Notes
EVA HOFFMAN / ORIGINS
1. George Soros, foreword to Tivadar Soros, Masquerade: The Incredible True Story of How George Soros’ Father Outsmarted the Gestapo, trans. Humphrey Tonkin (1965; repr., New York: Arcade, 2011), x.
2. Paul Soros, American (Con)quest (Oxford: Joshua Horgan Print Partnership, 2006), 4.
3. Michael T. Kaufman, Soros: The Life and Times of a Messianic Billionaire (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002), 13.
4. George Soros, foreword to Tivadar Soros, Masquerade.
5. George Soros, foreword to Tivadar Soros, Masquerade.
6. “George Soros in Luppa [sic] Island,” blog entry, posted August 6, 2017, http://riowang.blogspot.com/2017/08.
7. Kaufman, Soros, 21.
8. Erzebet Soros, oral history, private archive, 1985.
9. George Soros, afterword to Paul Soros, American (Con)quest, 187.
10. George Soros, afterword to Paul Soros, American (Con)quest, 187.
11. Erzebet Soros, oral history.
12. Kaufman, Soros, 20.
13. Erzebet Soros, oral history.
14. Tivadar Soros, Masquerade, 3.
15. Tivadar Soros, Masquerade, 9.
16. Tivadar Soros, Masquerade, 16.
17. Tivadar Soros, Masquerade, 21.
18. Tivadar Soros, Masquerade, 141.
19. Tivadar Soros, Masquerade, 141.
20. Tivadar Soros, Masquerade, 150.
21. Tivadar Soros, Masquerade, 204.
22. Tivadar Soros, Masquerade, 205.
23. Tivadar Soros, Masquerade, 203.
24. Kaufman, Soros, 46.
25. Kaufman, Soros, 52.
SEBASTIAN MALLABY / THE FINANCIER
1. George Soros, interviews with the author, September 23, 2020, and January 12, 2021. The author also conducted multiple interviews with Soros and his financial associates in the late 2000s.
2. The “chicken crap” line belonged to Alan “Ace” Greenberg of Bear Stearns. See Michael T. Kaufman, Soros: The Life and Times of a Messianic Billionaire (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002), 87.
3. Soros, author interviews.
4. Kaufman, Soros, 108.
5. George Soros, Monthly Report, November 1, 1967. Report provided to the author by Antonio Foglia.
6. George Soros, “The Case for Two Trucking Stocks,” Arnhold and S. Bleichroeder Statistical Department Memorandum, November 1966.
7. Soros, author interviews.
8. George Soros, The Alchemy of Finance (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1987), 40.
9. Kaufman, Soros, 122.
10. Soros, Alchemy of Finance, 60.
11. George Soros, “The Case for Mortgage Trusts,” February 1970. This note is reprinted verbatim in The Alchemy of Finance, 64–67.
12. Kaufman, Soros, 121.
13. Kaufman, Soros, 134.
14. Anise Wallace, “The World’s Greatest Money Manager,” Institutional Investor, June 1981.
15. Kaufman, Soros, 139.
16. George Soros, Soros on Soros: Staying Ahead of the Curve (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1995), 49. Soros adds, “If a story is interesting enough, one can probably make money buying it even if further investigation would reveal flaws. Then later, if you discern the flaw, you feel good, because you are ahead of the game. So I used to say, ‘Jump in with both feet; take one out later.’” Soros, interview with the author, June 10, 2008.
17. Kaufman, Soros, 137.
18. Soros, Soros on Soros, 56–57.
19. Soros, Alchemy of Finance, 149.
20. Soros, Alchemy of Finance, 149.
21. Soros confesses that he hung on to his dollar shorts by the skin of his teeth. Soros, Alchemy of Finance, 163.
22. These yen and German mark accumulations are over the baseline established on September 6, 1985, the date of the previous diary entry. However, the buying seems to have occurred in the five days after Plaza. See Soros, Alchemy of Finance, 164.
23. Soros airs the question of policy makers’ commitment in his diary entry of September 28, 1985. See Soros, Alchemy of Finance, 165.
24. The additional buying took place between September 27 and December 6. Soros, Alchemy of Finance, 164, 177.
25. Soros, Alchemy of Finance, 176. Gary Gladstein, who joined Soros’s firm in October 1985 to serve as chief operating officer, was astonished by the leverage in his new firm’s portfolio. Gladstein interview, March 18, 2008.
26. Soros, Alchemy of Finance, 309.
27. Soros, Soros on Soros, 59. Soros pointed out that Quantum’s return over the full fifteen months of the experiment, which included a “control period” in 1986, came to 114 percent.
28. The most influential academic paper to argue for exchange-rate overshooting was Rudiger Dornbusch, “Expectations and Exchange Rate Dynamics,” Journal of Political Economy, December 1976. Dornbusch’s argument did not hinge on the trend-following by speculators that Soros emphasized; instead, he explained that currencies overshoot in response to monetary shocks because of the interplay between sticky prices for goods and fast-adjusting capital markets. However, Dornbusch’s sticky-price contention was a minority view within academic macroeconomics through the 1980s. See Kenneth Rogoff, “Dornbusch’s Overshooting Model After Twenty-Five Years,” Mundell Fleming Lecture, IMF Staff Papers, vol. 49, Special Issue, revised January 22, 2002.
29. Soros, Alchemy of Finance, 176.
30. This exchange and the wider drama of the sterling trade is presented at greater length in Sebastian Mallaby, More Money Than God: Hedge Funds and the Making of a New Elite (New York: Penguin Press, 2010), 152–71.The principal original source for this dialogue is Robert Johnson, although others also commented.
31. Speaking of Soros’s advice to go for the jugular, Druckenmiller says, “I can have the concepts, I can do the economics, and I can even have the timing, but one simple statement like that in terms of size … We probably got twice the profit I would have had without that snide comment he made about ‘Well, if you love it so much … ’” Druckenmiller, interview with the author, March 13, 2008.
32. Louis Bacon, interview with the author, July 21, 2009.
33. Anatole Kaletsky, “How Mr. Soros Made a Billion by Betting Against the Pound,” The Times (London), October 26, 1992.
34. William Keegan, “Unnecessary, Unproductive, and Immoral,” The Observer (London), September 28, 1997.
35. Soros, Alchemy of Finance, 372.
36. Soros, Soros on Soros, 143.
37. Author calculations based on hedge fund data in Mallaby, More Money Than God, 402–7, and Berkshire Hathaway Inc., 2019 Annual Report, 2, www.berkshirehathaway.com/2019ar/2019ar.pdf. Note that Berkshire’s more recent returns have been disappointing, bringing down the average.
DARREN WALKER / PHILANTHROPY WITH A VISION
1. The question of which philanthropist gave away more is probably unanswerable. Carnegie is said to have given $350 million during his philanthropic career, which lasted from 1901 until his death in 1919; Rockefeller, $540 million from 1897 to his death in 1937; Soros, $32 billion from 1979 to the present. After adjusting for inflation on a consumer price index basis, Soros can be said to have given more than Rockefeller or Carnegie. Comparing on a percentage-of-GDP basis, Rockefeller and Carnegie can be said to have given more.
2. Michael T. Kaufman, Soros: The Life and Times of a Messianic Billionaire (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002), 95.
3. George Soros, Soros on Soros: Staying Ahead of the Curve (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1995), 105.
4. Soros, Soros on Soros, 107.
5. Soros, Soros on Soros, 105.
6. Kaufman, Soros, 170.
7. Chuck Sudetic, The Philanthropy of George Soros: Building Open Societies (New York: PublicAffairs, 2011), 12.
8. Kaufman, Soros, 171.
9. Soros, Soros on Soros, 107.
10. Kaufman, Soros, 172.
11. Kaufman, Soros, 191.
12. Soros, Soros on Soros, 110.
13. Kaufman, Soros, 194.
14. Kaufman, Soros, 195.
15. Kaufman, Soros, 196; see also Endre Dányi, “Xerox Project: Photocopy Machines as a Metaphor for an ‘Open Society,’” The Information Society 22:2 (2006), 111–15.
16. Soros, Soros on Soros, 113.
17. Soros, Soros on Soros, 112.
18. Soros, Soros on Soros, 116.
19. Kaufman, Soros, 258.
20. Soros, Soros on Soros, 114–15.
21. Kaufman, Soros, 259.
22. Soros, Soros on Soros, 114–15.
23. Soros, Soros on Soros, 115–16.
24. Soros, Soros on Soros, 115.
25. Interview with Aryeh Neier, January 15, 2021.
26. As Soros once remarked, “I have an enormous network and I must hustle to keep it going.” Soros, Soros on Soros, 176.
27. Kaufman, Soros, 254.
28. Soros, Soros on Soros, 120; Lee Hockstader, “U.S. Financier Gives Russia $100 Million for Internet Link,” Washington Post, March 16, 1996.
29. Open Society’s anti-corruption mission was further informed by its support of IDASA, an independent South African think tank that, after apartheid, became a watchdog monitoring the performance and accountability of the new government.
30. “Angola,” Open Society Initiative for Southern Africa, n.d., osisa.org/angola/.
31. George Soros, “Capitalism versus Democracy,” Project Syndicate, June 27, 2000, www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/capitalism-versus-democracy.
32. The public-health approach to drug abuse built on the work of the Lindesmith Center, an advocacy group funded in 1994 by Soros.
33. “A ‘Forgotten History’ of How the U.S. Government Segregated America,” Fresh Air, NPR, May 3, 2017, available at www.npr.org/2017/05/03/526655831/a-forgotten-history-of-how-the-u-s-government-segregated-america.
34. Sudetic, Philanthropy of George Soros, 276; see also “Our Programs and Impact,” Open Society Institute–Baltimore, n.d., www.osibaltimore.org/programs-and-impact/our-programs-and-impact/.
35. Sudetic, Philanthropy of George Soros, 281. The drug is buprenorphine.
36. Gara LaMarche, “In Defense of Unstrategic Philanthropy,” Hist Phil.org, posted December 17, 2019.
37. “The National Memorial for Peace and Justice,” info block on landing page, Equal Justice Initiative, n.d., https://museumandmemorial.eji.org/.
38. “History: We are the Country’s First and Foremost Civil and Human Rights Law Firm,” Legal Defense and Educational Fund, n.d., www.naacpldf.org/about-us/history/full/.
39. Center for Effective Philanthropy, “New Attitudes, Old Practices: The Provision of Multiyear General Operating Support,” 2020, http://cep.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Ford_MYGOS_FNL.pdf.
40. “Transforming the Culture of Dying: The Project on Death in America 1994–2003,” Open Society Foundations, October 1, 2004, www.opensocietyfoundations.org/publications/transforming-culture-dying-project-death-america-1994-2003.
41. George Soros, “Keeping America Open: Chairman’s Message,” OSI US 10 (Tenth Anniversary US Programs 2006), Open Society Foundations, 7, www.opensocietyfoundations.org/uploads/37660798-2e5e-4aac-8d01-1ccfeabe93d4/tenth_20061116.pdf.
GARA LAMARCHE / POLITICS WITH A PURPOSE
Unless otherwise indicated in the notes below, all quotations are from interviews conducted by the author.
1. Quoted in Sally Jacobsen, “George Soros: Philanthropist or Opportunist?,” South Florida Sun-Sentinel, October 26, 1997.
2. George W. Bush, “President Bush, President Kwasniewski Hold Joint Press Conference,” press release, White House Archives, July 17, 2002, https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/07/text/20020717-3.html.
3. George Soros, The Age of Fallibility: Consequences of the War on Terror (New York: PublicAffairs, 2006), 80.
4. Thomas B. Edsall, “Soros-Backed Activist Group Disbands as Interest Fades,” Washington Post, August 3, 2005.
5. Sally Covington, Moving a Public Policy Agenda: The Strategic Philanthropy of Conservative Foundations, National Committee for Responsive Philanthropy, 1997.
6. Chuck Sudetic, The Philanthropy of George Soros: Building Open Societies (New York: PublicAffairs, 2011), 49.
7. George Soros and Rob Johnson, “A Better Bailout Was Possible,” Project Syndicate, September 18, 2018.
8. Sudetic, Philanthropy of George Soros, 54.
9. George Soros, Soros on Soros: Staying Ahead of the Curve (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1995), 250.
10. John Cassidy, “The Ringleader,” The New Yorker, July 25, 2005.
11. Soros, Age of Fallibility, 96.
IVAN KRASTEV / AN EASTERN EUROPEAN MIND
1. Michael T. Kaufman, Soros: The Life and Times of a Messianic Billionaire (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002), 25.
2. Milan Kundera, “Zachód porwany albo tragedia Europy Środkowej,” Zeszyty Literackie, no. 5 (Paris, 1984), 14–31.
3. István Bibó, “The Miseries of East European Small States,” in István Bibó and Iván Z. Dénes, The Art of Peacemaking: Political Essays by István Bibó (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2015), available at www.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.12987/yale/9780300203783.001.0001/upso-9780300203783.
4. George Soros, In Defense of Open Society (New York: PublicAffairs, 2019), 1.
5. Samuel Moyn, The Last Utopia: Human Rights in History, reprint edition (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press / Belknap Press, 2012).
6. George Soros, Underwriting Democracy (New York: Free Press, 1991), 20, available at www.georgesoros.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/underwriting_democracy-chap-11-2017_10_05.pdf.
7. George Soros, The Soros Lectures: At the Central European University (New York: PublicAffairs, 2010), 46.
8. George Soros, Opening the Soviet System (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1990), ch. 1.
9. George Soros, The Age of Fallibility: Consequences of the War on Terror (New York: PublicAffairs, 2006), 31–32.
10. Soros, Underwriting Democracy, 25.
11. Connie Bruck, “The World According to George Soros,” The New Yorker, January 23, 1995, available at www.newyorker.com/magazine/1995/01/23/the-world-according-to-soros.
12. Ernest Gellner, Language and Solitude: Wittgenstein, Malinowski and the Habsburg Dilemma (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 37.
13. Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?,” The National Interest, Summer 1989, available at www.wesjones.com/eoh.htm#source.
14. Soros, Underwriting Democracy, 14.
15. Hans Magnus Enzensberger, “The State of Europe: Christmas Eve 1989,” Granta, February 2, 1990, available at https://granta.com/the-state-of-europe-christmas-eve-1989/.
16. Soros, Opening the Soviet System, ch. 5.
17. Soros, Opening the Soviet System, ch. 1.
18. Soros, Opening the Soviet System, ch. 1.
19. Soros, Soros Lectures, 57.
20. Chuck Sudetic, The Philanthropy of George Soros: Building Open Societies (New York: PublicAffairs, 2011), 19.
21. Sudetic, Philanthropy of George Soros, 15.
22. Soros, Opening the Soviet System, ch. 5.
23. Soros, Underwriting Democracy, 3.
24. Bruck, “World According to George Soros.”
25. Soros, In Defense of Open Society, 64.
26. Kaufman, Soros, 274–75.
27. Kaufman, Soros, 278–79.
28. Kaufman, Soros, 279.
29. Bruck, “World According to George Soros.”
30. “Global Views on Immigration and the Refugee Crisis,” IPSOS, July 2017, available at www.ipsos.com/sites/default/files/ct/news/documents/2017-09/Global_Advisor_Immigration.pdf.
31. “People in the EU—Statistics on Origin of Residents,” EUROSTAT, 2017, available at https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=People_in_the_EU_%E2%80%93_statistics_on_origin_of_residents&oldid=374953.
32. Raymond Aron, The Dawn of Universal History: Selected Essays from a Witness to the Twentieth Century (New York: Basic Books, 2002), 482.
33. Yehuda Elkana, “The Need to Forget,” Ha’aretz, March 2, 1988, 3, available at http://web.ceu.hu/yehuda_the_need_to_forget.pdf.
MICHAEL IGNATIEFF / THE FOUNDER’S TALE
I wish to gratefully acknowledge assistance from the following colleagues and friends who were “present at the creation” and whom I interviewed at length, starting with István Rév and the staff of the Open Society Archives in Budapest, where the founding documents and records of Central European University are stored. I also want to acknowledge Agi Benedek of CEU’s Institutional Research Office for her help in providing figures on CEU enrollment growth in the 1990s.
I interviewed the following colleagues, who were among the founders of CEU: the political philosopher János Kis; the medieval historian Gábor Klaniczay, whom I thank for the use of his memoir on the founding of medieval studies at CEU; the historian of ideas László Kontler; the political scientist Béla Greskovits; András Sajó, professor of legal studies and former judge of the European Court of Human Rights; the provost of CEU, Liviu Matei; Bill Newton-Smith, Oxford philosopher of science, to whom I am especially grateful for making available unpublished chapters of his memoir on his role in the founding of CEU in 1990–92; and Pierre Mirabaud, Swiss banker and former CEU trustee. I made use of the memoir by Alfred Stepan, the first rector of CEU, in Social Research, 2009. I consulted Jacques Rupnik, professor of political science at Sciences Po, Paris, on his role in the early meetings on the founding of CEU. I spoke with the political scientist László Bruszt. Leon Botstein, the chairman of the board at CEU and a fellow contributor to this volume, offered insights into Soros’s motivations in founding CEU. Michael Vachon, Soros’s longstanding political counselor, provided helpful insights into the Soros-Orbán relationship. I want to thank these colleagues and friends for their recollections. They bear no responsibility for my interpretation of events or for the mistakes that remain in my account.
ORVILLE SCHELL / A NETWORK OF NETWORKS
1. Iris Ouyang, “HNA Group Enters Bankruptcy Restructuring As China’s Largest Asset Buyer Succumbs to Debt After Decade-Long Shopping Spree,” South China Morning Post, January 29, 2021, https://www.scmp.com/business/companies/article/3119812/hna-group-goes-bankrupt-chinas-largest-global-asset-buyer.
2. See his annual speech at the 2019 World Economic Forum: https://www.georgesoros.com/2019/01/24/remarks-delivered-at-the-world-economic-forum-2/.
3. “Chen Yizi, Chinese Communist Party Reformer,” Human Rights Watch, n.d., www.hrw.org/legacy/campaigns/china-99/chenyizi.htm.
4. Michael T. Kaufman, Soros: The Life and Times of a Messianic Billionaire (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002), 107.
5. Kaufman, Soros, 265.
6. “Soros Keen to Go Deeper into China,” Sydney Morning Herald, January 27, 2004, www.smh.com.au/national/soros-keen-to-go-deeper-into-china-20040127-gdi8i1.html.
7. George Soros, In Defense of Open Society (New York: PublicAffairs, 2019), 73.
8. Connie Bruck, “The World According to George Soros,” The New Yorker, January 23, 1995.
9. “Robert Zoellick’s Responsible Stakeholder Speech,” National Committee on United States-China Relations, n.d., www.ncuscr.org/content/robert-zoellicks-responsible-stakeholder-speech.
10. Wikipedia, s.v. “Fortune Global 500,” last modified July 12, 2021, at 16:59, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortune_Global_500; “Hainan Airlines Group Entered the Fortune 500 List of the World’s Most Successful Companies,” press release, Deer Jet, July 27, 2015, http://en.deerjet.com/content/details16_13543.html.
11. Zeng Qingkai, “Soros Injects Another US$25m into Hainan Airlines,” China Daily, October 17, 2005, www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-10/17/content_485469.htm.
12. Emily Feng, “China’s New Anti-Foreign Sanctions Law Sends a Chill Through the Business Community,” All Things Considered (NPR), June 11, 2021, www.npr.org/2021/06/11/1005467033/chinas-new-anti-foreign-sanctions-law-sends-a-chill-through-the-business-communi.
13. See his 2019 annual World Economic Forum speech at Davos: www.npr.org/2021/06/11/1005467033/chinas-new-anti-foreign-sanctions-law-sends-a-chill-through-the-business-communi
14. Soros, In Defense of Open Society, 37.
15. Soros, In Defense of Open Society, 81.
16. Soros, In Defense of Open Society, 89.
17. Soros, In Defense of Open Society, subtitle of chapter 3.
18. George Soros, The Alchemy of Finance, cited in Tadas Viskanta, “Soros, Fallibility, Reflexivity, and the Importance of Adapting,” Enterprising Investor (blog), CFA Institute, December 19, 2016, https://blogs.cfainstitute.org/investor/2016/12/19/soros-fallibility-reflexivity-and-the-importance-of-adapting/.
19. George Soros, “Fallibility, Reflexivity, and the Human Uncertainty Principle,” introduction to a special issue of Journal of Economic Methodology, GeorgeSoros.com, January 13, 2014, www.georgesoros.com/2014/01/13/fallibility-reflexivity-and-the-human-uncertainty-principle-2/.
20. George Soros, “Reflections on Death in America,” in Project on Death in America: Report of Activities January 2001–December 2003, Open Society Foundations, 2004, 6, www.opensocietyfoundations.org/uploads/3373fc83-1a80-4c71-95d8-381da95d95af/a_complete_7.pdf.
LEON BOTSTEIN / THE CHALLENGE AND LEGACY OF BEING A JEW FROM HUNGARY
1. Henri Bergson, “Les Deux Sources de la Morale et de la Religion” in Oeuvres, edited by Andre Robinet (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France 1970) 981–1245, especially 1152–1207.
2. Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958), 8.
3. For a concise account of Budapest at the turn of the century, see John Lukacs, Budapest 1900: A Historical Portrait of a City and Its Culture (New York: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1988).
4. The statistical material used in this chapter derives from the following sources: Ezra Mendelsohn, The Jews of East Central Europe Between the World Wars (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1983); Bernard Wasserstein, On the Eve: The Jews of Eastern Europe Before the Second World War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012); Klinga Frojimovics, Géza Komoróczy, Viktória Pusztai, and Andrea Strbik, Jewish Budapest: Monuments, Rites, History (Budapest: Central European University Press, 1995); and the entries on Budapest and Hungary in The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe, ed. Gershon David Hundert, 2 vols. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008).
5. See William O. McCagg Jr., Jewish Nobles and Geniuses in Modern Hungary, East European Monographs 3 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986).
6. See Miklós Konrád, “The Social Integration of the Jewish Upper Bourgeoisie in the Hungarian Traditional Elites: A Survey of the Period from the Reform Era to World War I,” Hungarian Historical Review 3, no. 4 (2014): 818–49.
7. The now standard revisionist account of the closing decades of the Austro-Hungarian Empire is Pieter M. Judson, The Habsburg Empire: A New History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016).
8. The literature on this issue is extensive. An elegant précis of the matter can be found in “The Making of Austro-Modernism,” the introductory chapter of Marjorie Perloff’s Edge of Irony: Modernism in the Shadow of the Habsburg Empire (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016), 1–18.
9. György Litván, A Twentieth Century Prophet: Oscar Jászi, 1875–1957 (Budapest: Central European University Press, 2006), 131–34, 232–55.
10. Tivadar Soros, Masquerade: The Incredible True Story of How George Soros’ Father Outsmarted the Gestapo, ed. and trans. Humphrey Tonkin (New York: Arcade Publishing, 2011), 20.
11. See William O. McCagg Jr., A History of Habsburg Jews, 1670–1918 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989), 129–39, 187–95.
12. These stories, “Der Buchbinder von Hort” and “Die Erlösung,” can be found in Leopold von Sacher-Masoch, Jüdisches Leben in Wort und Bild (Mannheim: Bensheimer, 1892), 71–84 and 179–90. Translations are my own.
13. Frojimovics et al., Jewish Budapest, 361.
14. Frojimovics et al., Jewish Budapest, 362.
15. Frojimovics et al., Jewish Budapest, 362.
16. Alexander Maxwell and Alexander Campbell, “István Széchenyi, the Casino Movement, and Hungarian Nationalism, 1827–1848,” Nationalities Papers: The Journal of Nationalism and Ethnicity 42, no. 3 (May 2014): 4.
17. Maxwell and Campbell, “István Széchenyi,” 4–8.
18. See William O. McCagg, “Jew and Peasant in Interwar Hungary,” Nationalities Papers 15, no. 1 (Spring 1987): 90–105.
19. Tivadar Soros, Masquerade, 20–21.
20. The discussion of this book is based on the original edition of Mica Josef Berdyczewski, Die Sagen der Juden (Frankfurt: Rürten & Loening, 1913) and the posthumous edition published by Schocken Verlag in Berlin in 1935.
21. On Berdyczewski, see Hillel Halkin, The Lady Hebrew and Her Lovers of Zion (Jerusalem: Koren Publishers, 2020), 159–98.
22. Tivadar Soros, Masquerade, 203.
23. For a recent account of the role of the Arrow Cross in 1944 and 1945, placed in the context of contemporary Hungarian politics, see the 2021 television movie Monument to the Murderers (dir. Dániel Acs), which can be accessed at https://youtu.be/4ygZB1MTRR4.
24. See Marsha L. Rozenblit, The Jews of Vienna 1867–1914: Assimilation and Identity (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1983), 132–36.
25. On the Viennese context and Popper, see Lisa Silverman, Becoming Austrians: Jews and Culture Between the World Wars (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press: 2012), particularly 176–77.
26. Árpád Göncz, “Hungary and the Open Society,” in The Paradoxes of Unintended Consequences, ed. Lord Dahrendorf, Yehuda Elkana, Aryeh Neier, William Newton-Smith, and István Rév (Budapest: Central European University Press, 2000), 12.
27. See chapter 5 in Tivadar Soros, Masquerade, 31–37.
28. Photographic images of these Orbán campaign slogans, posters, and billboards can be found on Google by clicking “images” under the rubric “Viktor Orban campaign posters.”
29. Arendt, Human Condition, 8.