting:

I was the head overseer of programming. For original content, we had a senior vice-president of music. We had a vice-president of Talk, who handled the day-to-day operations of the nonmusic channels. Original Talk programming, such as Take 5 and XM Traffic, had a PD along with a staff of talent and producers. The vice-president of Talk also spearheaded the relations with third-party providers. Every cluster had a senior PD, and each channel had a PD. Channels often had music directors and deejays. A vice-president also oversaw the pure operational aspects, like computer systems and production. There was a staff of senior production directors who supervised a group of producers, aka audio animators. Supporting the animators were production assistants, who often came from the internship ranks at XM. The programming department also had a music librarian and staff that oversaw the ingestion of music into the system. Keep in mind things changed as they were tweaked to enhance the efficiency of the department. As they say, it was a work in progress.

Indeed. By early 2009 the two competitors had merged, and in the years since the combined company’s fortunes have fallen and risen. In the company’s most recent assessment, announced in early 2017, SiriusXM reported a record-setting roster of more than 31 million subscribers. CEO James Meyer, in describing the programming advancements of calendar year 2016, informed investors, “Once again, we raised our game. More live programming, one-of-a-kind concerts, new music channels, and must-hear sporting events. No one else can match our easy-to-use content bundle.” He continued:

We made some major moves in our sports programming also by adding two of the biggest brands in sports. We created a new exclusive 24x7 channel, FOX Sports on SiriusXM, showcasing some of FOX’s biggest talent such as Colin Cowherd, Skip Bayless and Shannon Sharpe.

ELEMENTS OF PROGRAMMING

Programming has become a very complex undertaking, observes Andy Bloom. Few programmers entrust the selection and scheduling of music and other sound elements to deejays. There is simply too much at stake and too many variables, both internal and external, that must be considered to achieve maximum results within a chosen format. “For instance, all of our music is tested via callout,” Bloom says. This important implement in the programmer’s toolbox is a survey procedure for determining music preferences. So-termed because of its origins as a telephone call-out technique to query survey respondents, similar results today can be more efficiently obtained by using online methodologies. In any instance, the use of song hooks is the key to collecting usable information about listeners’ interests in songs. Hooks are simply snippets edited from full-length recordings that preserve the most-recognizable or attention-grabbing portions of songs—the parts that “catch the ear” of listeners. In many instances, that portion is located in the chorus between the verses. While it’s possible to create the hooks in-house, it’s also common for programmers to rely on the services of a company that specializes in the creation and syndication of hooks. One such company, Hooks Unlimited, curates a library of almost 150,000 hooks readily available for use in music testing situations, including call-out, online, auditorium, and focus group settings.

FIGURE 3.21
Michael Pelaia

HOW A SONG HOOK CAN “HOOK” A LISTENER

Michael Pelaia

Music research has been used as a tool by programmers to identify opportunities and fine-tune their brands for more than 30 years. It is critical for radio stations to know what keeps the audience listening and why listeners may tune away. Research helps them stay on course.

The hook in a song is the repetitive lyric phrase or musical notes that “stay in people’s minds” and help them recall the song. In simple terms … the hook is what the song is selling to your ears.

Music hooks are used in several areas of the digital music landscape today. The sample you see in a digital music platform (such as iTunes or Google Music) is usually one to two minutes long. This helps you get a feel for the song, likely because you are unfamiliar with it. It is usually used to help you decide if you like the song enough to buy (or stream) it.

In radio music research, song hooks used in market research are usually only six to eight seconds in length. Why so short? When you test segments with listeners, a researcher is hoping to capture the listener’s reaction to a song they know and have heard before. If a person is not familiar with a song, they are asked not to rate it. Song hooks are used in current music testing (known as call-out), library music testing (tested in-person or online), and perceptual research (clustered together to help define formats). Assuming the listener knows the song, a shorter hook is all that is needed to capture their opinion. This can evoke either a positive or negative response.

Programmers often use a mix of methods to decide how to play a song. Current-based stations usually have a music meeting or listening session where they sample songs they consider introducing to their audience. Some stations do this live on the air and get listeners to vote on the station’s web page or ask listeners to call in to the deejay. The programmer likely also looks at chart data (Billboard), airplay data (Mediabase, BDS), and secondary data from market competitors or other stations owned by the same company as their own station. Without these resources, a programmer must add a song based on keen knowledge of their audience and their gut telling them if it’s a hit. Some do just that, but it is dangerous to rely solely on your gut.

FIGURE 3.22

Source: Courtesy of Hooks Unlimited

Once the song is established, it becomes important to test it to ensure it (1) is still popular, (2) fits the texture of the music being played, and (3) has not fatigued in the minds of listeners. An example of this is “Tears in Heaven” by Eric Clapton. During its heyday, this song was played on a very high rotation and tested well in the research. It was played so much that, while it garnered a 4.75 on a five-point scale, it also had 60% or more of listeners saying they were “tired” of hearing it. In current-based formats this is commonplace. More recently, Adele’s “Hello” reflected this listener sentiment. The songs are played so frequently (sometimes once an hour) they “burn out.” Bad songs don’t last long. Good songs played in such a high frequency sometimes need to be rested (taken out of regular airplay rotation) for a while. The station can then make room for new hits and brings the song back as “gold,” where it might be played once or twice a day or week.

The 1994 song “Hook” by Blues Traveler is a brilliantly written song that is both a hit song and a satire of a hit song. The song’s lyrics, aimed directly at the listener, assert that the lyrical content of any song is effectively meaningless, insofar as the song’s musical hook will keep listeners coming back, even if they are unaware of the reason. In the introduction, John Popper sings:

It doesn’t matter what I say / So long as I sing with inflection / That makes you feel that I’ll convey / Some inner truth of vast reflection.

Further on in the song, however, he uses more blatant lyrics, claiming that formulaic music is an easy way to make money:

When I’m feeling stuck and need a buck / I don’t rely on luck, because / the hook brings you back …

In this song … the hook is about a hook!

Radio is the leading reach platform, as 93% of people listen to AM/FM radio. Most stations broadcast or stream some type of music format. Music is universal, ingrained in our lives from an early age. Most everyone at some point in their lives has listened to music, and likely it was from the radio.

So … why is the hook so important? The familiarity and repetition is easy to latch on to, and it hopefully evokes a response. That reaction keeps you listening… and it keeps you coming back for more!

___________________

Michael Pelaia is President of Hooks Unlimited, located in Decatur, GA, just outside of Atlanta. He received his BS in Telecommunications Management from Ithaca College before starting in local radio sales in suburban New York. In 1988, Michael joined Arbitron (now Nielsen Audio), providing customer service to radio rep firms and agencies. From there he joined Coleman Insights near Raleigh, NC, as Research Analyst, eventually assuming the role of Vice-President, Operations. Michael then relocated to Atlanta, GA, in 1996 and joined Eagle Research, a division of Cox Media, in the roles of Project Director, VP Operations and eventually EVP/COO of the Eagle Group. In 2002, Michael joined Hooks Unlimited as President.

Hooks Unlimited provides music research materials to radio stations, research firms, and consultants worldwide to help them adjust and improve their programming. He recently became a volunteer guide with Musicians on Call, a nationwide organization that provides live, in-room music performances in health-care facilities to patients unable to leave their room. He currently resides in Atlanta, Georgia, and in his free time enjoys music, cycling, hiking, and cooking.

Music research takes other forms. Bloom continues: “At least one or two perceptual studies are done every year, depending on what questions we need answered. Usually a couple of sets of focus groups per year, too. Everything is researched, and nothing is left to chance.” In most cases, the PD determines how much music is programmed hourly and in what rotation and when news, public affairs features, and commercials are slotted. Program clocks (also known variously as sound hours, wheels, and format disks) are simply diagrams depicting the sequence of presentation of music, commercials, and other programming elements. Clocks are carefully designed by the PD to ensure the effective presentation of on-air ingredients. In the days prior to the computerization of the on-air presentation, program clock diagrams would be posted in the control studio to inform and guide air talent as to what is to be broadcast and at what point in the hour.

Today, while the concept of the clock and the various program elements are internalized within the software that manages the audio playout, the decisions about what is to be broadcast and in what order are made by the PD. Although not every station provides deejays with such specific programming schemata, today very few stations leave things up to chance since the inappropriate scheduling and sequencing of sound elements may drive listeners to a competitor. Radio programming has become that much of an exacting science. With few exceptions, stations use some kind of software-assisted formula in conveying their programming material.

According to Entercom’s Brad Carson,

Music stations that want to maximize rotations and use sound strategy to play the right songs the “right” amount of times use music scheduling software programs like RCS Selector or Music Master. Each of these programs use a virtual “clock” with songs positioned around imaging elements, commercials, and talk positions where talent/personalities either talk over song intros, between songs into cold intros or before/after commercials within a given hour.

In explaining how station personnel manage the process of song scheduling, Carson says the process begins by determining the appropriate number of songs to be scheduled within the hour. A certain total number of songs (this ideal number is often based off what similarly formatted stations that the station monitors from around the country use) is selected; the scheduler then assigns codes to the various songs’ attributes. Music schedulers are able to code almost every characteristic of their songs including genre, era, gender, tempo, mood, and even research-score ranks. Songs considered “powers” play more than various other identifiable categories. But after songs are “auto-scheduled” most program managers/music directors choose to review the entire playlist log by hand to “massage” it. For example, maybe the computer places a “power” song by Ariana Grande in spot #1 and the next song slotted to play is by Bruno Mars in spot #2, owing to the circumstances of that particular clock. The music scheduler then might see that and just simply “juggle” the #2-spot song by Mars with the #3-spot song from the Chainsmokers. It would then go (#1) Grande, (#2) Chainsmokers and then (#3) Mars vs. (#1) Grande, (#2) Mars then (#3) Chainsmokers.

Carson cautions that a programmer can become too prescriptive in designing the selection “rules.” He explains,

With some of these music scheduling programs (like RCS Selector) it’s possible to set up so many “rules” that the program won’t place songs in every slot. I think it’s valuable to at the very least take a few minutes to review the log and see if there’s anything out of sorts that you don’t like for the brand. In today’s radio, most music programmers also are doing another pass through their log to hand place imaging elements that go perfectly with the scheduled music log.

FIGURE 3.23
Software assists programmers with clock construction

Source: Courtesy of Impressive Interfaces

In the instance of RCS software, the Selector companion program Linker integrates the station imaging content into the music schedule.

Indeed, program clocks are set up with the competition and market factors in mind. For example, programmers will devise a clock that reflects morning and afternoon drive periods in their market. Not all markets have identical commuter hours. In some cities morning drive may start as early as 5:30 am; in others it may begin at 7 am. The programmer sets up clocks accordingly. The clock structure parallels the activities of the community in which the station operates.

Program clocks keep a station on a preordained path and prevent deejays from deviating from the program-execution philosophy. As stated, each programming element—commercial, news, promo, weather, and so on—is strategically located in the sound hour to enhance flow and optimize impact. Balance is imperative: with too much deejay patter on a station promoting more music and less talk, listeners become disenchanted; with too little news and information on a station targeting the over-30 male commuter, the competition benefits. Radio executive Lorna Ozmon observes:

When constructing or arranging the program clock, you have to work forward and backward to make sure that everything fits and is positioned correctly. One element out of place can become that proverbial hole in the dam. Spots, jock breaks, music—it all must be weighed before clocking. A lot of experimentation, not to mention research, goes into this.

It was previously pointed out that a station with a “more music” approach minimizes deejay talk in order to have time for scheduling additional tunes. Nothing is left to chance. This is true of stations airing the super-tight hit music format. Deejays say what appears on their monitors and move the music. At stations where deejays are given more control, program clocks play a less crucial function. Outlets where a particular personality has ruled the ratings for years often let that person have more input as to what music is aired. However, even in these cases, playlists generally are provided and followed.

FIGURE 3.24
Tracking the trends: Top formats in Nielsen-rated markets

Source: Courtesy of Nielsen Audio

On the subject of on-air talent, Lynn Christian observes:

Requirements have changed in the past few years. Stations are not just looking for a “pretty voice.” Today’s radio management looks for talent with facile minds who are great observers—people who can listen as well as speak, plus possess the ability to demonstrate a warm and always interesting personality.

On the other side of the coin, talent wants their managers to operate in a manner that makes for a positive atmosphere and experience, says PD Jimmy Steal: “The keys to managing talent are (1) honesty, (2) inspiration, (3) creativity, and (4) empathy.”

In addition to concentrating on the role deejays play in the sound hour, the PD pays careful attention to the general nature and quality of other ingredients. Music is, of course, of paramount importance. Songs must fit the format to begin with, but, beyond the obvious, the quality of the artistry and the audio mix must meet certain criteria. A substandard musical arrangement or a disc with poor fidelity detracts from the station’s sound. Station imaging must integrate effectively with other programming features to establish the tone and tenor of the format. Otherwise they might have the reverse effect of their intended purpose, which is to attract and hold listeners. Commercials, too, must be compatible with the program elements that surround them.

In all, the PD scrutinizes every component of the program clock to keep the station true to form. Adherence to the clock structure helps maintain consistency, without which a station cannot hope to cultivate a following. Erratic programming in today’s highly competitive marketplace is tantamount to directing listeners to other stations or the multitude of audio listening opportunities. At one time, top 40 stations were the unrivaled leaders of formula programming. Today, however, even full service (FS) and classic rock outlets, which once were the least formulaic, have become more sensitive to form. The age of freeform commercial radio has long since passed, and it is doubtful, given the state of the marketplace, that it will return. Of course, stranger things have happened in radio.

FIGURE 3.25
Peter Stewart

THE PD AND THE AUDIENCE

The programmer, regardless of whether he or she works for a broadcast, satellite, or Internet radio station, must possess a clear perception of the type of listener the station management wants to attract. Initially, a station decides on a given format because it is convinced that it will make money with the newfound audience, meaning that the people who tune in to the station will look good to prospective advertisers. The purpose of any format is to attract a desirable segment of the radio audience whose attention can be marketed to advertisers. Just who these people are and what makes them tick are questions that the PD must constantly address to achieve reach and retention. An informed programmer is aware that different types of music appeal to different types of people. For example, surveys have long concluded that heavy rock appeals more to men than it does to women, and that rock music, in general, is more popular among teens and young adults than it is with individuals over 40. This is no guarded secret, and certainly the programmer who is out to gain the over-40 crowd is doing themselves and their station a disservice by programming even an occasional hard rock tune. This should be obvious.

A station’s demographics refer to the characteristics of those who tune in: age, gender, income, and so forth. Within its demographic profile, a station may exhibit particular strength in specific areas, or cells as they have come to be termed. For example, an AC station targeting the 25- to 49-year-old group may have a prominent cell in women over 30. The general information provided by the major ratings surveys indicate to the station the age and sex of those listening, but little beyond that. To find out more, the PD may conduct an in-house survey or employ the services of a research firm.

FIGURE 3.26
Leslie Whittle

Because radio accompanies listeners practically everywhere, broadcasters pay particular attention to the lifestyle activities of their target audience. Social media platforms can be helpful in assisting PDs in developing deeper understanding of and insight into the listener. Facebook, the dominant service, continues to extend its reach into the populace. The Infinite Dial, the Edison Research/Triton Media annual study, estimated in its 2017 study that Facebook usage among persons aged 12 and older has increased nine percentage points since this text’s previous edition, rising from 58% to 67%. Three of every four persons aged 12–24 have Facebook profiles.

A station’s geographic locale often dictates its program offerings. For example, hoping to capture the attention of the 35-year-old men, a radio outlet located in a small coastal city along the Gulf of Mexico might decide to air a series of one-minute informational tips on outdoor activities, such as tennis, golf, and deep-sea fishing, which are exceptionally popular in the area. Stations have always catered to the interests of their listeners, but, beginning in the 1970s, audience research became much more oriented to lifestyle.

In the 1990s, broadcasters delved further into audience behavior through psychographic research, which, by examining motivational factors, provides programmers with information beyond the purely quantitative. Perhaps one of the best examples of a station’s efforts to conform to its listeners’ lifestyle is dayparting, a topic briefly touched on in the discussion of program clocks. For the sake of illustration, let us discuss how a classic hits-formatted station may daypart (segmentalize) its broadcast day. To begin with, the station is targeting an over-40 audience, somewhat skewed toward men. The PD concludes that the station’s biggest listening hours are mornings between 7 and 9 am and afternoons between 4 and 6 pm, and that most of those tuned in during these periods are in their cars commuting to or from work. It is evident to the programmer that the station’s programming approach must be modified during drive time to reflect the needs of the audience. Obviously, traffic reports, news and sports updates, weather forecasts, and frequent time checks are suitable fare for the station’s morning audience. The interests of homebound commuters contrast slightly with those of work-bound commuters. Weather and time are less important, and most sports information from the previous night is old hat by the time the listener heads for home. The presentation should elicit a mood of relaxation, and the diversion of thought away from the drudgery of that day’s work experience. Stock market reports and information about upcoming games and activities take up the slack. Midday and evening hours call for further modification, because the lifestyle and entertainment desires of the station’s audience is different. Any programming adjustments the PD makes should have the objective of attracting and retaining audience interest.

The PD relies on survey information and research data to better gauge and understand the station’s audience. However, as a member of the community that the station serves, the programmer knows that not everything is contained in formal documentation. He or she gains unique insight into the mood and mentality of the area within the station’s signal simply by taking part in the activities of day-today life. Entercom Programmer Brad Carson immerses himself in work with Memphis-area nonprofit organizations. Not only does he make a valuable contribution to the community; he also is able to make and sustain connections with audience members. Carson says, “I like helping local charities like St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital and Special Kids and Families. I enjoy meeting listeners.” A programmer with a real feel for the area in which the station is located, as well as a fundamental grasp of research methodology and its application, is in the best possible position to direct the on-air efforts of a radio station. Concerning the role of audience research, Peter Falconi says, “You can’t run a station on research alone. Yes, research helps to an extent, but it can’t replace your own observations and instincts.” Brian Mitchell agrees with Falconi:

I feel research is important, but how you react to research is more important. A PD also has to heed his gut feelings. Gaps exist in research, too. If I can’t figure out what to do without data to point the way every time I make a move, I should get out of radio. Success comes from taking chances once in a while, too. Sometimes it’s wiser to turn your back on the tried and tested. Of course, you had better know who’s out there before you try anything. A PD who doesn’t study his audience and community is like a racecar driver who doesn’t familiarize himself with the track. Both can end up off the road and out of the race.

THE PD AND THE MUSIC

Not all radio stations have a music director. The larger the station, the more likely it is to have such a person. In any case, it is the PD who is ultimately responsible for the music that goes over the air, even when the position of music director exists. The duties of the music director vary from station to station. Although the title suggests that the individual performing this function would supervise the station’s music programming from the selection and acquisition of records to the preparation of playlists, this is not always the case. At some stations, the position is primarily administrative or clerical in nature, leaving the PD to make the major decisions concerning airplay. In this instance, one of the primary duties of the music director might be to improve service from distributors representing the recorded music industry to keep the station well supplied with the latest releases.

Stations in smaller markets historically haven’t been adequately serviced by record labels with new music releases and thus rely on subscription services such as HitDisc from TM Studios or Top Hits U.S.A. from RPM Inc. to fill in the gaps in their music libraries. TM Studio’s Greg Clancy explains:

As new songs break on the charts, stations require the audio to put these songs on the air. Our HitDisc service is a delivery vehicle that assists the labels and artists by getting the music to the stations for play.

Over the years the music industry and the radio medium have formed a mutually beneficial alliance. It’s been said that “politics makes strange bedfellows.” That sentiment also has been often applied in describing the symbiotic, love/hate relationship that exists between the radio broadcasting and recorded music industries. Without the product provided by the recording companies, radio would find itself with little in the way of programming material, insofar as 90% of U.S. stations feature recorded music. At the same time, radio serves as the principal means by which the recording industry gets word of its new releases to the general public. Succinctly put, radio sells recorded music.

Radio stations seldom pay for their music (CDs or audio files). Recording companies at no charge offer download links or send demos of their new product to most stations in return for the publicity that stations provide by playing the tunes. But stations must pay annual licensing fees to performing rights organizations (PROs) to broadcast the copyrighted compositions of the organizations’ members. Terrestrial, satellite, and online radio stations almost universally contract with as many as four PROs to manage licensing and payments for the legal public performance of copyrighted compositions: the American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers (ASCAP), Broadcast Music Incorporated (BMI), and SESAC (known formerly as the Society of European Stage Authors and Composers; the organization’s website says this full name is no longer in use) represent the legal interests of thousands of composers and publishers whose works are performed on stations. In the time since the previous edition of this book went to press, a fourth PRO, Global Music Rights (GMR), emerged, attracting into its fold an impressive number of copyright holders of some of pop music’s most noteworthy compositions.

Stations collectively negotiate through the industry’s Radio Music Licensing Committee (RMLC) with the PROs to establish fair and just licensing fees. ASCAP and BMI, the organizations with the largest membership rosters, are fee-based, with payments determined according to station revenue. Both PROs offer a “blanket” license for music stations that “covers” stations’ usage of all compositions within the organizations’ catalogs. In the case of ASCAP, the amount paid by AM and FM stations at this writing was 1.7% of annual gross income. According to ASCAP, noncommercial radio stations “pay an annual fee determined by the U.S. Copyright Office.”

FIGURE 3.27
BMI is one of four prominent performing rights organizations (PROs)

Source: Courtesy of BMI

Licensing fees range from a few hundred dollars at small, noncommercial, educational stations to tens of thousands of dollars at large, commercial, metromarket stations. The payments made by stations are then distributed to the composers and publishers of the songs that were broadcast in accordance with formulas established by each PRO. Inside Radio cites results of an academic study that estimated that terrestrial stations in 2014 paid a collective sum of $382 million in royalties to ASCAP, BMI, and SESAC. Contrary to public perception, financial compensation for performing artists and musicians is available only to those who also compose and publish songs that receive “public performance” credit via airplay on terrestrial stations. In fact, for almost seven decades broadcasters have regarded the publicity for performers and their record labels generated by airplay as equitable compensation.

When framing the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA), Congress moved in a new direction with respect to the matter of artist compensation. Passed in 1998, the DMCA requires owners of online music streaming websites, including those of broadcast stations and pureplays such as Pandora, to obtain licenses for the legal permission to disseminate copyrighted compositions and recordings. Permission was required not only for the right to stream copyrighted music recordings but also for commercials in which the vocal talents of union members was utilized. Securing these rights necessitated the payment of fees additional to the amounts paid to the PROs for the performance rights associated with the streaming of copyrighted compositions. In sum, the obligation of stations to compensate composers, publishers, and, now, performers and record labels, was one that many of the pioneer online webcasters was not prepared to meet. The unforeseen financial burden produced a chilling effect on the nascent online radio industry. As a result, operators of numerous stations who were unable or unwilling to pay up elected instead to shutter their webstreams.

Since 2007 the recorded music industry has advocated passage of legislation that would levy what has been termed a “performance tax” on stations that would be collected and distributed to the community of musicians and record labels. Passage of this legislation would bring about a sea change in the industry, obligating station owners for the first time in the 80-plus-year history of the medium to pay royalties to artists for terrestrial broadcasts of copyrighted recordings. The National Association of Broadcasters (NAB) as of this writing has successfully lobbied against the measure, citing the promotional value that radio broadcasting afforded the recorded music industry as sufficient compensation and hinting to the potential for job cutbacks at the local station level if the legislation passes.

FIGURE 3.28
Protecting artists’ income and rights

Source: Courtesy of SoundExchange

In a move that attracted industry attention, Clear Channel Communications (known today as iHeartMedia) announced in 2012 that it had agreed to share a percentage of its broadcast revenues with Nashville record label Big Machine in return for label consideration. Clear Channel said it anticipated the deal with the label, and its roster of high-profile artists including Taylor Swift, Tim McGraw, and Rascal Flatts, would propel the growth of its online content aggregator app. The company subsequently struck deals with other labels. Other prominent corporate owners, notably Entercom, Greater Media, and Beasley Broadcast Group Inc., followed suit, negotiating sharing agreements with record labels. CBS Radio created the position director/music initiatives, whose responsibilities include creating partnerships with labels for the purpose of promoting established and developing artists. These relationship-development announcements are strong indicators that the two industries were interested in discovering the mutual benefits that can accrue as a result of partnership agreements.

MANAGING THE MUSIC LIBRARY

When music arrives at the station, whether it is in physical or electronic form, the music director (sometimes more appropriately called the music librarian or music assistant) processes the recordings through the system. This may take place after the PD has screened them. The following passage describes the processes for storing and retrieving songs. For a detailed description of how music directors identify and evaluate newly released and recurrent recordings see Chapter 6. After the decision is made to add a tune to the library, the song is categorized and indexed, typically in accordance with station-defined parameters. Programmer Jon Lutes suggests this approach to the classifications of songs, designating music categories in the following manner: new music, medium current, hot current, hot recurrent, medium recurrent, bulk recurrent, power gold, secondary gold, tertiary gold, and so forth. It must be emphasized that each station approaches cataloging in its own fashion as there are no FCC rules that speak to this activity.

Here is a simple example. An AC outlet receives an album by a popular female vocalist whose last name begins with an L. The PD auditions the album and decides to place three cuts into regular on-air rotation. The music director then assigns the cuts the following catalog numbers: L106/U/F, L106/D/F, and L106/M/F. L106 indicates where the album may be located in the library, either in a physical storage location or in a software database. In this case, the library is set up alphabetically and then numerically within the given letter that represents the artist’s last name. In other words, this would be the 106th album found in the section reserved for female vocalists whose names begin with an L. The next symbol indicates the pace (termed “tempo”) of the cut: U(p) tempo, D(own) tempo, and M(edium) tempo. Subcategorizing songs by tempo enables the programmer to adjust the pacing of the presentation. The F that follows the tempo symbol indicates the artist’s gender: female. Playlists are then assembled and stored as a log file for playout in automated or live-assist facilities or printed for use in stations operated manually by the deejays. Software executes the playout of songs, selecting them from an internal music-rotation database.

The number of companies selling both hardware and software designed for playout offers great choice to programmers. Among the computerized music systems, RCS GSelector Micropower Corporation’s Powergold, MusicMaster, Music 1, and Natural Music from Broadcast Software International are some of the most successful and widely used. Billboard, in both its print and online versions, and Mediabase remain valued sources of music industry information. Format-specific chart and artist information can be found on the All Access Music Group website and in its emailed newsletters.

FIGURE 3.29
RCS Selector2Go, mobile program scheduling software for use across all web platforms and devices

Source: Courtesy of RCS

FIGURE 3.30
Frank Bell

Source: Courtesy of Frank Bell

ADVICE TO PROGRAMMERS

Frank Bell

Rule 1: Follow the Listeners, Not the Format

So many people in radio get caught up in terms such as CHR, hot AC, alternative, and active rock that they lose track of their goal: finding listeners. Consumers of radio think in terms of “what I like” and “what I don’t like.” By researching your listeners’ tastes and giving them what they want (as opposed to what fits the industry’s definition of what they should have), you’ll maximize your chances for success.

Rule 2: Think Outside In, Not Inside Out

The fact that one company may now own several stations in a market and is capable, for example, of skewing one FM toward younger females and the other toward older females does not mean that you will automatically “dominate females.” The only reality that counts is that of the listener. If listeners feel your station serves a meaningful purpose for them, they will happily consume your product and cast their vote in your favor if approached by a ratings company. If they believe you are simply duplicating what is already available elsewhere on the dial, you will be doomed to ratings obscurity.

Rule 3: Early to Bed, Early to Rise, Advertise, Advertise, Advertise

In the ratings game, the dominant issue is “top-of-mindness,” regardless of whether Nielsen is measuring unaided recall with diaries or actual behavior with Personal People Meters. The best way to get that is through advertising your name and your station’s benefits on your own air and on any other medium you can afford. Just for fun, here’s a diagram I sometimes use to show first-time PDs the various factors that influence their station’s ratings:

X is what your station does. Y is what your direct competitors do. A represents “environmental” factors in the market, such as what’s on TV during the survey, riots, floods, earthquakes, and major sporting events. B is what the rating service does. In the case of Nielsen, this would include the response rate, editing procedures, and distribution of respondents by race, age, and sex. The most important thing to understand is that, as PD, the only part of the equation you can control is X. Do the best you can to keep your station sounding compelling, entertaining, and focused on its target audience, and don’t get an ulcer over those elements you can’t control.

___________________

After graduating from American University in 1977, Frank Bell embarked on a radio adventure covering 33 years and hundreds of successful stations. Beginning as an on-air talent, he bought his first radio station with some friends at age 25 and later applied those programming, research and marketing skills as a corporate executive on behalf of privately owned companies such as Keymarket Communications and publicly traded Sinclair Communications and Cumulus Media. In 2010, he joined 13 Management in Nashville to oversee radio station and record label relations for international superstar Taylor Swift.

THE PD AND THE FCC

The government is especially interested in the way a station conducts itself on the air. For instance, the PD makes certain that his or her station is properly identified once an hour, as close to the top of the hour as possible. The ID must include the station’s call letters and the town in which it has been authorized to broadcast. Failure to properly identify the station is a violation of FCC rules.

Other on-air rules that the PD must address have to do with program content and certain types of features. For example, profane language, obscenity, sex- and drug-related statements, and even innuendos in announcements, conversations, or music lyrics can jeopardize the station’s license. The FCC prohibits indecent broadcasts during certain hours of the day, and the cost for violating this rule can cost the station dearly. For example, in 2006, the Commission raised the maximum charge for offenses in this category from $32,500 to $325,000 per violation. Adjustments for inflation are made periodically, and as a result the penalty increased to approximately $383,000 in 2016. Complaints from the public about indecency on TV outnumber those lodged against radio broadcasters and the FCC tends not to impose the penalty maximum amount. Political messages and station editorials are carefully scrutinized by the programmer. On-air contests and promotions must not resemble lotteries in which the audience must invest to win. A station that gets something in return for awarding prizes is subject to punitive actions. Contest rules must be clearly delineated and publicized, although in 2015 the FCC began permitting stations to disclose rule information on their websites instead of over their airwaves, provided that stations announced to listeners the web URL where the information had been published. PD eyes and ears must be attentive to station promotions that create hoaxes, which could endanger public safety.

No one associated with the station may receive payment for plugging a song or album on the air. This constitutes “payola” or “plugola” and was the cause of great industry upheaval in the late 1950s. Today, PDs and station managers continue to be particularly careful to guard against any recurrence, although there have been charges that such practices still exist. In fact, in the mid-2000s the FCC began a formal investigation into payola allegations against four major radio groups: CBS Radio, Clear Channel, Entercom, and Citadel. It was the largest federal inquiry since the payola scandals prompted congressional hearings in 1960. Indeed, PDs must be vigilant of this illegal practice, which seems impervious to eradication.

The PD must monitor both commercial and noncommercial messages to ensure that no false, misleading, or deceptive statements are aired, and that sponsors and endorsers are properly identified, including so-called “pay-for-play” arrangements. Additionally, it is the PD’s responsibility to ensure that the content of station promotional messages excludes any distortion of the station’s ratings survey results. A station that is not number one and claims to be is lying to the public as far as the FCC is concerned, and such behavior is not condoned. The PD should uphold the public interest standard, maintaining a proportion of entertainment to nonentertainment (news and public affairs features) programming. The PD helps maintain the station’s Emergency Alert System (EAS), making certain that proper announcements are made on the air and that the testing protocol is followed. PDs also instruct personnel in the proper procedures used when conducting on-air telephone conversations to guarantee that the rights of callers are not violated.

The station log (which ultimately is the chief engineer’s responsibility) and program log (no longer required by the FCC but maintained, at least for a brief period of time, by most stations anyway) are examined by the PD for accuracy. In addition, the station manager may assign the PD the responsibility for maintaining records in the station’s public inspection file. If so, the PD must be fully aware of what documents the file is required to contain, and where to preserve them. In 2017 the FCC voted to eliminate its requirement that stations maintain in the PI file paper copies of letters and emails received from the public. The FCC and many state broadcast associations will provide station operators with a public inspection file checklist upon request. This information is available in the Code of Federal Regulations (47CFR73.3526) as well.

Additional programming areas of interest to the FCC include procedures governing rebroadcasts and subcarrier activities. The PD also must be aware that the government is keenly interested in employment practices. The programmer, station manager, and other department heads are under an obligation to familiarize themselves with equal employment opportunity (EEO) and affirmative action rules. An annual employment report must be sent to the FCC. Personnel associated with noncommercial stations have the additional responsibility of complying with “underwriting” regulations and the on-air acknowledgments of contributors. The FCC draws a line between announcements that merely acknowledge contributing businesses from those that cross the line and promote them.

FIGURE 3.31
Cover image of Radio Rules!

Source: Courtesy of National Association of Broadcasters

Detailed information about FCC regulations and practices of specific interests to programmers and air talent employed by commercial radio stations may be found in the publication Radio Rules! A Guide to FCC Policies and Procedures for On-Air Staff. Published by the National Association of Broadcasters (NAB) and available from the NAB Store at nabstore.com, Radio Rules! is a concise reference document that examines more than two dozen topics related to programming and internal operations of commercial radio stations.

THE PD AND UPPER MANAGEMENT

The pressures of the PD’s position should be apparent by now. The station or cluster programmer knows well that his or her job entails satisfying the desires of many—the audience, government, air staff, and, of course, management. The relationship between the PD and the station or corporation’s upper echelon is not always serene or without incident. Although their alliance is usually mutually fulfilling and productive, difficulties can and do occur when philosophies or practices clash. Radio legend Dick Fatherly summarized the delicate nature of the PD–GM relationship:

Most inhibiting and detrimental to the PD is the GM who lacks a broad base of experience but imposes his opinions on you anyway. The guy who has come up through sales and has never spent a minute in the studio can be a real thorn in the side. Without a thorough knowledge of programming, management should rely on the expertise of that person hired who does. I don’t mean, “Hey, GM, get out of the way!” what I’m saying is, don’t impose programming ideas and policies without at least conferring with that individual who ends up taking the heat if the air product fails to bring in the listeners.

Station manager Chuck Ducoty contends that managers can enhance as well as inhibit the programmer’s style:

I’ve worked for some managers who give their PDs a great deal of space and others who attempt to control every aspect of programming. From the station manager’s perspective, I think the key to a good experience with those who work for you is to find excellent people from the start and then have enough confidence in your judgment to let them do their job with minimal interference. Breathing down the neck of the PD is just going to create tension and resentment.

Programmer Peter Falconi believes that both the PD and the manager should make a sincere effort to get to know and understand one another:

You have to be on the same wavelength, and there has to be an excellent line of communication. When a manager has confidence and trust in his PD, he’ll generally let him run with the ball. It’s a two-way street. Most problems can be resolved when there is honesty and openness.

Programmer Andy Bloom offers this observation: “Great upper management hires the best players, gives them the tools to do their job, and then leaves them alone. A winning formula.” An adversarial relationship between the station’s PD and upper management does not have to exist. The station that cultivates an atmosphere of cooperation and mutual respect seldom becomes embroiled in skirmishes that deplete energy—energy better spent raising revenues and ratings.