CHARACTERISTICS OF AM AND FM STATIONS

AM and FM stations are located at different points in the electromagnetic spectrum: AM stations are assigned frequencies between 540 and 1700 kHz on the standard broadcast band, and FM stations are located between 88.1 and 107.9 MHz on the FM band.

Ten kilohertz (kHz) separate the carrier frequencies of AM stations and there are 200 kHz separations between FM station frequencies. FM broadcasters additionally are permitted to provide a secondary content delivery channel, termed a “subsidiary communications authority (SCA)” transmission, to subscribers on a small portion of their frequency allocations.

FIGURE 9.1
As seen from ground level, an FM transmitting antenna mounted at the top of a tower. Compare with Figure 9.5, which depicts the transmitting antenna from sky level

Source: Courtesy of Thomas A. White

FIGURE 9.2
AM signal radiation

Source: From FCC Broadcast Operator’s Handbook, Figure 3-2

FIGURE 9.3
Nondirectional and directional antenna radiation

Source: From FCC Broadcast Operator’s Handbook, Figure 7-2

The appeal of FM over AM during the years of its development in the 1950s and ‘60s was that the larger channel width provided FM listeners a better opportunity to fine-tune their favorite stations as well as to receive broadcasts in stereo. To achieve parity, AM broadcasters developed a way to transmit in stereo, and by 1990 hundreds were doing so. The fine-tuning edge still belongs to FM, because its sidebands (15 kHz) are three times wider than AM’s (5 kHz).

FM transmission occurs at a much higher frequency (millions of cycle alternations, termed Hertz, per second) compared to AM (thousands of cycles per second). In operating at such a high frequency, FM is immune to the low-frequency energy emissions that plague AM. Although a car motor or an electric storm will generally interfere with AM reception, FM is static-free. Broadcast engineers have attempted to improve the quality of the AM band, but the basic nature of the lower frequency makes AM simply more prone to interference than FM. Broadcasters on the FM band see this as a key competitive advantage and referred to AM’s ill-fated move in the 1980s to stereo as “stereo with static.”

Station Classifications

To guarantee the efficient use of the broadcast spectrum, the FCC established a classification system for both AM and FM stations. Under this system, the nation’s 17,000-plus commercial, noncommercial and low-power radio outlets operate free of the debilitating interference that plagued broadcasters prior to passage of the Radio Act of 1927. According to the FCC:

The AM band frequencies are divided into three categories: Clear, Regional, and Local channels. The allowable classes depend on a station’s frequency, in addition to other variables. On the Clear channels certain stations are specifically classified as Class A stations or as Class B stations. The other stations have their class determined by their frequency.

AM classifications are as follows:

•Class A Station. A Class A station is an unlimited time station (that is, it can broadcast 24 hours per day) that operates on a clear channel. The operating power shall not be less than 10 kilowatts (kW) or more than 50 kW.

•Class B Station. A Class B station is an unlimited time station. Class B stations are authorized to operate with a minimum power of 0.250 kW (250 watts) and a maximum power of 50 kW. (If a Class B station operates with less than 0.250 kW, the RMS must be equal to or greater than 141 mV/m at 1 km at the actual power.) If the station is authorized to operate in the expanded band (1610 to 1700 kHz), the maximum power is 10 kW.

•Class C Station. A Class C station is an unlimited time station that operates on a local channel. The power shall not be less than 0.25 kW nor more than 1 kW. Class C stations that are licensed to operate with 0.100 kW may continue to operate as licensed.

•Class D Station. A Class D station operates either daytime, limited time, or unlimited time with a nighttime power less than 0.250 kW and an equivalent RMS antenna field less than 141 mV/m at 1 km. Class D stations shall operate with daytime powers not less than 0.250 kW nor more than 50 kW. NOTE: If a station is an existing daytime-only station, its class will be Class D.

Part 73, Section 73.21 of the Code of Federal Regulations provides more details on AM station classifications.

FCC efforts to mitigate situations for certain stations that either were creating or affected by excessive interference resulted in the allocation of new AM band space. Termed the expanded band, the frequencies between 1610 and 1700 kHz were reallocated by the FCC for the purpose of allowing certain stations to migrate from the existing standard band to less-congested dial positions with lowered potential for electrical interference. During the period 1997–98 the FCC issued permits for expanded band operation to 65 stations.

FIGURE 9.4
FM station classes

Source: Courtesy of the Federal Communications Commission

FIGURE 9.5
An FM transmitting antenna, as viewed from its tower position 700 feet above ground. The antenna structure consists of 12 elements (bays) that enable the station to achieve an effective radiated power (ERP) of 100 kW

Source: Courtesy of Thomas A. White

FIGURE 9.6
FM transmitters of power capacities ranging from 3.5 to 40 kW

Source: Courtesy of Nautel

FIGURE 9.7
Amplitude modulated (AM) carrier

Source: From FCC Broadcast Operator’s Handbook, Figure 5-2

FIGURE 9.8
Frequency modulated (FM) carrier

Source: From FCC Broadcast Operator’s Handbook, Figure 5-4.

In the 1980s the FCC reclassified the FM channels, introducing new classes of FM stations under its Docket 80–90 proceeding in an attempt to provide several hundred additional frequencies. More subclasses were added later. All antenna height designations refer to maximum height above average terrain (HAAT). They are as follows:

•Class C: These stations transmit with up to 100 kW of effective radiated power (ERP) from an antenna of no more than 600 meters in height.

•Class C0: These stations transmit with up to 100 kW of effective radiated power (ERP) from an antenna of no more than 450 meters in height.

•Class C1: Stations granted licenses to operate within this classification may be authorized to transmit up to 100 kW ERP with antennas not exceeding 299 meters. The maximum reach of stations in this class is about 50 miles.

•Class C2: The operating parameters of stations in Class C2 are close to Class Bs. The maximum power granted Class C2 outlets is 50 kW, and antennas may not exceed 150 meters. Class C2 stations reach approximately 35 miles.

•Class C3: These stations operate with shorter antenna height (100 meters) and with power that does not exceed 25 kW ERP. Class C3 signals extend approximately 24 miles.

•Class B: These stations operate with an antenna height of 150 meters and with power that does not exceed 50kW ERP. The reach of Class B signals is approximately 33 miles.

•Class B1: The maximum antenna height permitted for Class B1 stations (100 meters) is identical to Class As; however, Class B1s are higher-powered, and are permitted a maximum 25 kW ERP. Class B1 signals carry 25–30 miles.

•Class A: The maximum antenna height permitted for Class A stations is 100 meters. Class A stations are permitted a maximum 6 kW ERP. Class A signals carry approximately 16 miles.

Low-Power FM (LPFM) station classifications include the following:

•Class L1: 50–100 W ERP with a maximum antenna height of 30 meters.

•Class L2: 1–10 W ERP with a maximum antenna height of 30 meters.

At the time of this writing the FCC had been petitioned to create a new Class C4. The petition proposed allowing stations to operate with a maximum effective radiated power of 12,000 watts with a maximum antenna height of 328 feet. In recognition of the ongoing revisions made to FM classifications, readers are encouraged to consult Section 73.211 of the Code of Federal Regulations for the most current specifications.

FIGURE 9.9
FM transmitter modulation percentages are displayed on this monitor

Source: Courtesy of Entercom Radio Memphis

FIGURE 9.10
Engineer refers to visual display prior to adjusting transmitter operating parameters

Source: Courtesy of Nautel

FM Translators

An ancillary class of low-power FM transmitters, termed translators or boosters by the FCC serves to supplement the coverage of certain FM stations. The FCC authorized the use of translators in 1970 to extend the range of FM stations whose signal penetration was compromised by factors such as mountainous terrain. Generally, translators may not originate programming. Rather, they are intended for simultaneously rebroadcasting the programming of the originating FM station, although on a different frequency, in order to extend the signal to unserved areas. Commercial stations may rebroadcast only on the channels set aside for commercial broadcasting (92.1–107.9 mHz), whereas noncommercial stations are permitted to utilize any FM frequency ranging from 88.1 to 107.9 mHz. Translators are limited to 250 watts maximum of effective radiated power (ERP). Antenna height, another factor that determines signal coverage, varies according to specific conditions and circumstances.

FIGURE 9.11
The difference between the two bands

Source: Courtesy of Brian Belanger, Radio and Television Museum

FIGURE 9.12
Devices pictured at the top use IP connections to deliver audio in a Studio/Transmitter Link (STL) array. Also pictured along the bottom are mixer-style encoders and smartphone apps for relaying audio from the remote site to studio-based receivers

Source: Courtesy of Tieline

In October 2015, the FCC announced details of its “AM Revitalization” initiative for breathing new life into the beleaguered AM band. In observing that a quarter-century had passed since the last effort to prop up the AM band occurred, FCC Media Bureau Chief Bill Lake wrote:

AM radio has traditionally been the backbone of the broadcast service, and has time and again kept the public entertained and informed, as well as serving a vital role in times of emergency, disaster and severe weather. The Commission’s goal is to assist AM broadcasters in the face of increasing technical challenges to their service, such as interference from electronic devices.

In an effort to advance its “fundamental goals of localism, competition and diversity in broadcast media,” the FCC stated its intentions for widening the usage of FM translators by AM stations. Characteristically lower-powered AM stations licensed in Classes C and D immediately became eligible to apply for assistance by seeking permission to modify and/or relocate FM translators. Just six months after the announcement, applicants filed more than 600 requests to relocate FM translators. Media Bureau Chief Lake noted that the Commission acted on the applications expediently, granting permission to 80% of AM station licensees seeking this new lease on life. At the time of this writing the FCC had scheduled a window in summer 2017 for accepting additional translator applications from AM stations.

DIGITAL AUDIO BROADCASTING (HD RADIO TECHNOLOGY)

The Federal Communication Commission decided in 2002 on a technology referred to as “in-band, on-channel” (IBOC) for digital AM and FM broadcasting. IBOC enables stations to operate in a “hybrid” mode, simultaneously transmitting over their existing frequency assignments both analog and digital signals. Digital manipulation codifies the analogous audio signal into data for broadcast. The reason for the transformation is simple: better and more-evolved sound. Broadcast stations employ digital technology in order to compete with audio alternatives, such as MP3 players, satellite radio, and mobile music services.

The advantage is that no additional frequency spectrum is required for implementing the digital signal. A unique feature of IBOC is its ability to support multiple transmission channels. Thus, while the main digital channel replicates the programming heard on the station’s original analog primary channel, two additional digital FM channels are available for transmitting alternate program content.

In its decision the FCC approved iBiquity Digital Corporation as the sole provider of IBOC technology. iBiquity developed and branded its system as HD Radio and licensed its technology to broadcasters in the United States, Mexico, and other countries. In 2015 the audio technology company dts purchased iBiquity. One year later dts was acquired by Xperi Corporation.

FIGURE 9.13
Audio processor for FM and HD. By managing a broadcast signal’s audio equalization, this device enhances a station’s sound, making it clearer, louder and more sonically pleasant

Source: Courtesy of the Telos Alliance

The term “HD Radio” itself is not an abbreviation of the term “high-definition radio.” Initially, iBiquity qualified the terminology, explaining on its website that “‘HD Radio and the HD Radio logo are proprietary trademarks of iBiquity Digital Corporation. The ‘HD’ in HD Radio is part of iBiquity Digital’s brand name for its advanced digital AM/FM system.” Furthermore, the site informed readers, “It does not mean hybrid digital or high-definition digital; both of these are incorrect.”

Although the present system of analog broadcasting essentially replicates sound waves (with inherent shortcomings), the digital broadcasting process converts sound waves into a low-bandwidth data bitstream. In digital, sound waves are sampled, and then are assigned numeric values (zeroes or ones) and become coded pulses. Simply put, in digital, sounds are mathematically quantified. Digital broadcasting is capable of achieving greater frequency response and dynamic range than is possible with analog transmission, notably AM. Thus, more audio information is conveyed to the listener, who hears more. Another positive feature from the broadcast operator’s perspective is the fact that digital signals do not require as much power as analog signals do.

Because the technology is incompatible with existing AM/FM radios, listeners must acquire technology-compatible HD Radio receivers in order to access the digital signal. During the first decade of HD Radio broadcasting some observers expected the existing analog system of AM and FM broadcasting to become passé. This has yet to occur, and presently there are predictions that analog broadcasting will be around for a few more years. Speculators suggest also that, if digital becomes the preeminent broadcasting system, analog AM and FM stations will still be out there—that is, until the FCC no longer perceives them as providing a viable service. Press reports published in 2017 about the decreasing cost of HD radio transmitting equipment and the increasing number of HD radio-equipped car models suggests an improving future. In any event, the conversion to digital appears to be inevitable. Analog broadcasting will go the way of the turntable.

1.Analog and digital signals sent separately.

2.Signals combined prior to transmission.

3.Composite signal transmitted by station.

4.Multipath distortion only affects analog.

5.Signal compatible with both analog and digital radios—only digital radios receive multicast channels.

FIGURE 9.14
How HD Radio works

Source: © 2013 iBiquity Digital Corporation. Reproduced with permission from iBiquity

SATELLITE AND INTERNET RADIO

Satellite Radio

Satellite radio signals come from more than 22,000 miles out in space. Two companies, Sirius Satellite Radio and XM Satellite Radio, began operating in the early 2000s and merged in 2008. Initially XM Satellite Radio’s initial transponders (two Boeing HS 702 satellites) were set aloft in a geostationary orbit, while Sirius Satellite Radio’s first birds (three SS/L-1300 satellites) rotated in an elliptical pattern, ensuring that each satellite would spend around 16 hours over the United States. The web-based tracking service N2YO.com reports that SiriusXM currently has six active and reserve satellites in geostationary orbit.

VLF (Very Low Frequency) 30 kHz and below	– Maritime use
LF (Low-Frequency) 30 kHz to 300 kHz	– Aeronautical/maritime
MF (Medium Frequency) 300 kHz to 3000 kHz	– AM, amateur, distress, etc.
HF (High Frequency) 3 MHz to 30 MHz	– CB, fax, international, etc.
VHF (Very High Frequency) 30 MHz to 300 MHz	– FM, TV, satellite, etc.
UHF (Ultra High Frequency) 300 MHz to 3000 MHz	– TV, satellite, CB, DAB (proposed), etc.
SHF (Super High Frequency) 3 GHz to 30 GHz	– Satellite, radar, space, etc.
EHF (Extreme High Frequency) 30 GHz to 300 GHz	– Space, amateur, experimental, etc.

FIGURE 9.15
Radio spectrum table

Offering digital radio with sonic performance equivalent to CD sound reproduction, SiriusXM beams satellite radio signals to homes, cars, and portable receivers, serving more than 31 million subscribers. Satellite radio uses the S-band (2.3 GHz) for its digital audio radio service (DARS). Replacement satellites are kept ready for launch in the event of a satellite malfunction. Programming from ground stations is uplinked to the satellites and then relayed to terrestrial end users (subscribers). Receivers unscramble the incoming signals, consisting of approximately 140 channels of programming. In addition, the signals contain encoded data for displaying on receiver screens information about what is being broadcast (artist, song title, etc.). Ground repeaters are employed when needed to strengthen incoming satellite signals. According to former XM Satellite Chief Programmer Lee Abrams, the operation’s technical department consists of four key areas: studios, hardware development, satellites and repeaters, and IT.

FIGURE 9.16
Satellites have limited life expectancies. This table lists both original and replacement SiriusXM satellites

Source: Courtesy of www.n2yo.com

Internet Radio

Broadcasts of radio programming have been available over the Internet since the 1990s. There are two types of Internet radio stations: those operated by broadcast stations and those that exist solely online. In the first category, stations typically simulcast their broadcast signals over the Internet. The second category of Internet stations is typically more eclectic in its programming offerings because the formatting constraints prevalent in broadcast radio do not exist in the independent outlets.

Thanks to the Internet, college radio is experiencing a surge of interest. Institutions can avoid the hurdle of obtaining FCC licensing and can establish Internet-only (I-O) stations at minimal expense. Backbone Networks Corporation is an example of a company that assists college broadcasters in navigating the technological waters of online radio. The company oversees the technical aspects of station streaming, thus enabling students and staff to focus their time and energies on program development. Paul Kamp, vice-president for business development and in-house counsel for Backbone, cites expense containment as the allure of online radio. He observes,

Internet economics is helping to drive the shift toward Internet radio. A new station does not need to apply for an FCC license or purchase or lease time on a broadcast tower for broadcasting in a particular region. They only need to have the ability to generate and manage 168 hours of programming a week and all that it entails.

Unlike traditional terrestrial stations, whose reach and operating parameters are limited, technology imposes no geographical limitations in Internet radio.

FIGURE 9.17
Compact, rack-mounted webcasting equipment processes, encodes, and streams digital audio

Source: Courtesy of the Telos Alliance

However, in certain instances, broadcasters have proactively restricted access to their online streams, making access available only to listeners located within the station’s terrestrial coverage area—a practice termed geo-fencing. Broadcasters adopted the practice as a means for minimizing expenses. Because geo-fencing limits the availability of streams to listeners within defined geographic areas the expense associated with streaming copyrighted music recordings can be reduced.

FIGURE 9.18
Radio Wave: bundled hardware/software equipment package for Internet radio stations. This system supports both live and fully automated (unattended) operation

Source: Courtesy of Radio Wave/Arrakis Systems

With Internet access, anyone almost anywhere can enjoy listening to Internet radio. An Internet station emanating from Dayton, Ohio, may be heard in Bangkok, Thailand, and tens of thousands of broadcasts are available. Kamp explains the magnitude of scale thus:

The worldwide broadcast capability of Internet radio enables the broadcaster to broadcast to a targeted niche and still have a large audience. For example, you may only be able to reach one million listeners in the greater Dayton, Ohio, area with a Polka broadcast. Yet you can reach more than one billion people with an Internet radio station.

Unlike terrestrial and satellite radio, Internet radio has the capability of providing a full range of visual data, such as photos, text, video, and links. Interactive opportunities add further cachet to the medium’s appeal. “As Internet radio grows outside of music radio and into other types of content,” Kamp notes, formats such as “Talk, Public Radio, Sports and other specialized content that is created or owned by the station’s Internet radio should find some substantial growth and provide some interesting programming.”

The process of distributing an Internet radio signal is not complex. Internet radio operations possess an encoding computer, which converts the audio into data packets that are routed to an end user’s Internet-connected device. In the span of just more than a decade, Internet radio escaped its desktop computer tether. “In the early 1990s,” Kamp explains, “you needed a computer with high speed Internet access to decode the streams in order to listen. Today the Internet is available on a myriad of devices like smartphones, tablets, and specialized Internet radio receivers made by traditional home audio manufacturers.”

FIGURE 9.19
Internet radio receiver features preset tuning selection

Broadcasters are turning to the Internet as a reliable and economical way to insert their stations into on-the-scene coverage of local community events. Remote broadcasting, according to Kamp, is easily accomplished because the Internet has lowered the barriers to entry:

Internet or cloud-based solutions enable a very small remote system to be sent to the field instead of provisioning an ISDN line in the past. This frees the broadcasters from their studio, enabling them to go out into the community to broadcast events. This allows the broadcaster to get back to serving their community.

FIGURE 9.20
Randy Williams

BEHIND THE SCENES: ENGINEERING A NATIONWIDE COLLEGIATE SPORTS NETWORK

Randy Williams

Learfield Communications is a diverse company and respected industry leader in collegiate sports marketing, sponsorship rights, brand management and game-day productions for nearly 125 collegiate institutions, conferences and arenas across the United States. In addition, Learfield also provides its collegiate partners access to professional concessions and ticket sales; licensing and trademark consulting; digital and social platform expertise; and venue technology systems through its affiliated companies. Learfield’s technical operations center (TOC) and game-day production facility is located in Jefferson City, Missouri; corporate headquarters and the senior- level management team is located in Dallas, Texas.

Through its multimedia rights agreements, Learfield creates, maintains, and grows a collegiate sports network of affiliated radio stations that broadcast many or all products offered. This can encompass NCAA football, basketball, women’s basketball, volleyball, hockey, soccer, lacrosse, baseball, and softball games, as well as the related weekly one-hour coach’s call-in show. Learfield will originate coverage of these events “live” from a local venue on or near the college/university campus and distribute the complete hosted product to all affiliated stations. Learfield partners with network television entities and local television stations for the “video” or television transmission side of the business, but handles all radio broadcasts internally.

A radio broadcast team consisting of a technical engineer and talent (play-by-play voice of the network and commentators) will arrive at the stadium/arena or local venue and set up the technical aspects of the broadcast. This crew will have a fully outfitted radio remote broadcast equipment package for interfacing with Learfield’s TOC. Technology has evolved and improved over the years, but the main sources of connectivity between the local venue and the TOC continue to be through use of ISDN (integrated systems digital network), and IP (Internet protocol).

Both ISDN and IP connections require a “codec” device on each end: one at the live venue, and the other at the Learfield TOC. These devices are encoding/decoding units that convert audio signals into digital packets and transmit these data over a dedicated, high-quality telephone circuit. These circuits and codec devices allow two-way communication between TOC operators and talent at the stadium. Emergency backup systems are also installed, often over cellular or Wi-Fi devices in case of primary connection failures.

The remote crew at the venue will connect these ISDN/IP codecs and backup systems to a portable mixing console, wireless transmitters and receivers for roaming field reporters, headphone amplifiers, and crowd/effects microphones for capturing natural sounds to provide a full package of live event sound. The local venue engineer will mix all sources at the stadium/arena and transmit that audio to Learfield TOC over these ISDN and IP connections.

Learfield’s TOC has a staff of engineers, producers, and board operators that manage and monitor all stadium/arena venue audio, and also insert network commercial content, production elements and automation cues for affiliated stations. This “complete broadcast product” is then distributed to all network affiliates either by satellite communication or by Internet stream (or both).

Learfield’s engineering team operates a C-band digital satellite uplink for 35 of its “Power 5 Conference” college/university partnerships. Each affiliate will have a satellite receiver that is programmed and authorized only for the content they are contractually assigned to carry. The outputs of these satellite receivers are routed to a station’s audio output for transmission over AM and FM frequencies. The other method of distribution is over Internet stream, which is utilized as both a backup to the satellite delivery system and also as a primary delivery method to 60+ collegiate partnerships.

Closed circuit broadband distribution (CCBD) is the Learfield-defined term describing distribution over the Internet to affiliate stations. A high-quality, dedicated Internet stream is encoded at Learfield’s TOC in multiple formats ranging from “RTSP” to “HLS” to “ICECAST.” Doing so allows broadcasters multiple choices for taking the broadcast feed in various methods or formats to best suit stations’ needs. A URL address is assigned to a particular network feed, and is locked down with credential access that only the approved affiliate will possess. This step in the process, along with proprietary back-office software, will allow only the intended affiliate to access the audio stream and prevent the general public from accessing it. The affiliated station’s operator will launch an audio player application installed on a studio computer, click on the appropriate URL, and the broadcast will start streaming “live” with minimal Internet delay directly from Learfield TOC.

Both satellite- and CCBD-delivered content is encoded for fully automated operation, and includes cues for stations to run a broadcast “unattended” with no intervention from a board operator at the affiliate station. In today’s radio marketplace, where the need for more streamlined staffing to operate multiple stations simultaneously has become increasingly important, a fully automatable program service is highly desired.

FIGURE 9.21
Learfield logo

Source: Courtesy of Learfield Communications LLC

________________

Randy Williams is Chief Engineer at Learfield.

FIGURE 9.22
Equipment used to receive satellite-delivered programming by station affiliates

Source: Courtesy of Entercom Radio Memphis

BECOMING AN ENGINEER

Most station managers or chief engineers look for experience when hiring technical people. Formal training such as college ranks high but not as high as actual hands-on technical experience. Kevin McNamara, Director of Engineering at Beasley Broadcasting Group, states:

A good electronics background is preferred, of course. This doesn’t necessarily mean ten years of experience or an advanced degree in electronic engineering, but rather a person with a solid foundation in the fundamentals of radio electronics, perhaps derived from an interest in amateur radio, computers, or another hobby of a technical nature. This is a good starting point. Actually, it has been my experience that people with this kind of a background are more attuned to the nature of this business. You don’t need a person with a physics degree from MIT, but what you do want is someone with a natural inclination for the technical side. Ideally speaking, you want to hire a person with a tech history as well as some formal in-class training.

Chief Engineer Jim Puriez concurs:

A formal education in electronics is good, but not essential. In this business if you have the desire and natural interest, you can learn from the inside out. You don’t find that many broadcast engineers with actual electronics degrees. Of course, most have taken basic electronics courses. Most are long on experience and have acquired their skills on the job. While a college degree is a nice credential, I think most managers hire tech people on the basis of experience more than anything else.

Entercom/Memphis Chief Engineer Skip Reynolds says the evolving nature of the business underscores the need for intelligent, skilled technologists. “Broadcasting as we know it is changing rapidly,” he observes, “but the fact remains: radio is a one-to-many medium. That means there will still be transmitters, towers, studios for local origination, and remote facilities for local sporting events. That also means there are a lot of opportunities for engineers!” Reynolds adds,

As you start out you may find the opportunity to specialize a bit, whether it be studio or transmitter maintenance, IT/computers or maybe producing sporting events. You probably will get to participate in larger projects like a studio rebuild or maybe installing a transmitter.

Equally important, in his opinion, is the need for engineers to achieve the delicate balance between work and home. Cultivating positive professional associations with co-workers is important, but it must be achieved without compromising the integrity of relationships with family or succumbing to personal sacrifice. “Above all,” he says, “keep a cheerful and cooperative attitude. Prioritize your work. Be creative by finding better ways to accomplish a goal. Finally, pace yourself by allowing time for yourself and family.”

Station Engineer Sid Schweiger also cites experience as the key criterion for gaining a broadcast engineer’s position:

When I’m in the market for a tech person, I’ll check smaller market stations for someone interested in making the move to a larger station. This way, I’ve got someone with experience right from the start. The little station is a good place for the newcomer to gain experience.

Radio World Editor Paul McLane wrote about the dearth of young people entering the field and the need for specialists with various technical and computer skills: “Fluency never stops. People I respect say radio engineers should learn to think large, and that goes for digital audio and data training.”

Numerous schools and colleges offer formal training in electronics and information technology (IT). The number shrinks somewhat when it comes to those institutions actually providing curricula in broadcast engineering. However, a number of technical schools do offer basic electronics courses applicable to broadcast operations. The Society of Broadcast Engineers (SBE) also provides valuable education and knowledge certification for engineering talent. Members of SBE chapters in markets across the US convene regularly, providing information and education for the novice technician and the advanced engineer alike. A good way to learn more about how to become a station engineer is by contacting a nearby chapter and arranging to attend a meeting. That’s how Luke Lukefahr, IT Engineer for iHeartMedia/St. Louis, found entry into the industry. Lukefahr recalls:

The Society of Broadcast Engineers has helped me immensely. When I attended my first meeting as a student in college I was able to meet a group of engineering professionals that worked in a market that I had only dreamed of working. Meeting so many different engineers allowed me to get my name out and show that even though I was young, I had a passion to learn as much as I could about broadcast engineering. By attending SBE meetings you not only get your name out, you have access to years of knowledge from a group of professional engineers. SBE also offers different educational programs and certifications which help engineers gain more knowledge about current and future broadcasting equipment.

For Lukefahr, SBE membership offers more than education:

What really impressed me about the SBE is that it’s like a family; the engineers that are members are not out for each other’s jobs, they are just a group of people that are there to help. The iHeartMedia engineer that hired me is a member of the chapter where I attended my first meeting. During my first interview he said that he recognized my name. SBE gave me the chance to get my foot in the door. I still attend SBE meetings and I plan on becoming a certified broadcast networking technologist (CBNT).

While affirming his belief in the value of SBE membership, Lukefahr reflects on this early stage of his career, observing, “If I had to go back and change one thing I would have joined SBE during my freshman year of college because I would have become better-rounded in my knowledge of broadcast and IT equipment.”

When deregulation occurred in August 1981, the FCC no longer required that broadcast engineers hold a first-class radiotelephone license. To receive the license, applicants were expected to pass an examination. An understanding of basic broadcast electronics and knowledge of the FCC rules and regulations pertaining to station technical operations were necessary to pass the lengthy examination. Today a station’s chief engineer (also called chief operator) need possess only a restricted operator permit. Those who held first-class certification prior to license elimination now receive either a restricted operator permit or a general radiotelephone license at renewal time.

It is left to the discretion of the individual radio station to establish criteria regarding engineer credentials. Many do require a general radiotelephone license or certification from associations, such as the Society of Broadcast Engineers (SBE) or the National Association of Radio and Telecommunications Engineers (NARTE), as a preliminary means of establishing a prospective engineer’s qualifications.

Communication skills rank highest on the list of personal qualities for station engineers, according to McNamara:

The old stereotype of the station “tech-head” in white socks, chinos, and shirt-pocket pen holder weighed down by its inky contents is losing its validity. Today, more than ever, I think, the radio engineer must be able to communicate with members of the staff from the manager to the deejay. Good interpersonal skills are necessary. Things have become very sophisticated, and engineers play an integral role in the operation of a facility, perhaps more now than in the past. The field of broadcast engineering has become more competitive, too, with the elimination of many operating requirements.

FIGURE 9.23
Paul McLane

Source: Image courtesy of Teresa Castracane Photography

FIGURE 9.24
Radio World is the go-to source of news for radio managers and engineers

Source: Courtesy of Radio World

FIGURE 9.25
Wayne Pecena

THE SOCIETY OF BROADCAST ENGINEERS

Wayne Pecena

The Society of Broadcast Engineers (SBE) was organized in 1964 and is the only member organization solely devoted to furthering and representing the interests of broadcast engineering and related media technology fields. The society represents over 5,000 members in more than 100 local chapters by offering a wide range of services and programs to the radio broadcast, TV broadcast, and media technology community, whether the member be a beginner or experienced professional.

The SBE certification program is one of the most visible programs offered by the Society, with more than 4,000 active certifications in place. Prior to the early 1980s, a Federal Communications Commission (FCC) first-class operators license was the benchmark for substantiating the knowledge and skill level of the broadcast engineer. In 1981, the FCC eliminated the requirement for a broadcast engineer to hold a first-class license. The responsibility for evaluating an engineer’s skill and competence fell on the shoulders of the station license holder. Initiated in 1976, the SBE certification program was developed and has become the premier broadcast technology certification program in the industry. The SBE certification program seeks to raise the status of the broadcast and media technology professional by providing standards for professional competence. The program also seeks to encourage continuation of professional development through recognition of demonstrated knowledge, experience, and responsible conduct.

Annual compensation surveys conducted by SBE have shown that those holding SBE certifications receive higher annual median pay than those noncertified. Results of the SBE 2017 Compensation Survey demonstrated a 27% higher salary for radio technology professionals holding SBE certification.

That SBE National Certification Committee provides oversight and guidance to the SBE certification director, who carries out the program on a daily basis. Fifteen SBE certifications are available, ranging from the beginner operator level to the professional broadcast engineering level, with focus on both radio and TV fields. The certified radio operator (CRO), the certified broadcast technologist (CBT), the certified audio engineer (CEA), the certified senior radio engineer (CSRE), and the certified professional broadcast engineer (CPBE) are among the certification levels offered by the SBE. In addition, specialty endorsements are available in several fields that include AM directional specialist (AMD), 8-VSB specialist (8-VSB), and digital radio broadcast specialist (DRB). The certified broadcast network engineer (CBNE) designation is the latest certification offering and recognizes the importance and growth of information technology in the industry. Demonstration of technical knowledge through a structured testing program is the foundation of all levels of certification. The more advanced certification levels also have experience requirements.

Certifications are valid for a period of five years. Renewal of SBE certifications can be achieved through retesting or through documented participation in continuing education and professional development activities. Certification credit requirements vary based upon the class of certification. Credits are organized in several classes to ensure that well-rounded professional activities are attended and can be earned through participation in a wide variety of activities and events at the national, regional, and local levels. Activities such as attending recognized national conferences, attending regional SBE events, or attending local SBE chapter meetings qualify for certification credit. Credit can be earned by publishing a technical article, delivering a technical presentation, attending a manufacturer technical class, or participating in any SBE continuing education event, whether in-person or online.

Professional development programs are a cornerstone of services offered by the SBE. Programs available include more than 50 online webinars, 15 online SBE University classes, and in-person presentations offered throughout the country. The Ennes Workshop conducted each year during the National Association of Broadcasters (NAB) annual convention is one of the premier professional development offerings of the SBE in cooperation with NAB.

SBE, in cooperation with its Ennes Educational Foundation Trust, presents regional Ennes workshops, which are often sponsored by state broadcast associations or local SBE chapters. These workshops are conducted throughout the year at numerous locations. The Trust memorializes Harold E. Ennes, who authored more than 10 textbooks on broadcast engineering and communications. His work contributed immensely to the establishment of the SBE certification program. In addition to conducting workshops, the Ennes Educational Foundation Trust offers scholarships to deserving candidates who aspire to a career in the technical aspects of broadcasting.

SBE educational programs range from topics of interest to the beginner in the field as well as to those focused on furthering the knowledge of the seasoned broadcast or media technology professional. The three-day SBE leadership development course, held each summer, is a unique professional development program focused on preparing the technology professional for leadership and management roles in the industry.

Additional programs and opportunities offered to the SBE membership include legislative representation, the annual compensation survey, group insurance, frequency-coordination services, and online job-opportunity listing and résumé-posting services. The SBE Store offers a wide range of technology books at discount prices, certification preparation guides (SBE CertPreview), operator handbooks, and numerous SBE logo items. The SBE membership and certification lapel pins are popular items to recognize membership and one’s SBE certification accomplishments.

The broadcast and media technology industry is rapidly changing. The migration of the broadcast technical plant to an informational technology–based infrastructure has been the most dominant technology shift. Many functions of the traditional broadcast plant can now be performed in the “cloud.” The workforce profile is also changing as the broadcast professional is “graying.” The SBE 2017 Compensation Survey indicated that 70% of survey respondents had between 36 and 40 years of experience and ranged in age from 59 to 64. Whereas this aging demographic might present a challenge for an employer who is seeking experienced technology professionals today, it also provides insight into future opportunities for younger persons to enter the industry.

Don’t overlook future opportunities in the technology side of the business. Today, the SBE serves members in a wide range of technology fields ranging from the studio audio production operator to the chief engineer in the radio, TV, cable, and post-production media-related fields. SBE has provided over 50 years of service to these technology fields. It remains well positioned to continue offering services and programs focused on serving the broadcast and media technology communities for the next 50 years.

FIGURE 9.26
Society of Broadcast Engineers logo

Source: Courtesy of SBE

Consider joining the SBE. Student memberships at reduced pricing are available and student members are welcome to participate in local SBE chapters located across the U.S. The SBE website (www.sbe.org) provides a wealth of information regarding SBE programs and services. Stay in touch with the SBE through social media outlets Facebook, LinkedIn, and Twitter. The SBE national office is located in Indianapolis, Indiana, and may be contacted by email at [email protected], by telephone at 317–846–9000, or by mail at:

Society of Broadcast Engineers Inc. 9102 North Meridian Street, Suite 150 Indianapolis, IN 46260

________________

Wayne M. Pecena is the Interim Director of Educational Broadcast Services at Texas A&M University and serves as the Director of Engineering for public broadcasting stations KAMU TV and FM. Pecena has over 40 years of broadcast engineering experience and holds BS and MS degrees from Texas A&M University. He is a fellow of the SBE and holds certified professional broadcast engineer and certified broadcast network engineer certifications with AMD, 8-VSB, and DRB specialty endorsements. Pecena serves as Secretary of the SBE Board of Directors and chairs the Education Committee. The Society recognized him as the 2012 SBE Educator of the Year; in 2014 he was named Radio World “Engineer of the Year.” He is a frequent industry speaker on IP networking topics for broadcast and media technology professionals. Pecena began his career in broadcast engineering as a student technician in 1973 while attending Texas A&M University.

In the aftermath of deregulation the prospective engineer came under even closer scrutiny by station management. The day when a “1st phone” was enough to get an engineering job is gone. There is no direct “ticket” anymore. As in most other areas of radio, skill, experience, and training open the doors the widest.

The landscape of radio changed once again with passage of the Telecommunications Act of 1996. As a result station clusters abound. This means a chief engineer or director of a cluster’s technical operation has formidable responsibilities. Instead of keeping one station on the air, this person may have as many as eight signals to watch over. In cluster operations, there may be several experienced engineers on site or one senior engineer who directs the duties of several techs and producers.

THE EMERGENCY ALERT SYSTEM

Much has changed in the way broadcasters provide information to the public in times of threats to life and property. The Conelrad (for Control of Electromagnetic Radiation) system of public alerting came into existence following World War II as the nation and the world entered the nuclear age. Its 1963 successor, the Emergency Broadcast System (EBS), empowered the U.S. president to take control of electronic communications in the event of war or national emergency. A 1976 revision to the system endorsed its use during state and local emergencies, and in many parts of the U.S. activation of the EBS became commonplace during times of threatening weather. The role of EBS was thus enlarged so as to provide not just the president but also heads of state and local government with a protocol for communicating with the public in the event of a major emergency. By the 1990s, EBS too was viewed as outmoded. Rapid advancement and deployment of digital technologies underscored the need for a next-generation, automated warning system.

FIGURE 9.27
EAS receiver activity, as logged on receiver hardware

Source: Courtesy of Entercom Radio Memphis

FIGURE 9.28
This transmitter user-interface screen offers both local and remote site control capabilities, including the instrumentation and monitoring functions

Source: Courtesy of Nautel

In response in 1994 the FCC announced the Emergency Alert System (EAS) as the successor to the EBS. Initially intended to layer the fundamental mission of the EBS over a modernized distribution system, today the FCC describes EAS on its website as:

a national public warning system that requires broadcasters, cable television systems, wireless cable systems, satellite digital audio radio service (SDARS) providers, and direct broadcast satellite (DBS) providers to provide the communications capability to the President to address the American public during a national emergency. The system also may be used by state and local authorities to deliver important emergency information, such as AMBER alerts and weather information targeted to specific areas.

The FCC, in conjunction with the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s National Weather Service (NWS), implements the EAS at the federal level. The president has sole responsibility for determining when the EAS will be activated at the national level, and has delegated this authority to the director of FEMA. National-level activation of the EAS, tests, and exercises falls under FEMA purview. The NWS develops emergency weather information to alert the public about imminent dangerous weather conditions. The FCC’s role includes prescribing rules that establish technical standards for the EAS, procedures for EAS participants to follow in the event the EAS is activated, and EAS testing protocols. Additionally, the FCC ensures that the EAS state and local plans developed by industry conform to FCC EAS rules and regulations. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) makes funds available to private and commercial stations designated to remain on the air before, during, and after an authentic emergency through the Broadcast Station Protection Plan. Broadcast facilities that cooperatively participate with FEMA in this arrangement are termed primary entry point (PEP) stations. According to the FEMA website:

Primary Entry Point (PEP) stations are private or commercial radio broadcast stations that cooperatively participate with FEMA to provide emergency alert and warning information to the public before, during, and after incidents and disasters. The FEMA PEP stations also serve as the primary source of initial broadcast for a Presidential Emergency Alert Notification (EAN). PEP stations are equipped with backup communications equipment and power generators designed to enable them to continue broadcasting information to the public during and after an event. The Integrated Public Alert and Warning System (IPAWS) Program Management Office (PMO) expanded the number of participating broadcast stations across the nation to directly cover over 90 percent of the U.S. population. PEP station expansion will help ensure that under all conditions the President of the United States can alert and warn the public.

FIGURE 9.29
Rack-mountable LPFM transmitter

Source: Courtesy of Crown Broadcast IREC

EAS administrators continuously seek and embrace enhancements to the system, as well as any relevant innovations and revisions to procedures. A nationwide system test conducted in 2011 revealed weaknesses in the system, notably the fact that some stations were not within the reception range of a PEP station. A subsequent national test occurred in September 2016. On its website FEMA published a list of “key successes” derived from its assessment of the outcomes, including:

•A majority of stations reported a clean, clear, and easily understandable audio message.

•Some stations broadcasting in Spanish were able to select and play the Spanish language version of the test message.

•Use of the National Periodic Test event code allowed the test to occur without alarming the public

•The test elevated public awareness, providing important information on EAS within the landscape of public alert and warning.

Approximately 88% of participating stations nationwide successfully received and relayed the test message.

Another instance of innovation was FEMA’s 2013 addition of Premiere Radio Networks as a PEP facility. Programming supplied by this iHeartmedia-owned subsidiary is estimated to reach more than 190 million listeners each week. In sum, EAS remains a system under scrutiny and evaluation as world events, such as 9/11, the hurricanes Harvey, Irma and Maria, and devastating tornadoes in Alabama, Missouri, and Oklahoma increase the need for an effective emergency alert system. In a related development, the U.S. Senate’s 2017 passage of the Securing Access to Networks in Disasters (SANDy) Act confirmed “first informer” status on radio broadcasters. Dennis Wharton, the National Association of Broadcasters (NAB) Executive Vice-President of Communications, observed,

As Hurricanes Harvey and Irma have demonstrated, hometown radio and TV stations play a lifesaving role as ‘first informers’ during times of emergencies, and this legislation will provide local broadcasters with access to vital resources to stay on the air when disaster strikes.

At the time of press the “SANDy Act” was awaiting President Trump’s signature.

The EAS Operating Handbook states in summary form the actions to be taken by personnel at EAS Participant facilities upon receipt of an EAN (Emergency Action Notification), an EAT (Emergency Action Termination), tests, or state and local area alerts. It is issued by the FCC and contains instructions for the above situations. The publication was last revised in 2017. Stations must maintain the Handbook at normal duty positions or EAS equipment locations when an operator is required to be on duty and it must be immediately available to staff responsible for authenticating messages and initiating actions (see 70 FR 71033, November 25, 2005).

FIGURE 9.30
AM and FM transmitter operating parameters are indicated by this software-based monitoring system. Sensors measure power levels, AM antenna radiating patterns, the integrity of FM transmission-line pressure, and the function of the tower light beacons. This product automatically notifies a station engineer by telephone if any parameter exceeds prescribed tolerances

Source: Courtesy of Entercom Radio Memphis

AUTOMATION

The FCC’s decision in the mid-1960s to require AM/FM operations in markets with populations of more than 100,000 to originate separate programming services 50% of the time provided significant impetus to efforts aimed at automating the radio broadcast. FM stations at this time generally were not profitable. As a result many combo stations, as they were called, had been simulcasting their AM programming over their FM signals to curtail programming expenses. Following more than two decades of the nonduplication prohibition, in the late 1980s the FCC eliminated many of the rules pertaining to this practice. Subsequently a number of stations resorted to simulcasting, this time as a means of coping with the realities of fierce competition and a declining AM market.

FIGURE 9.31
Cover of the 2017 EAS Operating Handbook

Source: Courtesy of the FCC; pdf download available at www.fcc.gov/general/eas-test-reporting-system

One typical response by stations to comply with the nonduplication rule yet keep expenses down was to automate their FM stations. Interestingly, automated FM broadcasts, which generally emphasized the presentation of large blocks of unannounced recordings in contrast to the constant deejay patter characteristic of many AM stations, actually helped the developing medium. FM stations began to assert their “personality,” along the way attracting loyal devotees and attracting advertisers. By the late 1970s FM broadcasting, with its high-fidelity, stereophonic reproduction capabilities, surpassed AM in listenership.

Criss Onan, an active veteran of automation equipment sales and former broadcaster, recalls this time period as an era of reversal of fortunes. With the ascendancy of interest in FM, station owners veered from automation, returning their stations to live-talent operation in pursuit of increased revenues. AM stations, on the other hand, began what was to become a long path of descent, the result of audience defection. Onan recalls:

FIGURE 9.32
This protocol for networking studios provides flexibility for managing operations in station clusters

Source: Courtesy of Wheatstone

The declining listening to AM stations caused owners to investigate more cost-effective ways to produce programming. Programming services were created to utilize lowering satellite time rates to deliver 24/7 long-form music programming in several different formats. Although personal computers (PCs) were relatively expensive, station owners deployed them to insert local advertising spots in satellite program commercial breaks. The FCC’s relaxation of ownership limits spurred increased sales of hard-drive automation systems. Being able to record an advertising spot once and have it instantly available in any studio for any station was much more efficient than having numerous tape decks with multiple tape copies of the same spot.

Prior to the arrival of PC-based automation, purchasing a tape-based, electromechanically operated system represented a substantial economic investment. Automation’s appeal to owners, despite its hefty up-front expense, was economy: its use enabled managers to save money by cutting station staffing expenses. Onan cites the declining cost of PC-based systems as an instigator for the increase in automation utilization. “Today,” he estimates, “almost all stations use hard drive-based automation systems.” Another economic incentive that spurred interest in cost-reducing automation systems, Onan explains, was

the US economic recession in the late 2000s, which caused a significant advertising revenue reduction for most stations. Combined with high debt service from escalating station sale values, owners have aggressively consolidated station operations. This has caused a loss of jobs in the industry.

Owners embraced technology as a way to improve voice-talent productivity. “Voice-tracks in some dayparts on commonly owned stations in a market are now frequently recorded by the same talent,” Onan observes. This mode of operation is not isolated solely to stations within a cluster. He continues, “Talent may also record voice tracks for the owner’s other markets. Even independently contracted talent, producing content from home studios, is being used. This is possible using moderately fast Internet connections.”

Automated stations, it must be observed, are not full walk-away operations. They employ operators as well as announcers and production people to oversee activities. The extent to which a station uses automation often directly influences its staffing needs. Obviously, a fully automated station will employ fewer programming people than a partially automated outlet. In the early days of PC automation, production of entertainment programming benefited from online connectivity; the Internet has similarly assisted in enhancing other station operations, which have since tapped into the web’s capabilities for the convenience and versatility it offers. Criss Onan observes that program production was the first aspect of operations to be improved by the use of PC-based automation. Yet, this was merely the beginning of the revolution. He reflects on the changes to other aspects of station operation that have occurred:

FIGURE 9.33
New product designs undergo extensive testing in the Wheatstone Sound Lab

Source: Courtesy of Wheatstone

The production of advertising spots is being consolidated to regional centers by some owners as is the gathering, generation, and delivery of news. Scheduling of advertising spots and music is also being consolidated to regional centers or even national centers by owners. Stations in all size markets may be minimally staffed or entirely unstaffed during some dayparts such as overnights and weekends. Transmitter remote control systems automatically contact an on-call, designated operator if a parameter exceeds a specified tolerance.

What form will the next-generation automation system take? “In the future,” Onan speculates, “scheduling and automation play-out functions may reside in the Internet ‘cloud’ hosted by service providers rather than provided by technical infrastructure at the radio station’s site.”