Introduction

Unexpected and distressing events are unfortunate but inevitable in life. The way we react to them not only mirrors their content but also reveals our character and the circumstances of our lives in the moment they occur. You see, sometimes it is not as much an objective threat and complexity in a given situation that triggers a reaction, rather it is the person’s perception of it. The more unclear objective conditions are, the more people’s own interpretation guides their reactions (Lazarus, 1966). Overall it seems that the response to threat depends on three essential factors: the hazard itself, beliefs in overall possibilities to influence and avoid the menace and beliefs in personal capacity to respond effectively (review in Case et al., 2005). First the situation that has occurred is evaluated in its own right. Then one contemplates how manageable the situation overall might be. Finally the person turns inwards and estimates his/her own capacity to deal with the impediment. The conclusion here may either be empowering or induce a sense of helplessness. These responses reveal a person’s locus of control: beliefs about who or what is most influential over what occurs in life (Rotter, 1966).

Responsible information interaction

People with an internal locus of control assume a personal responsibility and influence over what happens to them. When they face a new and unpredictable situation they trust their ability to influence it, and so the unknown appears less threatening (ibid.). Self-reliance may therefore be an important influential factor in how well you cope with a stressful and uncertain situation (Sorrentino and Hewitt, 1984). It may also have a major impact on emotional and physical adjustment and well-being (Bandura, 1977; Rotter, 1966; Seligman, 1975).

Internal locus of control has been linked to active coping and independent decision-making (Ebata and Moos, 1994; Seiffge-Krenke, 1995; Lefcourt and Wine, 1969; Sherman, 1973). One common component of problem-focused coping is information seeking. If you actively strive to understand a predicament, you may discover ways to solve it and at the same time reduce feelings of insecurity (van Zuuren and Wolfs, 1991). We find an example of this among low-income citizens, where those who most frequently searched for health information on the internet tended to be self-efficacious with low levels of chance locus of control. They struggled to become more informed about health issues, and made decisions regarding their health based on what they found out (Laflamme, 2003). They considered this to be their own responsibility instead of passing it to others. In a food-safety context it was demonstrated that persons with an inner locus of control used a wide range of information sources regarding safety issues, believed that they were well informed and trusted that they could influence their health through their own behavior. For persons with low health locus of control, on the other hand, food-safety information had little allure, and consequently they saw no purpose in searching for it (Kornelis et al., 2007). Those with an external locus of control tend to feel fatalistic and place little trust in their ability to influence their own physical condition; they often feel helpless and dependent on others. Those with an internal locus of control, in contrast, would rather actively take charge of their health. They regard it as their own duty to prevent disease and promote their well-being by personal choices and proactive behavior.

University students with a strong sense of identity similarly strive to take charge of their own education. They regard this as an obligation, but foremost as a personal responsibility. One of their aims is to keep abreast of developments in their field, and this often starts an active and independent quest for information (Dollinger et al., 2005). Students with an internal locus of control are not only active in collecting information, but also efficient in their selection and use of it. A study where students were asked to select relevant information for an academic course showed that those with an internal locus of control mastered this task with more precision and efficiency than those with an external locus. Internals overall had a better eye for whether a text suited the topic of the course or not (Prociuk and Breen, 1977). The responsibility and autonomy that internals demonstrate continue in their future working career. When people with an internal locus of control begin a new job, for instance, and start to familiarize themselves with their work environment, their highest priority is to find out more about work tasks. They know that they have a direct personal responsibility for them, and they immediately want to get a full grasp of the situation. In contrast, persons with an external locus of control tend to look for career opportunities, financial gain and other attributes which depend on others people’s decisions (De Vos et al., 2005).

Helplessness

People with an external locus of control often feel at the mercy of circumstances in their lives, as they attribute both cause and solution to outer forces such as luck, destiny or other people’s decisions (Rotter, 1966). When changes occur, as they inevitably do in life, they tend to see themselves as victims of the situation, helplessly trapped by something they never wished for. They often experience the unpredicted situation as being imposed upon them by outer forces. As they do not regard themselves as responsible for causing it, they feel equally helpless in dealing with it. Information seeking may under these circumstances appear pointless. As unpredictability and stress grow they become increasingly passive, often expecting others to resolve the situation and take action on their behalf.

Persons who believe their well-being is foremost influenced by external factors such as powerful others often do not seek out information or make decisions regarding their health (Braman and Gomez, 2004). They prefer to allocate full responsibility for their condition to physicians instead of claiming at least a part for themselves (Arntson et al., 1989). Personal responsibility and decision-making make them anxious, as there is no guarantee of certainty. In this context it may feel reassuring that someone else takes control and makes decisions. Likewise, it may feel calming to trust that there is a person who knows the right answer. This person would also know how to estimate the validity of information, another factor which might be daunting for those who do not rely on their own judgment. Trusting another person – or destiny – creates a calming illusion of a profound plan and external control. People with an external locus of control thus generally prefer that others take charge on their behalf. If prompted to behave self-efficaciously and self-assess their behavior, they respond negatively as this does not fit their world view and means of coping (Holt et al., 2000). Extrinsically motivated students similarly have a tendency to do as they are told or satisfy the demands of others rather than demonstrating an intrinsic motivation to learn (Vermetten et al., 2001). They have been shown to be passive information seekers who often opt for the easiest way out (Heinström, 2005).

Locus of control may also influence which kind of information content one prefers. People with an external locus of control, for instance, often look for ‘the right answer’, and do not wish to interpret and question independently the information they retrieve. They believe that their fate is beyond their own control, and so information seeking may be a strategy to find out what other people, destiny or other influential factors have in store for them. As an example, in a health context it was shown that people with an internal locus of control appreciated personalized messages – material that was tailored for their particular interests and needs. Those with an external locus did not like these, however, preferring general, non-personalized information which they believed to be more trustworthy and correct (Holt et al., 2000).

If you believe that outer factors are more influential than your own actions, it is easy to feel overwhelmed when facing worrying news, for instance regarding your own health. It may feel tempting to give in to feelings of anxiety, anger, guilt and hopelessness, and either consciously or unconsciously deny the message (Johnson, 1997). This in turn may be detrimental to recovery. An external locus of control has been linked with depression (Naditch et al., 1975), anxiety (Feather, 1967) and reduced capacity to cope (Sandler and Lakey, 1982).

Typical for persons with an external locus of control is also a low sense of coherence. Those with a low sense of coherence often find their lives random and unconnected (Antonovsky, 1996). They conceive their existence as a shattered puzzle with pieces shed around, and have no idea of how pieces might fit together and interact. As a consequence they feel helpless, without a clue as to how they could improve or even influence their lives. Such an attitude would certainly play out in information interaction. Persons with a low sense of coherence may overlook information that would be important or at times even decisive for improving their conditions; they may even at times purposely avoid it. Persons with a high sense of coherence, on the other hand, often manage to find a meaningful aspect of even unusual and unexpected events of their lives, and can unravel a pattern in what happens to them or in the world around them. They are goal-oriented and regard information as a means to comprehend and address their situation (Ek, 2005).