Appendix 3

Report Writing

Introduction

Report writing is a typical form of writing, different from expressive expository or descriptive writing. Report writing requires give and take, a dialogue, a follow-up, input and action. Most often, it creates action; it causes the person at the other end to react or respond. It is also a form of documentation where processes are described, recorded and analysed.

There are three factors determining report writing: purpose, audience and tone. The purpose of writing and the audience very often set the tone of a piece of writing. If you are writing a report solely for the purpose of documenting, your language will be different. But if you are presenting a proposal and trying to convince your colleagues, your tone will have to be persuasive.

Report writing is very specifically aimed at achieving certain purposes. A good training manual will do exactly what it is intended to do. Similarly, a well written marketing report or a feasibility report has very specific goals to achieve and they are tailored to fulfill those specific purposes only. A well designed and well-written piece of report writing has to take into consideration some important factors even before the process of writing begins.

Defining the Objectives

A well-written report has to define the objectives very specifically at the outset. The writer has to be very clear about:

1. Why the document is being written. Is it being written to simply record a process and keep it for reference or is it a proposal or plan which one wants others to accept or is one trying to convince somebody that the proposed plan of action is undesirable or desirable.
2. What exactly is the writing intended to do?

Reports are generally written to convey information. It can be aimed at giving the reader information he/she desired to have or it can be aimed at changing the readers’ response or attitude towards an object, a proposal or process. Or it can aim at giving the reader a set of instructions for the nursing procedure. To do this, the writer has to have a clear idea of the subject. Identifying the information the readers want the communication to provide. Determining how the audience will look for this information. This can be done by presenting the material in the form of:

• Points and Sub-points: Presenting the relevant facts as easily accessible points and sub-points.
• Tables: Putting the facts you want your readers to compare and contrast in the form of a table.
• Flow Charts: If you want your audience to quickly compare the lengths of two processes you could present both in the form of two flow charts on the same page. This will make comparison and assessment easy for the readers.

Identifying and Assessing the Audience

The most important point one has to take into account while preparing a report is the audience. Unlike other writings, report has a very specific audience. It is always important thus to identify the audience and prepare the document accordingly. If the document is meant for a medically literate audience, it can make prolific use of technical terms. This can make the document precise and compact, giving extra information only where necessary. If the audience is non-medical, however, the document has to be accordingly designed. The amount of information to be given depends on what the document will be used for. If the document is meant to educate the audience on a nursing procedure, it should be carefully designed keeping in mind the expected audience. If it is meant to issue instructions for a nursing procedure, on the other hand, it has to be presented in the form of a list of instructions or a flow chart.

Organization and Language

After deciding why the document is to be written, the objectives it is supposed to fulfil and the audience it is meant for, the most important factors you must concentrate on are the organization and the language.

To write with clarity one has to first have an outline of what one is going to present. There is no specific format for an outline; it has to be variable and flexible to suit the subject and scope of coverage. To have a good outline you must have:

• A clear emphatic summary of the subject matter.
• The perspective from which you are looking at it.
• Evidence in support of the thesis.

Some of the other elements that can be used to make writing more organized are:

• Introduction to the subject matter.
• Headings in large fonts to express transition to new ideas.
• Bulleted lists to draw attention to the subject matter and to make, comprehension easy.
• Use of figures, illustration, diagrams and graphs to give visual representation of what is being said.
• A summary that restates the main idea and emphasizes the perspective.

Synopsis Writing

Before you understand abstract writing, it is important to know the skill of summarizing. Summarizing is a highly functional skill as it is used by different kinds of learners and professionals to present a gist of what they have heard or read. A summary can be of a passage, a letter, a speech, a chapter or a book. The act of summarizing consists of separating the relevant points from the irrelevant ones, arranging the ideas systematically in a logical sequence, condensing the material in as short a form as possible. A summary may be half or quarter or a tenth of the original passage. While summarizing, you have to avoid using the same words, phrases and expressions used in the text. You have to rephrase the material in simple language. Comments, abbreviations, symbols and examples are avoided while summarizing. However, an abstract is a brief summary of the contents of a research report, article or presentation. When an abstract stands alone, separate from a paper or poster, the title and author(s) are added to give it context. Traditionally, the abstract covers an Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion (IMRaD format) in the shortest amount of space possible.

Title: This is the most succinct statement of your work. If you could define your research in one catchy, concise, concrete statement, this would be it.

Authors: List authors and institutional affiliations according to the preferred method in your field. For instance, in computational sciences, the standard is to list authors alphabetically. The presenting author (you) will be distinguished from your co-authors on the submission form. Affiliations must follow each authors name unless the authors are from the same institution.

Abstract (Body): There are four key elements in the body of an abstract:

1. Introduction: Problem Description, Motivation and Relevance
2. Methods
3. Results
4. Discussion (or Conclusions)

These four key elements comprise the IMRaD organizational format.

Report

Reports are among the most common types of communication used during work. Reports can be of various kinds. For instance it can be a 200-page report based on the research activities in genetic engineering to make improved food crops. It can be a 12-page report on the medical history of a patient. It can also be a 50-page report on a new kind of alarm system that has been devised to prevent car theft.

Formats for Report Writing

Reports vary in style, subject matter and presentation. Reports can be classified on various parameters, such as:

• Presentation—oral and written reports
• Length—short and long reports
• Nature—informal and formal reports
• Purpose—informational and analytical reports
• Time Duration—routine/periodic and special reports

1. Oral Reports: An oral report is a face-to-face communication about something seen, observed, experienced or investigated. It generally consists of impressions, observations and experiences. It is simple and easy to describe, quick and immediate to present and gives first-hand information but it may not be as objective and as detailed as a report has to be. It saves time for the reporter but may be strenuous for the listener as he/she has to listen and memorize each and every word at the moment. Moreover, it lacks authenticity and is difficult to preserve. An oral report may not be used for taking vital decisions but it is beneficial in judging speculations and impressions and can be used to take an immediate action.
2. Written Reports: A written report provides a permanent record; so, it is always preferred to an oral report. Moreover, a written report is accurate and precise while an oral report may be vague at times. There are no chances of distortion of facts while transferring information from one source to another. A written report is more formal than an oral report and is generally used to communicate complex facts. It is a visual aid to communication as the reporter may organize message into paragraphs highlighting the main points.
3. Short Reports: Short reports can be presented in the form of a letter or a memo. They are concerned primarily with day-to-day business problems as well as their solutions. A short report consists of three parts—an opening, body and ending. Short reports, generally include periodic, situational and progress reports.
4. Long Reports: Long reports describe a problem in detail. They include the process of preparing the outline of the topic, collecting data, making a rough draft, logical and organized presentation of facts, thorough revising, editing and preparing the fair draft, etc. These reports require a deep study of an issue. The important parts of a long report are—preface, introduction, summary, abstract, description, conclusion, appendices, glossary and index.
5. Informal Reports: Certain business reports can be short and informal. In current business dealings, informal reports are more frequent than the formal ones. Basically, informal reports perform the same function as the formal reports—transmitting information, facts or data to someone for taking decision. However, informal reports are quite brief (around one to five pages), that too when you have supplementary material such as bibliography, appendices, etc. The style of writing is positive, personal and conversational. Depending on the requirement, they may have heading, illustrations, footnotes, etc., but may not include all the details like formal reports. Informal reports are written in the form of memo reports or letter reports.
6. Formal Reports: A formal report is the result of thorough investigation of a problem or situation. Formal reports are generally detailed and elaborate. These reports follow a fixed format. The length of the report may vary according to the requirement. Formal reports include informational, analytical, routine, special, technical, project, research reports, etc.
7. Informational Reports: An informational report presents facts, situations or problems required to take vital decisions. The writer collects relevant information, compiles and organizes it in an orderly manner and presents it as objectively as possible. Informational reports record happenings such as conferences, seminars, tours, and so on and supply details for future planning.
8. Analytical Reports: Analytical reports present data along with an analysis of it. The writer studies facts, situations or problems neutrally, evaluates the information, draws suitable inferences and puts forward his/her recommendations and conclusions. Project reports, feasibility reports and market search reports fall in this category.
9. Routine/Periodic Reports: Routine reports, also known as form reports, are usually written on a prescribed proforma. The main purpose of these reports is to record the progress of a task, evaluate the performance of its employees and to record the success or failure of a policy. As these reports are written periodically, they are also called periodic reports. They generally include laboratory reports, progress reports, inspection reports, production reports, monthly sales reports, annual confidential reports, etc. All the organizations, institutions, companies and research establishments depend on routine reports for various decisions.
10. Special Reports: Special reports are written to convey special information related to a single condition, situation, occasion or problem. These reports do not contain repeated information as they are written about the specific situations. Like other reports, these reports also help in decision making as some of the most important decisions are taken on the basis of special reports. Special reports include inquiry reports, research reports, thesis, dissertations, etc.

Progress Report

A progress report informs the readers about the progress and status of a long-term project. The project may be about installation of a factory, construction of a bridge or a residential colony or some research work carried out in an organization. These reports are written at the various stages of the project. The essential details included in these reports are title of the project, total work to be done, time allotted, date, work already done, work to be done, time required, future plans, remarks, name, signature and designation of the reporter.

Incident Report

Incident repots document the exact details of the occurrence while they are fresh in the minds of those who witnessed the event. This information may be useful in the future when dealing with liability issues stemming from the incident.

Consider a workplace situation that requires intervention by the management in order to resolve conflict. The people involved are separately asked to report the incident in writing. Some of them incorrectly document information they were witness to or were a part of. Consequently, the management refuses to acknowledge or act on the charges claim because the reports were conflicting. The victim fails to bring attention to the misdeeds of his colleague. Fighting to get the actual fats communicated will be a nightmare, because the information failed to be clear, accurate or specific in a report.

Well-written reports require some effort. They should not be something you merely throw together between calls. You should carefully review and edit each report before filing it or forwarding it to your supervisor. Consider reviewing the report with your crew before submitting it. Make sure it accurately reflects what each member did.

Feasibility Report

A feasibility report is generally written as an evaluation of whether or not a particular course of action is desirable. It is written to help the decision makers choose between two or more courses of action. Sometimes the choice is between maintaining the status quo and choosing the alternative being suggested. Sometimes, the choice can even be between two or more choices when the decision about the change has already been taken. An automobile industry, for example, might be considering the possibility of using hard plastic for certain parts for which metal has always been used. The choice here could also be between hard-plastic or some other alloy recently discovered that is costly but more durable.

The feasibility report has to deal with all the possible choices. It has to make a very careful consideration of:

• The various alternatives or the alternative suggested.
• The methods used to test the viability of using the alternatives.
• The advantages and disadvantages of the various alternatives. (This can be presented in a tabular form to make comparison at a single glance.)
• The alternative that you think is viable and why.

Structure of feasibility report

The introduction of the feasibility report is generally the answer to the question: Why should we consider these alternatives? For this, one has to do the following:

• Identify the problem the feasibility report will help solve; whether this will solve the existing problem, result in increased productivity or reduce the number of rejected parts.
• The introduction should also study the alternative courses of action you have considered. This will give the reader a broader scope of alternatives to think about before deciding on any one particular option.
• The introduction should contain the methods used to investigate and arrive at the conclusions.
• The introduction of long feasibility reports could also contain the preview of the main points in the conclusion and also the recommendations.

Marketing Report

These reports contain guidelines for the promoters of the new products, policies, organizations, etc. Market research is an organized effort to gather information about markets or customers. It is done for discovering what people want, need, or believe or how they act. Once that research is completed, it can be used to determine how to market the product. This report collects data on market trends, users and prices of different commodities.

Field Report

Formal report compiled and communicated by field engineers or other onsite personnel for off-site personnel. We all observe people, interactions and events in everyday life; however, your job when writing a field report is more structured. When writing a field report you need to:

• Systematically observe and accurately record in detail the varying aspects of a situation
• Constantly analyse your observation for meaning (i.e., what's going on here? what does this mean? what else does this relate to?)
• Keep the report's aims in mind while you are observing
• Consciously observe, record and analyse what you hear and see in the context of a theoretical framework/s

Field reports need not have a specific format, as the requirements change according to the situation of creating the report. However it should have these essential elements:

• Description – what you have seen or observed
• Analysis – strengths and weaknesses, reflection or evaluation of observations in light of theory and key concepts of your course or the broader context of your discipline
• Appendix – information that supports your analysis but is not essential to its explanation i.e. full transcripts of observation, maps, court session details

Laboratory Test Report

A laboratory report records the experimental work done in a laboratory to analyze a theory, conclusion or validity of a particular research. One has to record the process, reactions and results accurately to arrive at a convincing conclusion. These reports include title, experiment number, date, purpose, apparatus used, procedure adopted, observations, conclusions and signature.

Format of a laboratory test report

Project Report

Project reports usually provide pre-investment information required for investments before setting up the project. These reports are based on small investigations. Cost, goods, machinery requirements, etc., given in the report are rough calculations. They also keep the organizations regularly updated about the progress of the long-term projects or bring an important issue in the limelight.

The sequence in which the project report material should be arranged and bound should be as follows:

1. Cover Page and Title Page
2. Bonafide Certificate
3. Abstract
4. Table of Contents
5. List of Tables
6. List of Figures
7. List of Symbols, Abbreviations and Nomenclature
8. Chapters
9. Appendices
10. References

The table and figures shall be introduced in the appropriate places.

Leaflets and Brochures

Leaflets are printed sheets of either A4, A5, A6 size paper. The reason they are small is so that they can be easily handed out and kept. As leaflets are often only looked at fleetingly, the facts should be kept to a minimum. A brochure (also referred to as a pamphlet) is a type of leaflet. The two most common brochure styles are single sheet, and booklet (folded leaflets) forms.

Some key requirements to create an effective leaflet are:

• Grab the reader's attention
• Give a clear idea of what the reader is expected to do
• Keep that idea in the reader's mind, and
• Persuade the reader to take action

Consider the leaflet below with these elements in mind:

 

 

Résumé

Résumé is a French word that means ‘summary’. Although in English it is used to refer to ‘an account or a summary of something’, its popular use is limited to mean ‘a brief account of an applicant's details to procure a job.’ ‘Résumé’, pronounced as ‘razume’, should not be confused with the word ‘resume’, uttered as ‘rizum’, which distinctly means ‘to begin again’. Professionally, a résumé is a document that contains a summary of the personal details, relevant job experience, education, skills, goals, achievements and interests of an applicant. It is the first item that an employer encounters regarding the job seeker to short list him/her for a job interview. Therefore, the primary aim of a résumé is to get a call for an interview, although securing the job is the ultimate objective.

CV

A CV is an abbreviation of ‘curriculum vitae’, which is defined as a written record of your education and experience that you send while applying for a job. Superficially, a CV and a résumé appear to be similar and may be considered comparable in some places but there are certain basic differences in their purposes, layouts and approaches:

1. CV is a traditional method of presenting personal data, while résumé evolved much later.
2. A résumé is normally used for seeking employment in business, finance and HR fields, especially in the private sector, whereas a CV is helpful while applying for academic, scientific, research, medical, university, fellowship and other educational positions.
3. A résumé is brief and concise—not more than a page or two. A CV is a longer version, a more detailed synopsis, extending up to four to five pages, perhaps more, in case annexure is attached.
4. By and large, a résumé has a free style and customarily enumerates a candidate's data in reverse chronological order, while a CV conveys chronologically arranged information.
5. A résumé highlights only the relevant credentials, while a CV provides a comprehensive summary of an applicant's personal, educational and career details.

In the United States, résumé is common in the business field while CV is used for academic positions. In some Asian countries such as India, the terms ‘résumé’ and ‘CV’ may be used interchangeably. Although, the use of résumé is fast gaining acceptance in the private business sector, some employers, especially government departments, may expect to receive a CV rather a résumé. Résumés are always position specific and they cannot be identical for different posts. The best way would be to prepare a standard CV, update it regularly and use it to design different versions of résumés as and when required.

Styles of résumé

Résumés may be organized in two styles:

(a) Reverse chronological résumé: This is the most commonly used format. It gives the data in a reverse chronological order, as the employers today are more interested in your recent achievements. Such résumés go well for both a fresher and a beginner.

(b) Functional résumé: This is basically a skill profile that is used to focus on abilities that are specific to the type of position sought for. These résumés present details skill wise. They are suitable for those who want to change their career, have a wide work experience or are applying for jobs that require clearly defined profile and personality traits.

Components of a résumé/CV

We have seen that a CV is a comprehensive document and a résumé can be tailored from the former according to the requirement of a job. For the sake of convenience of designing, both the documents can be divided into three major parts—the opening, the middle and the closing. The following table highlights their formats, segments and techniques of writing in a comparative form:

1. The Beginning

   A Comparison between a résumé and a CV

   Headings	Résumé	CV
   1. Headline	Begins with a headline giving: Name, address, e-mail ID, Tel, no., and fax no	Not given
   2. Desired Position	Stated	Not given
   3. Career Objective	One sentence—statement of career goals—job specific and not vague, need not be in high-fl own English, communicates self-motivation and interest (specimen is given after the table)	Not given
   4. Personal Details	Comes in the closing part (see below)	Begins with personal details: Name (capital letters), address, Tel. no., e-mail ID, fax, nationality, date of birth, marital status All entries are listed one below the other

    

   Some specimen of career objectives

   1. To work on a suitable position in a prestigious Electrical Component Production Set-up, where I can learn with experience, utilize my existing skills and grow in my relevant field, contributing to the development of the organization. (This type of objective will be more suitable for fresh candidates.)
   2. To contribute to the growth of a prominent company by seeking a managerial opening in the recruitment division of HR department and thus explore new HR skills for such senior posts (appropriate for a senior and experienced person).

    

   Headings	Résumé	CV
   1. Work Experience	Only relevant work experience	Complete work experience
   2. Education	Relevant qualifications, trainings, etc., are mentioned. (Highlight your educational details if you are a new job applicant.)	Qualifications, degrees, training, schooling, names of institutions/university, years of passing, grades/division. Seminars/workshops attended, research projects undertaken and publications, etc., may be given under separate headings.
   3. Skills and Personality Traits	Only special skills suitable to the targeted position are listed, for example, expertise in a related computer language/data processing/knowledge of foreign languages/interpersonal skills/leadership qualities	May be listed but more broadly
   4. Achievements	Only concerned achievements are listed or those that differentiate you from others and show that you are a go-getter and can take challenges	Distinctions, awards, merits, scholarships, fellowships, a prestigious research project, or anything that conveys recognition.

    

2. The Middle: This is the functional segment of your document and should be designed very carefully as the major part of your interview deals with the data given here.

   Employers are interested in your work experience, professional skills and achievements as such things give you an edge over the others. Support such information with relevant documents and facts.

3. The Closing:

    

   Headings	Résumé	CV
   1. Activities and Interests	Extra/co-curricular activities/hobbies, memberships, participation in sports, seminars, exhibitions, quizzes, academic and cultural competitions (only special items briefly and in points)	Little elaborated but in composite form These things show that you are a multifaceted and dynamic personality
   2. Personal	A résumé closes with personal details—age, nationality, driving license and passport no., married/unmarried*; children* (* optional)	A CV opens with personal details (see above).
   3. References	2–3 names of referees (holding a responsible position) who can recommend your name for the concerned post. Names, designations, addresses, and telephone nos. should be given.	Same as in a résumé