CIRCULARS AND NOTICE

Notice

A notice is written to give information or warnings to people. We come across notices at most of the places we visit, for instance, educational institutions, shopping centres, railway stations, hospitals, parks, housing societies, etc. They are usually put up on notice boards, which are assigned as notice boards. The notice boards in educational institutions and business organisations are usually indicated as staff notice board/faculty or employee notice boards. They can be further sectioned into games, meetings, general activities or time table, working hours, quality policy, or any other important matter, such as safety precautions.

A notice is given not only for the benefit of the information of others, but as a precautionary step taken by the organization to claim, if required, that proper information in this regard was communicated to all by a notice, dated such and such. And the workers, visitors or students are supposed to read the notices as a routine.

The organization makes particular persons responsible for attaching the notice to the notice board and removing it after a specified time.

Drafting a Notice

A notice should be short, simple, and precisely written. It should communicate only the amount of information required by the reader to act or know for doing a particular thing.

A notice should have the following details:

1. Heading of the notice. Subject and purpose to be mentioned in the heading clearly.
2. Date on which the notice is written.
3. The persons for whom the notice is written.
4. Give the name of the authorising person who is issuing the notice.
5. Give briefly other necessary information, such as date, time, and place if it is notice of a meeting seminar or some other work.
6. Designing the notice in a way that it attracts the attention of people who pass by the notice-board.
7. To attract attention, leave enough white space on all the four margins.
8. Double space each line.
9. Choose the positive and polite tone. Avoid negative implications, for an effective drafting of notices.

Designing Notices

When designing notices, your aim must be to ensure that your notice is seen and acted upon where necessary. Long, rambling paragraphs will not achieve this aim. When designing notices, bear in mind these guidelines:

Give the notice a clear heading.

1. Use different size print for emphasis.
2. Use sub-headings to break up the main information logically

    

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3. Use asterisks/bullet points to display points on separate lines.
4. Use the paper effectively to display the notice attractively.
5. Include the name of the writer at the bottom as well as a reference and date.

Example of a notice generally issued in organizations. The notice is placed on the workshop notice board.

Circular

A circular is a form of a written communication to inform or advise the reader about something. It can be written like a letter which is sent to several persons. It is usually written once, but used in the same form at different times. It is, therefore, not dated. And it is addressed in a general manner not to any particular person,

 

REPORT WRITING

What Is a Report?

After the letter and the memo, the report is the most used form in business writing. A report can be defined as a communication in which the writer (or speaker if it is an oral report) provides information to some individual or organization because it is his or her responsibility to do so.1 It is an assigned communication for a purpose and for a specific receiver/reader.

The common element in all reports is the element of responsibility. The writer is obliged to communicate what he or she knows to those who need this information, as a part of an assigned, clearly defined, time-bound task.

• Other forms of writing, such as essays, are subjective in nature. They reflect the writer s personality.
• An essay can be factual, but it remains subjective in its treatment and presentation. The essayist does not usually offer evidence for his or her writing, nor does the reader look for it. The reader of a report, on the other hand, looks for facts and evidence.
• As a form of creative writing, an essay's purpose is largely self-expression for the author and providing entertainment or enjoyment for the reader.
• An essay is rooted in the writer's imagination, whereas a report is rooted in investigation and analysis. This is why an essay has a beginning, but may not have a report's logically derived conclusion. Moreover, it has no signposts, headings or sub-headings, or bullet points to indicate a coherent structure that moves from the beginning, through the middle, to the end.
• Reports generally draw on outside sources. They present facts, conclusions, and recommendations based on investigation and analysis of data obtained by observation of facts.
• The word “paper” can mean several things, such as an article, a detailed report, or a project report. However, it most commonly refers to research writing.
• Reports have a highly structured format.
• Each part of a report is numbered and captioned with headings and sub-headings.
• The language of a report is concise and concrete.
• Reports contain recommendations and conclusions.
• They make use of tables and graphs.
• Reports are usually preceded by a summary.
• Reports can be oral or written, but essays are always written.

Thus, a report is distinct from an essay or any other form of writing.

 

Purpose of a Report

While collecting data, the investigator should remember that the report is not a descriptive statement of facts, events, or future possibilities. For example, the purpose of a report is not fulflled if it speaks about “the possibility of change of worksite”. Instead, the report should explain the reasons for changing the workplace, discuss the need for doing so, compare the relative advantages of different choices available, and choose and recommend the best option. The basic purpose of a report is to help the management identify the reasons underlying a specific situation. The factors responsible for the problem, the alternatives available for solving it, and the best course of action to take emerge from a thorough study of all relevant facts and factors. The main purpose of report is to present specific conclusions regarding the problems existence and solution.

 

Types of Reports

Reports vary in style, subject matter and presentation. They may be classified on various bases such as:

• Presentation—oral and written reports
• Length—short and long reports
• Nature—informal and formal reports
• Purpose—informational and analytical reports
• Time Duration—routine/periodic and special reports

1. Oral Reports: An oral report is a face-to-face communication about something seen, observed, experienced or investigated. It generally consists of impressions, observations and experiences. It is simple and easy to describe, quick and immediate to present and gives first-hand information, but it may not be as objective and as detailed as a report has to be. It saves time for the reporter, but may be strenuous for the listener as he/she has to listen and memorise each and every word at the moment. Moreover, it lacks authenticity and is difficult to preserve. An oral report may not be used for taking vital decisions, but it is beneficial in judging speculations and impressions and can be used to take an immediate action.
2. Written Reports: A written report provides a permanent record; so, it is always preferred to an oral report. Moreover, a written report is accurate and precise while an oral report may be vague at times. There are no chances of distortion of facts while transferring information from one source to another. A written report is more formal than an oral report and is generally used to communicate complex facts. It is a visual aid to communication as the reporter may organize message into paragraphs highlighting the main points.
3. Short Reports: Short reports can be presented in the form of a letter or a memo. They are concerned primarily with day-to-day business problems as well as their solutions. A short report consists of three parts—an opening, body and ending. Short reports, generally include periodic, situational and progress reports.
4. Long Reports: Long reports describe a problem in detail. They include the process of preparing the outline of the topic, collecting data, making a rough draft, logical and organized presentation of facts, thorough revising, editing, and preparing the fair draft, etc. These reports require a detailed study of an issue. The important parts of a long report are—preface, introduction, summary, abstract, description, conclusion, appendices, glossary, and index.
5. Informal Reports: Certain business reports can be short and informal. In current business dealings, informal reports are more frequent than the formal ones. Basically, informal reports perform the same function as the formal reports—transmitting information, facts or data to someone for taking decision. However, informal reports are quite brief (around one to five pages), that too when you have supplementary material, such as bibliography, appendices, etc. The style of writing is positive, personal, and conversational. Depending on the requirement, they may have heading, illustrations, footnotes, etc., but may not include all the details like formal reports. Informal reports are written in the form of memo reports or letter reports.
   • Memo Reports: Memo reports play a significant role in an organization. These reports are generally written to: (1) co-workers to give information, express opinion or to state a viewpoint, (2) subordinates to provide information, explain a policy or a procedure, give instructions or to announce changes, and (3) your boss to give information, make a request, propose recommendations, give suggestion, or to confirm an agreement. The memos are important because they ensure smooth flow of information in all directions in all the organizations.
   • Letter Reports: Reports written in the form of letters are called letter reports. The letter reports combine the features of a business letter as well as a formal written report. They follow the format of a business letter, convey technical information to a company, contain factual information, and they are written from the perspective of the readers. However, the purpose of a letter report unlike a business letter is to provide information as it is a technical document in content as well as in tone.
6. Formal Reports: A formal report is the result of thorough investigation of a problem or situation. Formal reports are generally detailed and elaborate. These reports follow a fixed format. The length of the report may vary according to the requirement. Formal reports include informational, analytical, routine, special, technical, project, research reports, etc.
7. Informational Reports: An informational report presents facts, situations, or problems required to take vital decisions. The writer collects relevant information, compiles, and organizes it in an orderly manner and presents it as objectively as possible. Informational reports record happenings such as conferences, seminars, tours, and so on and supply details for future planning.
8. Analytical Reports: Analytical reports present data along with an analysis of it. The writer studies facts, situations, or problems neutrally, evaluates the information, draws suitable inferences, and puts forward his/her recommendations and conclusions. Project reports, feasibility reports, and market search reports fall in this category.
   • Project Reports: Project reports usually provide pre-investment information required for investments before setting up the project. These reports are based on small investigations. Cost, goods, machinery requirements, etc., given in the report are rough calculations. They also keep the organizations regularly updated about the progress of the long-term projects or bring an important issue in the limelight.
   • Feasibility Reports: A feasibility report evaluates a proposal in terms of the difficulty in carrying out a plan. Generally, a feasibility study precedes technical development and project implementation. Market feasibility study involves testing geographic locations for a real estate development project. It takes into account the importance of the business in the selected area. Authorities often require developers to complete feasibility studies before they approve a permit application for retail, commercial, industrial, manufacturing, housing, office or mixed-use project.
   • Market Search Reports: These reports contain guidelines for the promoters of the new products, policies, organizations, etc. Market research is an organized effort to gather information about markets or customers. It is done for discovering what people want, need, or believe or how they act. Once that research is completed, it can be used to determine how to market the product. This report collects data on market trends, users and prices of different commodities.
9. Routine/Periodic Reports: Routine reports, also known as form reports, are usually written on a prescribed proforma. The main purpose of these reports is to record the progress of a task, evaluate the performance of its employees and to record the success or failure of a policy. As these reports are written periodically, they are also called periodic reports. They generally include laboratory reports, progress reports, inspection reports, production reports, monthly sales reports, annual confidential reports, etc. All the organizations, institutions, companies, and research estab lishments depend on routine reports for various decisions.
   • Laboratory Reports: A laboratory report records the experimental work done in a laboratory to analyze a theory, conclusion, or validity of a particular research. One has to record the process, reactions, and results accurately to arrive at a convincing conclusion. These reports include title, experiment number, date, purpose, apparatus used, procedure adopted, observations, conclusions, and signature.
   • Progress Reports: A progress report informs the readers about the progress and status of a long-term project. The project may be about installation of a factory, construction of a bridge or a residential colony, or some research work carried out in an organization. These reports are written at the various stages of the project. The essential details included in these reports are title of the project, total work to be done, time allotted, date, work already done, work to be done, time required, future plans, remarks, name, signature, and designation of the reporter.
   • Inspection Reports: Inspection reports are written to ascertain whether or not the work is going on satisfactorily, infrastructure facilities are sufficient or the quality fulfils the required specifications. These reports are written in factories as well as in educational organizations to check and ensure the quality.
   • Production Reports: To control the budget and expenditure, standards are set for a production department based on the capacity of machines, time needed, and the manpower employed. To ascertain the efficiency of a factory, production report is prepared. These reports normally give details of the standard production decided in a given time frame, actual production, or the comparison of the standard time required, and the time utilized.
   • Monthly Sales Reports: Monthly sales reports track the sale of a product in the market. They report increase or fall of sale in a particular time period as well as the factors responsible for it and give their recommendations accordingly.
   • Annual Confidential Reports: Annual confidential reports are written to evaluate the performance and the general conduct of the employees in an organization. Such reports may be subjective as the human qualities, such as alertness, zeal, confidence, etc., may not be measured. However, these reports are used to determine their efficiency, critically appraise their achievements, and assess their usefulness before granting them increments or promotions.
10. Special Reports: Special reports are written to convey special information related to a single condition, situation, occasion, or problem. These reports do not contain repeated information as they are written about the specific situations. Like other reports, these reports also help in decision making as some of the most important decisions are taken on the basis of special reports. Special reports include inquiry reports, research reports, thesis, dissertations, etc.
    • Inquiry Reports: These reports are prepared by the special committees appointed by some government or private organizations to investigate the cases of mishap, carelessness on the part of the officials, charges of corruption, or some antisocial activity. Such reports are prepared in groups because they demand thorough investigation of an issue, objective interpretations and recommendations, and systematic presentation of information. These reports are very common in administration as no action can be taken against any one without proper justification.
    • Research Reports: Research reports are prepared by the researchers and scholars of various universities, colleges, and research organizations to present a concrete proof of the conducted research. While preparing a research report, you must aim at clarity, organization, and content. Research reports are all the more same like technical reports, laboratory reports, and scientific papers which follow a consistent format to display information clearly.

Factors Determining the Choice of the Form of Report

In the world of business, a report can be a short information account of the present state of work, say a project (essentially a memo), to a long, formal, well-documented report of a corporate or government department.

Each organization, normally, has its own “in-house” method of presentation, which will always be adhered to by its report writers. The writer of a report in an organization is guided by:

• a specific layout—sequence of information
• its own cover—organization, code number, and other related information about the author, subject, and details of submission.

 

Layout: Recommendations and conclusions may precede discussion.

Assigning a Report—Terms of Reference: In an organization, the task of producing a report on a specific problem can be assigned to an individual or a team. The problem, purpose, scope/limitations, budget, cultural consideration, if any, related to ethical or ethnic values of the organization, and the date for submission (time-limit) are clearly given while authorizing the person responsible for submitting the report. These specification guide the report writer. They from what is called ‘Terms of Reference’. The one who needs the report to be prepared sets down these terms.

 

The process of writing a report is left entirely to the writer. Report writing involves Research and Analysis and Presentation. The writer has to first investigate the problem, search for facts, gather evidence for the facts observed, and then analyze before predestining observations, conclusion, and suggestions as solutions to the problem. The writer can, however, choose from various methods of enquiring into the problem—visits, interviews, questionnaires, data banks, studying record of the organization, consulting existing literature and documents as relevant sources of information. The writer also needs to know the total context and background of the subject of investigation. Background study and data collection may sometimes pose difficulties, but without this effort, a report will not be authentic.

 

Objectives of a Report

A report is primarily a source of information that helps in decision-making. It can also be used to offer a solution to a business problem. Its objective can be:

• To give information about a company's activities, progress, plans, and, problems.
• To record events for future reference.
• To recommend a specific action.
• To justify and persuade readers about the need for action in controversial situations.
• To present facts to the management to help decide the direction the business should choose.

The study and report should be comprehensive. They should examine all aspects of a problem and the potential solutions. The recommended solution and its advantages or disadvantages should be analyzed in relation to management as a whole, not just the entrepreneur. All groups—workers, staff, customers, and so on whose interests may be affected in different ways by a change should be considered.

The report writer should consider the objectives of the report from the point of view of its recipients and ask the following questions as guidelines:

• For whom is the report written?
• What is their level of information and education?
• How much do they already know about the problem?
• Why do they want the report?
• What do they want to know, and in how much detail?
• How does the report's result (conclusion) help them?

Writing Reports

A report presents facts, conclusions, and recommendations in simple and clear language, and in a logical and well-defined structure. The elements (parts) of a full report, in the order of their sequence in a long, formal report are:

• Cover
• Title page
• Acknowledgements
• Table of contents
• Executive summary
• Introduction
• Discussion/description
• Conclusions
• Recommendations
• Appendix
• List of references
• Bibliography
• Glossary
• Index

The first five elements (cover, title page, acknowledgements, table of contents, and executive summary) constitute the front matter; the next four elements (introduction, discussion, conclusions, and recommendations) form the main body; and the last five elements (appendix, list of references, bibliography, glossary, and index) constitute the back matter.

Structure of a Report

In the normal arrangement, the conclusions and recommendations are positioned after the discussion. However, this is not the case in the alternative arrangement of a report. Business executives are usually short of time and are, therefore, more interested in knowing the conclusions and recommendations of the study. A detailed description of the discussion may, therefore, appear after the conclusions and recommendations in the alternative arrangement.

 

The order of elements in a formal business report may be as given in Exhibit 4.21. The researcher should also keep in mind the non-technical background of his or her readers and demarcate certain parts differently as shown in Exhibit 4.21.

 

Basic and Subsidiary Parts of a Report

The basic and subsidiary parts of a report are delineated in Exhibit 4.22.

 

Basic Parts of Report	Subsidiary Parts of Report
Executive summary	Cover
Introduction	Title page
Discussion	Table of contents
Recommandation	Bibliography/references
Appendix	Glossary

 

Exhibit 4.22 Parts of Formal Report

 

Some subsidiary elements—the table of contents, the bibliography and references, and the glossary— are used only in long, formal reports. The cover and title page in short reports are replaced with the heading and other similar devices.

 

Short Management Reports A short report is usually written either in the form of a memorandum (memo) or a letter. Usually, reports meant for persons outside the company or clients are written in letter form. The short report:

• Uses the title page or just the report's title as the heading or subject.
• Is usually in direct order, beginning with a summary or a statement summarizing the content.
• Presents findings, analysis, conclusions, and recommendations.

Memos

Memos are used as internal messages in companies. They are informal and need very little introductory or background information. Their goal is to address and solve an internal problem. An example of a memorandum is given in Exhibit 4.23.

Exhibit 4.23 A Memorandum as a Short Report

Letters

Letters are usually written to deal with smaller problems and are organized in an indirect order. They usually end on a note of goodwill. An example of a letter report is given in Exhibit 4.24.

 

Exhibit 4.24 A Letter as a Short Report

Writing Elements of a Long Formal Report

Some of the elements of a long formal report are discussed in detail in this section.

Title Page   The title page includes the following:

• The heading (title of the report), which should be short, clear, and unambiguous
• The name and affiliation of the author(s)
• The department and date of issue

An example of a title page is given in Exhibit 4.25.

 

 

Acknowledgements The writer of the report should thank everyone associated with the assignment and preparation of the report. He or she should be generous in expressing gratitude. An example is:

I thank my organization, PPL Feedback Packaging Limited, for giving me the opportunity to conduct this research project. A special word of thanks to Mr Suresh Kumar (Director and Chief Executive), Mr Nitin Khanna (DGM), and the executives of PPL Feedback Packaging Limited for giving me the necessary guidance and help.

I also thank all the respondents of the survey, who gave me valuable information to carry out the study.

Finally, I wish to thank my colleagues in the marketing department, whose inputs were invaluable to the research.

Cover Letter The cover letter is usually written by top management or project guides as a preface or foreword to a report, reflecting the management's policy and interpretation of the reports findings, conclusions, and recommendations. It introduces the report and tells readers why it is being sent to them. The cover letter is usually placed between the cover and the title page. It is never bound inside the report. It can be written in the form of a memo, a letter, or a forwarding certificate.

Letter of Transmittal Many times, a formal report is accompanied by a letter to outside readers. Although the letter of transmittal is usually placed after the title page, it functions as a greeting to the reader. The letter summarizes the findings, conclusions, and recommendations and gives an idea of what is in the report. It is best written in a direct, conversational manner.

1. It begins by directly talking about the subject of the report. For example:

    

   Dear Ms Singh,

   Here is the report you requested on August 20 regarding a plot of land for your proposed playschool in Greater Noida.

    

2. The table of contents indicates the hierarchy of topics and their sequence.
3. It then gives a brief review of the contents of the report.
4. It acknowledges the contribution of others to the study, if any.
5. The letter ends by thanking the person or body who authorized the report and expressing hope for future interaction. This letter should be written in the personal style of a business letter—that is, using personal pronouns, first person, and active voice. The tone should reflect sincerity. Nowadays, a cover letter is generally preferred to a letter of transmittal.

Table of Contents Long reports must have a table of contents placed After the acknowledgements and before the executive summary. The table of contents is an important element in a long, formal report as it identifies the topics and their page numbers in the report (or any long document). The table of contents also indicates the hierarchy of topics and their sequence and mentions the main sections of the report exactly as they are worded in the text. An example is given in Exhibit 4.26.

 

 

Abstract and Executive Summary

An abstract or executive summary comes immediately after the list of tables in the table of contents or on/after the title page itself. Normally, a report has either an abstract or an executive summary, based on the length of the report and expectations of readers. A company practice may be to have both an abstract and an executive summary with long reports.

 

A summary:

• Should give the context of the report
• Should provide the most important findings, conclusions, and recommendations
• Should act as a time-saver for busy management executives

Usually, management reports use executive summaries instead of abstracts. An abstract is a summary of a report's most important points. It can be either descriptive or informative and is generally written in about 200 words and in one paragraph. An executive summary gives a more detailed overview of a report than an abstract does. It can run into one or two pages. It presents the reader with a preview of the report's findings, conclusions, recommendations, and impact on the company. Management executives sometimes need to know just the main contents of a report, specially its conclusions and recommendations, and a detailed synopsis in the form of an executive summary serves this purpose.

 

Descriptive Abstract A descriptive abstract only mentions the topics discussed in the report. It does not give details on those topics. For details, the reader has to go through the report. Busy executives have little patience with such a skeletal account of a report's important conclusions and recommendations. Therefore, descriptive abstracts are less popular with writers of business report's. For example, consider a descriptive abstract of the report“Identification of market potential and entry strategy for consumer paper bags”. It would be as follows:

The study finds that the market potential for paper bags is not picking up due to the price of paper bags when compared to polybags. It is recommended that the company PPL Feedback supply paper bags at a lesser cost to compete with polybags.

Informative Abstract An informative abstract discusses the main subject and presents conclusions and recommendations. Formal report's and scientific and technical articles often use an informative abstract. An informative abstract for the report “Identification of market potential and entry strategy for consumer paper bags” would read as follows:

 

This report explores new ways to expand the company's (PPL Feedback and Packaging Limited) business, from industrial bags to consumer bags, to meet its growth targets.

The objective of the study was to study the market potential of consumer paper bags for rice and to identify entry strategies for the company. It was found that the market potential for paper bags for rice is about 27 million bags per annum at present; there is an interested segment whose requirement is 27 million bags. The recommendation is that PPL Feedback should price paper bags lower than polybags.

 

This abstract provides more details of the report's contents than the descriptive abstract.

Executive Summary An executive summary covers all the major elements of a report's content:

1. Background of the problem
2. Major topics
3. Important details
4. Main conclusions
5. Recommendations
6. Discussion of how implementation of the recommendations would affect the company.

An executive summary of the PPL report is shown in Exhibit 4.27.

 

 

Exhibit 4.27 Executive Summary of the PPL Report

Discussion of Findings and Analyses

This is the main body of the report. It discusses findings and analyzes results. The information is developed in one of the ways discussed here.

 

Chronological Development The information can be arranged in the order in which the events happened. This is the simplest method of presenting information—as a story with a beginning, middle, and an end. Chronological development requires relatively little planning and organization. The writer selects and arranges the major topics in the order of their occurrence. Non-significant events are left out.

 

This method is usually used for writing short reports, progress reports describing the status of a project, and investigative reports that discuss investigations conducted over a long time and at different places.

By discussing each event step by step, the cumulative effect of a variable (factor/thing) can be seen through the conclusions drawn at suitable intervals. The organization of information is easy to determine, as the report writer is guided by the order in which events actually took place.

Subjectwise Development

The information can also be arranged according to the subjects or topics discussed within the report. The subjects are grouped in a predetermined order. This arrangement makes the presentation of information coherent and logical.

When a report involves the study of two or more variables acting upon something, the writer has to arrange the discussion by subject. The writer could describe the effect of one variable on the subject and then proceed in chronological order to determine the cumulative effect of the variable on the subject. Then, in a similar manner he or she would study and describe the effects of the other variable, and record chronologically its cumulative effect.

The question that then concerns the writer is regarding the sequence in which each variable should be discussed if there are several variables of equal importance. The writer has to choose the sequence according to the variable he or she wants to recommend or emphasize. The report can move in increasing order of suitability or move from the most suitable to the least suitable. Before structuring the information, the writer should make the order clearly known by stating whether ascending or descending order is being followed.

Suppose an automobile dealer wants to recommend the most suitable model of luxury car to an executive. He or she will follow the descending order. After evaluating the price, fuel consumption, speed, automation, seating capacity, space, and after-sales guarantees for different models of luxury cars, the dealer would then recommend the model most suitable for the customer. In this case, the dealer has, in fact, made a comparative study of the essential parameters that determine a buyer's choice of a car and presented the information accordingly.

Concept Development

The information can be organized “concept-wise”. This means that the writer develops his or her argument and reasoning on the lines of his or her thoughts.

 

A report writer can arrange the report by following the logical sequence of the investigation. The writer can develop the topic by describing each step in sequence with the step that follows it, in a series of steps that builds up his or her argument. The logic of the argument guides the organization of the report. Each part or stage of the project is seen as part of a well-linked procession of ideas forming a complete concept.

In the concept-wise method, the writer tells the reader how he or she arrived at the results and why they are valid. This method should be employed when the topic is complex and reasoning and careful consideration are required to explain the various concepts used in reaching the conclusion. When the best result can be selected by a simple and direct analysis, for instance the choice of a car or a site for a new house, subject-wise development would be more appropriate than concept-wise development. Whatever the method of developing the main argument, the report should be logically organized and the narration interesting and convincing.

Glossary

The glossary is the list of technical or special terms used in a report or technical paper and is placed at the end of a report, before the index. It alphabetically lists words or phrases that need special attention. It explains the usage of technical terms peculiar to the industry. A glossary of usage includes rules for forming compound words, abbreviating technical terms, and writing unusual or difficult words. A glossary also acts as a dictionary for some select words that are often confused, misused, or wrongly spelled. These are:

 

• Words that are often confused because they are similar in meaning or spelling; examples are diplex and duplex, ground floor and first floor, postpone and cancel, or imply and infer.
• Common errors of usage, such as many a times (should be many a time), one of the best option (in place of one of the best options), comprised of (for comprises).
• Words that tend to be wrongly spelled; examples are agism (correct spelling is ageism), accomodation (instead of accommodation), seprate (should be separate).
• Words having more than one acceptable spelling, such as program and programme. In case of words like symposiums and symposia where both versions are in use, both are given in the glossary and a choice is indicated for one of them.
• Words like data, which is often wrongly used as singular or as datas for the plural, are specially entered in the glossary and their usage is fully explained. Data is plural (but is also treated as singular, although the singular form is datum). In scientific, philosophical, and general use, data generally means a number of items and is thus, regarded as plural, with datum as the singular. But, in computing and related subjects, it is taken to denote a mass or collective noun and is, therefore, used with words like this, that, and much and with singular verbs (for example, “useful data has been gathered”). The glossary, like the Oxford English Dictionary, will draw our attention to the meaning as well as usage of the word data and point out that although some people consider the use of data with a singular verb incorrect, it is now in common use. It will also point out that data is not a singular countable noun and should not be preceded by words, such as a, every, each, either, or neither or be given the plural form datas.

Appendix

The appendix is used to give a variety of information separately when its inclusion in the main body could interfere with the smooth reading of the report. It usually includes the text of questionnaires or other instruments of survey. Tables, flow charts, maps, summaries of raw data, and details of mathematical formulation are generally included in the appendix. Each appendix is numerically or alphabetically labelled to help the reader identify the material. Sometimes a descriptive title is given. The word “annexure” is sometimes used for the appendix.

The appendix may also include the distribution list. When a report is sent to several persons, it will contain a list of all the persons who receive a copy. The distribution list is placed according to its size or the customers or company's practice. However, it seems proper to place it as a separate appendix if the list happens to be long. A short distribution list can appear at the foot of the table of contents.

Index

An index (plural indexes or indices) is an alphabetical list of subjects, names, and so on, with references to page numbers where they occur in the report or book. It is usually placed at the end. It should not be confused with the table of contents, which always appears at the beginning of the report or book.

In long reports and voluminous works, an index helps the reader locate a subject easily wherever it has been mentioned or discussed in the text. For example, “Order refusals 115” entered in a report s index means one can find order refusals mentioned on page 115. In a book's index, the entry “Research questions 34 a—675” means that the topic of research questions is discussed on page 675 under section 34a.

Normally an author's note about the symbols used in indexing subjects appears at the beginning of index entries, which helps the reader follow the way entries are made. For more information, see Lynn Quitman Troyka's note on indexing in the Handbook of Writers.²

Framing an Outline

Some guidelines for framing an outline include:

1. Introductory and concluding sentences: These do not form part of a formal outline. The thesis or the topic statement is placed before the first sentence.
2. Numbers, letters, and indentations: The formal outline begins with the capitalized Roman numeral I, which numbers the first main idea and is followed by the Roman numerals II, III, and so on, which are used to indicate major subdivisions of the topic. Indented capital letters (A, B, C, and so on) are used to mark the next level of generality, while small letters (a,b,c, and so on) indicate a further level of generality, if any. This arrangement is based on the principle that each subdivision is placed above the next level of specific detail given by the outline. It may be noted that in a sentence outline if an entry is longer than one line, the second line is indented by one word. That means that the second line begins under the second word of the first line.
3. At least two entries at each level: In an outline, there can be a topic numbered “I” only if there is “II” that follows it, and similarly, there can only be an “A” when there is a “B”. Without at least two parts, no category can be divided. Where a category has only one subdivision, it should either be left out or reclassified, or expanded to include at least two subdivisions.

    

   For example:

    

   Incorrect

   1. Standards of hygiene in the canteen not satisfactory
      1. Food left over from lunches
   2. Fridge not defrosted frequently

   Correct

   1. Standards of hygiene in the canteen not satisfactory
   2. Safety issues regarding electrical sockets in the canteen

   Correct

   1. Standards of hygiene in the canteen not satisfactory
      1. Food left over from lunches
      2. Fridge not defrosted frequently
   2. Safety issues regarding electrical sockets in the canteen
4. Levels of generality: All subdivisions should have the same level of generality. A main idea and a supporting detail cannot be placed at the same level.

    

   Incorrect

   1. Starting an IT centre
   2. Conducting computer courses

   Correct

   1. Starting an IT centre
   2. Opening a health resort
5. No overlap: There should be a fresh point under each heading. The same idea should not be repeated in different places.

    

   Incorrect

   1. People move away from villages
      1. They go in search of jobs
      2. They go to seek their livelihoods

   Correct

   1. People move away from villages
      1. They go in search of jobs
      2. They often change their outlooks
6. Parallelism: All statements (divisions and sub-divisions) should have grammatically parallel construction. For example, if one item begins with the -ing form of the verb, other items should also begin with form verb + -ing.

    

   Incorrect

   1. Negotiating peace
   2. Promote understanding

   Correct

   1. Negotiating peace
   2. Promote understanding
7. Punctuation and capitalization: Only the first word or a proper noun should be capitalized in each entry. Please note that a full stop should be used at the end of each entry only when it is a sentence outline. No punctuation mark is used at the ends of entries in a topic outline.

Outlining is the key to organization; it is essential for writing any form of business communication. To determine the sequence of ideas (or presentation) in any piece of writing, the writer has to consider the level of importance of the information and also the order in which it should be known. For instance, when writing a report, one could mention the problem first and then discuss the method used to solve it, followed by findings and conclusions.

Since the reader of a report is more interested in the findings and conclusions, it is better to give more importance to these elements. The details of the problem and the methodology used to solve it receive less attention as they are of less interest to the reader. However, they provide the necessary background for the findings and conclusions. One could have an outline including all the four elements of a report in the form shown in Exhibit 4.28.

 

 

Exhibit 4.28 A Sample Outline

As the statement of the problem and description of research methodology are of lesser interest to most readers, they can be put together as two elements under the same entry, Introduction. As the other two elements, findings and conclusions, are of greater interest, they are entered separately as item II and item III.

The effort and time devoted to forming an outline are rewarded by the gain in clarity and understanding of the levels of significance of different elements in the composition.

 

Bibliography

All published and unpublished sources of information used in preparing the report are listed in the bibliography. All reference documents, previous reports, books, periodicals, and even letters written and received by the writer are mentioned in it. In using written material from secondary sources, report writers must always mention the source of the information by citing it as a footnote or endnote. Failing to document sources amounts to plagiarism.

Rules for bibliographies vary. In a report, the bibliography should conform to the style of documentation followed by the concerned company, just as a technical article or paper conforms to the form followed by the journal or society that is publishing the material. Though each organization usually has its own standard format of documenting sources, the general system followed is either that of the Modern Language Association (MLA) or the American Psychological Association (APA).

Documentation of cross-references should be done in a way that does not disturb the flow of the argument. The writer can provide references in footnotes at the end of each relevant page or can describe all references together in endnotes, which is the list of all references at the end of the report. In both cases, the reader can find all the details about sources mentioned in the report and can check the accuracy of facts by consulting the original sources. Endnotes are usually preferred as they are easy to refer to when desired. Also, footnotes create the problem of spacing the material on the page.

It is to be noted that each reference to be cited in the endnotes is numbered consecutively as 1, 2, 3, and so on. Each reference should have the same number when mentioned in the body of the discussion. The various styles for documenting the sources are discussed in greater detail in Appendix 12.

Diagrams in Reports

Report writers use tables and graphics, such as bar charts, line charts, and pictograms to explain ideas briefly and vividly. Diagrams, like all visual aids, communicate information clearly and effectively. For example, written instructions supported by illustrations to show how an eye-drop should be opened and applied would be far more effective than plain instructions in words alone.

 

Use of Tables A table presents numerical or topical data in rows and columns. A report writer should know some of the techniques of preparing tables for clear presentation of content. The most important technique is to label each table in a manner that allows the reader to locate the desired table easily. Some tips are given here:

1. Numbering all tables: The writer should number all the tables in the report consecutively by calling them “Table 1”, “Table 2”, “Table 3”, and so on. When referring to them, one can simply say, “as shown in Table 1, …” or “… in the following table”. This makes cross-references simple and clear. The table number should be written at the top of the table.
2. Labelling each table: Tere should be a complete heading or title for each table that clearly describes the contents of the table for the reader. As headings, the table titles can be as long as they completely describe the table's contents. The title can even run into two lines. It may mention sources of data, numbers included in the figures in the table, and the subject of the table. An example is: “Segmentation of market (5-20 kg) based on the usage of bags in the total market of 3,150 million”. For emphasis, the title of the table can be written in bold letters.
3. Column heads and sub-heads: Column heads and sub-heads should be used to classify information when several columns are given. For example, if the column head is “Cities” and the column lists several cities, they may be segregated by sub-heads that classify the cities under various zones, such as “North”, “South”, and so on.
4. Rows: Similarly, the subject of each row should be indicated by identifying its contents. For example, in a column that lists various sectors of the economy, the subject of the row should be identified as “Economic Sector”.
5. Footnotes: Footnotes are used to explain or qualify specific entries, if required.
6. There should be sufficient space between columns so that the data remain well separated.

Exhibit 4.29 is an example of a table with various parts labeled; it illustrates the layout, title placement, and headings for the vertical columns and horizontal rows effectively. Notice that if the table is taken exactly from some other source, the source must be mentioned.

 

Attributes of a Good Report

An effective reporting calls for professionalism, profound knowledge of the subject, attentiveness and outstanding writing proficiency. A good report is essentially:

• Brief and accurate—facts and figures should be presented in an accurate manner.
• Clear and logical in structure—indicates clearly where the ideas are leading
• Relevant and appropriate—concentrates on the particular problem and includes no irrelevant details or misleading ideas.
• Well-organized, systematic and definite in presentation of facts.
• Rational, persuasive, and specific in analysis and recommendations.
• Comprehensible—covers all vital details and conveys understandable information.
• All inclusive—What is the main problem? Who is/are involved in it? When did it arise? Where will the report be presented? How can it be presented the best?
• Highly objective—no place for prejudices, distortion of facts, or personal opinions.
• Written in good English—uses short sentences, correct grammatical structures, and spellings (In report you don't get marks for writing correct language, but you lose for writing wrong English.)
• Using appropriate layout and professional style.
• Neat and attractive in style and appearance—should make a good first impression.

Methods of Reporting

There are two methods by which individuals can write reports:

Letter Method

It may take the form of an ordinary letter. That means that usual formality of heading, address, inside addresses, salutation etc. should be maintained in the report. Below the salutation, the title of the report should come.

The next paragraph should show what procedure the report writer followed and what persons he interviewed. The rest of the paragraphs should show the findings and the last paragraph should give the conclusions or the considered opinion of the report writer. In short, it is just a more systematically written letter.

The Schematic Method

This method is more common in committee reports.

Here, the title of the report is given first. Then, the contents of the report are given under the following subtitles.

1. Terms of reference: This section should give the source or the authority that ordered the report. It also describes the scope of the report and its objectives.
2. Procedure: This section should give the method followed by the report-writer. It may mention the places visited, persons interviewed, etc.
3. Findings: The facts as they exist are presented in proper order here.
4. Recommendations or conclusion: This section should give the considered opinion of the report-writer based on the facts as interpreted by him. It has got to be an expert opinion based on incontrovertible facts.

The end may have the signature and designation of the report writer.

The following is a report presented in both the letter method and the schematic method:

1. Report on workers’ discontent presented in the Letter form

    

   

    

2. Report on workers’ discontent in the Schematic form

The same report can be presented in the schematic form with sub-headings for different points.

 

REFERENCE STYLE

Books

One author

Basu, A (1963), Consumer Price Index: Theory, Practice and Use in India, Modern Book Agency, Calcutta.

Two authors

Singh, M. and Pandya, JF (1967), Government Publications of India, Metropolitan Book Co., Delhi.

Tree authors

Mote, VL; Malya, MM and Saha J (1968), Tables for Capital Investment Analysis, Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad.

Edited book

Basu, G (ed.) (1962), Indian Tax Laws and Foreigners Having Investment in India or Having Business Connections in or with India, Oxford Book & Stationery, Calcutta.

Government publication

Ministry of Law, Government of India (1960), The Copyright Act, 1957, The Manager of Publications, Delhi.

Journal paper

Jain, SK (1967), World Class Manufacturing, International Journal of Operations Management, Vol. 6, No. 12, pp. 11-31.

pp. stands for page number.

Article in a newspaper

Gandhi, VP (1968), Will the Budget Achieve Its Aims? Certain Doubts, The Economic Times, Mar. 8, pp. 5-6.

Conference paper

Bhattacharya, S.K. (1967), Control Techniques and Their Applicability, paper presented at the Ahmedabad Management Association, Ahmedabad, Nov. 22, pp. 11-17.

 

CV WRITING

A résumé of a recent graduate lists:

• Personal/biographical details
• His or her educational background
• Details of his or her work experience
• References

A new college graduates résumé is generally just one-page long. It includes the applicant's career objectives, education details, work experience, and school/college activities. It is attached with the application letter. Because it is a fresh graduates résumé, educational qualifications are placed first and have a position of prominence. All information in the CV should be under bold, clear headings, so that the reader can easily find the desired information. Headings given in upper and lower case are easier to read than those entirely in capital letters.

There are several styles for writing a student résumé. For an example of a CV in the commonly used chronological format.

Heading

The heading should include the applicant's name, address, date of birth (if age limit is mentioned), telephone number, and e-mail address.

Objective

In this section, the applicant should mention the specific, desired position that suits his or her educational qualifications and experience. The objective should be stated in practical terms, not in a vague manner such as “I am anxious to join a challenging position in a renowned organization where I can prove my ability.” Employers want to know practical objectives, not the ambitions of the applicant.

Education

Should the list of educational qualifications begin from the school level and end with graduate and postgraduate qualifications, or should the more recent degrees be mentioned first? The chronological order may not be very impressive, and the highest qualification is generally the most important and relevant. It should, therefore, be emphasized by placing it first and listing the degrees in reverse chronological order.

It is not necessary to include school certificates, but the résumé should mention any short-term training or special certificate programmes taken in addition to coursework if they are relevant. It is especially important to specifically mention those courses or skills that are particularly important for the kind of position the applicant is applying for. Overall grades, along with grade points in different courses, should be listed if they are significant. The applicant should also list any specializations or majors with the grade point average. Any honours or distinctions should also be listed under a separate heading, along with other details of educational degrees, such as year of graduation, name of university or college, and subjects taken.

Work Experience

Relevant work experience should be listed in reverse chronological order. This category can include all experience, part-time as well as full-time, if the applicant's experience is not very extensive. However, someone who has worked in their field for several years need not list part-time positions.

 

For each position listed, the following details should be provided: the job title, the company's name, the location, and the duration of employment. There should be a brief description of the applicants role, responsibilities, and accomplishments, particularly at those jobs that are most closely related to the applicants career goals. It is important to remember that descriptions of responsibilities become more powerful with the use of action words, such as designed, prepared, developed, coordinated, supervised, directed, and so on. When mentioning the duration of employment, the exact day, dates, or months need not be given. The names of terms and vacations, with relevant years, are sufficient.

Applicants should remember that potential employers are not interested in simply reading a list of positions they have held. They want to know the specific methods, techniques, and processes used in different positions as well as any concrete accomplishments. Applicants should never write that they have no work experience. Fresh graduates may have had little opportunity to acquire professional work experience, but graduate students can gain some experience organizing functions, running student clubs, associations, and societies, managing events, undertaking industry visits, and so on. Graduates at management or technical institutes undertake summer projects or term/semester-long industrial training. In addition, some students earn money working part-time job(s) in their institutions. All such exposure forms a fresh graduate's “experience”. Instead of writing that they have no experience, it is better for recent graduates to mention all activities in which they have been involved as students. And while explaining their student experiences, they should emphasize how these experiences qualify them for the job.

Awards and Honours

The résumé should include a mention of all scholarships, prizes, and awards won in college. School awards show that the applicant has been consistently meritorious. Professional prizes can also be mentioned.

Activities

In this section, the applicant should mention his or her college activities. For instance, he or she can highlight a position as president, secretary, or coordinator in a student organization. The applicant can also mention any significant hobbies, such as playing a musical instrument or being an accomplished athlete.

References

Under references, the applicant should list the names of two or three persons who know that they are being listed as references. The full name, business address, e-mail address, and telephone number should be provided for each reference. References are expected to honestly speak about the applicant to the employer confidentially. Thus, they should be familiar with the applicant and his or her work and are usually professors or previous employers. They should not be related to the applicant. Sometimes, under references, one can write: “references available on request”.

Summary

Individuals with a lot of experience sometimes begin with a summary of their qualifications in place of a job objective. The recent practice is to place a summary of all major achievements and specializations below the name. The summary is supposed to help the reader of the résumé find the most relevant and important information about the applicant immediately. For the candidate, it acts as a strong preface or foreword to his or her experiences.

 

Essentials of a Good CV

A good CV provides basic information to the recruiter in a systematic form. It enables the employer to evaluate the applicant”s qualifications and strengths in just a few minutes and shortlist or reject the applicant based on this initial review. A good CV, by opening the door to an interview, can, therefore, mean a lot for one's career.

General “Do's” for writing a good CV include:

• Indicate a specific job objective or a summary of your qualifications.
• Highlight your accomplishments.
• Emphasize education/training/experience related to your job objective.
• Give details of professional activities that are supportive of your career objective.
• Proofread your CV and, ideally, also have someone else check it for typing errors.
• Ensure that all contact information is current and correct.

General “Don’ts” for writing a good CV include:

• Do not use first person or second person pronouns in the résumé.
• Do not use an uncommon format.
• Do not mention the expected salary.
• Do not leave any unexplained gaps in your experience.
• Do not give reasons for leaving earlier jobs.
• Do not use coloured paper.
• Do not send a handwritten résumé.
• Do not mention personal details, such as the number of children, marital status, or other details that are not relevant to the job.
• Do not be too brief or too lengthy.

Suitable Organization

The conventional method is to begin with personal details and end with references. But, a more practical method is to begin with the category that needs to be emphasized. For instance, if an applicant has little work experience, but a good education profile, then he or she should begin with education. Conversely, if an applicant has extensive work experience, then he or she should begin with work experience and bring up educational qualifications afterwards. Personal details can then appear as the last category, to be placed before references. Employers will be more interested in an applicant's qualifications and work experience than in his or her biographical details.

Appropriate Length

The CV of a fresh graduate should be neither too brief nor too long. One page is the ideal length. Experienced candidates have more information under each category. Hence, their CVs can be two to three pages in length. After several years of work experience, people do not list college activities and, instead, emphasize memberships in professional bodies and related professional activities. The résumés of highly experienced individuals may run into several pages, even up to 15 to 20 pages. There is no prescribed length; the length of such CVs is based on the needs of each individual candidate and job. These résumés may have more categories of information such as:

• Major qualifications
• Major achievements
• Activities and professional memberships

WRITING MINUTES OF MEETINGS

Minutes are a precise summary of the discussions and decisions made at a meeting.

Elements of Minutes

General formats of minutes include the following important details about a meeting:

1. Heading: The name, number, time, place, and date of the meeting whose proceedings are recorded
2. Lists of members present and that of the members invited, but absent
3. Any special invitees
4. Name of the chairperson who conducted the meeting
5. The starting time and the closure time of the meeting
6. All major decisions taken. The details of discussions are left out. Only the final conclusions reached are recorded.
7. Any follow up actions to be taken and the names of the persons designated for the purpose, if any
8. Suggestion for any further meeting on the subject, if any

In the format of minutes followed by some organizations, minutes record in detail the discussions, with the names of persons who contributed some important points or made significant observations.

The minutes are drafted very clearly and systematically with headings and subheadings. If any member presents tables or charts, the same are attached. (in copy form) Since the minutes are recorded for the reference and action of the participants, they are circulated among all the members or posted on the internet that they easily reach all the members of the organization.

PARAGRAPH AND ESSAY WRITING

For successful written communication, we should be able to choose proper words, construct effective sentences, develop well- organized paragraph's, and join them to produce longer themes, reports, proposals, or letters. The quality of written communication depends on the clarity and correctness of expression. Here, attention is given to expression in terms of: paragraph building, sentence construction, and use of words.

What Is a Paragraph?

A paragraph is a unit of thought consisting of many sentences, each of which is the smallest unit of the theme of the paragraph.

We are aware of a paragraph only as readers of a written communication. Typographically, or even in hand written text, it stands out indented by five spaces or by double space between two paragraphs, written without indentation if presented in block form style.

As listeners, we are aware of just words, the speaker's pitch of voice, and tone. There are no units of paragraphs, in oral communication. However, as readers we are concerned with different units of thought: paragraphs, sentences, and words.

Definition

Paragraph is the unit of written composition next larger than the sentence. It is a unit of composition in the sense that contains only one subject expressed in one main idea. The main idea is also known as central idea. And, it is this single central idea around which a paragraph develops, supported by other subordinate ideas. Unity is a paragraph's essential feature of composition.

Kinds of Paragraph

Paragraph can be of two kinds:

(1) Topical paragraph, (2) Special paragraph

The topical paragraph develops a topic or an idea. Special paragraphs introduce, conclude, or modulate the ideas developed in an essay.

The art of writing a proper paragraph, specially as a unit of a larger theme, is most important for knowing how to write well organized and unified essays, articles, reports, and themes (assignments).

The Topic Sentence

The main idea of a paragraph is found stated in a sentence called the topic sentence. The topic sentence states the subject of the paragraph. Usually, topic sentence is placed at the beginning of the paragraph. This gives focus to the sentences, which follow the opening sentence as developers of the main idea.

Sentence Functions in Paragraph Development

The sentences in most well written paragraphs may be analyzed into four general functions. First, there are paragraph introducers, which are sentences that establish the topic focus of the paragraph as a whole. Second, there are paragraph developers, which present examples or details of various kinds that support the ideas set forth by the paragraph introducers. Third, there are viewpoint or context modulators, which are sentences that provide a smooth transition between different sets of ideas. Fourth, there are paragraph terminators, which logically conclude the ideas discussed in the paragraph in a psychologically satisfying manner. Not all pieces of writing will conform to this analysis, however, most successful paragraphs usually contain some combination of these four sentence types.

(Source: Maurice Imhoof and Herman Hudson, From Paragraph to Essay Longman, London, 1976, p.l)

An analysis of the model paragraph given above will tell you that each sentence of the paragraph has a key idea. Each key word (idea) is given in italics. You should write down these italicized words from each of the six sentences. Further,

1. State the theme of the model paragraph as a whole.
2. Point out the function of the opening sentence in the paragraph given above.
3. Mention the four paragraph developers used in the above paragraph.
4. Do you find the last sentence in the paragraph as a good closing sentence? Give reasons for your answer.

You must have noticed that the paragraphs you have read are built around a single idea, which is usually stated in the first sentence of the paragraph.

In writing your paragraphs, use this method of placing the topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph. This will help you in achieving unity of ideas in your paragraph. The statement of the main idea/ theme at the beginning will also help your reader to know the subject at the very outset.

This is the most common pattern of paragraph formation. The main idea is stated first, then explained, illustrated, developed, and supported with examples or details in the subsequent sentences. Here is another example of this simple pattern. Note its main idea and see how it is further developed and repeated at the end.

Note: But, it is possible for a writer to place his topic sentence even at the end of the paragraph or in the middle of the paragraph. Sometimes, the topic may not be clearly and specifically stated in a particular sentence. In that case, the reader has to infer the main topic of the paragraph as he goes on reading it as a whole. For example, please consider the following paragraph on Growing Food:

Growing Food

“Farming provides most of the food we eat in India. Our chief food crops are cereals or grains. Cereals include maize, rice, and wheat. We also grow barley and gram. We can claim to be 70 per cent self-sufficient in food.”

If you read the above paragraph to see how the sentences are arranged, you will not fail to notice that the paragraph begins (its first sentence) by stating first its topic (growing food). Farming is the means of most of the food we need. The remaining sentences 2,3, and 4, further develop the paragraph by giving details of what we grow- our food crops, which include cereals or grains given in sentences 3 and 4. Sentence 3: rice and wheat. Sentence 4: barley and grain. All sentences are connected to the main topic.

The first sentence (the opening sentence), which states the topic of the paragraph is known as the “topic” sentence or introducer that establishes the topic focus of the whole paragraph. Now, read the following paragraph. Try to follow both the meaning and organization of the ideas discussed.

Our Deadly Enemies

“Flies are our deadly enemies because they feed upon dirt and rubbish. When they come and crawl over the meat, sweetmeats and cakes with their dirty legs they leave all kinds of germs behind them and thus, poison our food. To keep away flies we must clean our homes and yards. We must always put the lids on our dustbins. We must not throw rubbish into the streets, but put it into the dustbins. We must cover our food so that no flies can settle on it. We must never let flies sit on milk, or they will poison it.”

1. What are the two main ideas about flies in the paragraph?
2. Does the paragraph have unity of idea?
3. Where do you find a different idea starting in the paragraph?
4. Will you like to divide the given paragraph into two separate paragraphs? Why?_

Forms of Paragraph

A paragraph is a unified and coherent structure of sentences. It can run from a single word or a single sentence to several pages long like ‘Charles Lamb's Dream Children: A Reverie’, an essay in a single paragraph spread over several pages. Normally, paragraphs contain four to ten sentences. Business letters usually contain short paragraphs so that readers can grasp each single idea quickly, uninterrupted. The two words unified and coherent, used to define the form of paragraph, are the guiding features for the composition of a good paragraph.

When you read a paragraph, look for its single topic. Its central idea expressed in a particular sentence. The sentence that expresses the central idea is called the thesis, or topic sentence.

Variety in Paragraph Forms

The topic sentence is normally placed at the beginning of the paragraph. It helps the writer to organize the paragraph by first introducing the main idea and then develop the main idea with the help of other sentences stating the supportive ideas. Writers create variety in their writing by shifting the topic sentence from the opening position to the middle or at the end. Sometimes, the writer may leave the main idea unexpressed, simply implied. The shifting of the topic sentence breaks the monotony of reading paragraphs of the same form, a kind of deductive movement of ideas.

Examples of Different Patterns of Paragraph Development

The main idea stated first and then repeated at the end

Example:

“In technical writing, you report factual information objectively for the practical use of your readers. This information is usually specialized and directed towards a specific group of people. It is based on your experience, observations, and interpretations in a certain field. The purpose of technical writing is to inform and to persuade by providing facts (and opinions based on facts) that help readers answer question, solve a problem, make a decision, or perform a task. Such writing does not seek to entertain, to create surprise, or to stimulate emotions. It does seek to give readers the information they need-clearly and objectively.”

Notice how the main idea stated in the first sentence is restated at the end of the paragraph. Can you tell, why?

Topic Sentence in the Middle

Example:

“An American writer, called Thoreau, said, ‘It takes two to speak the truth - one to speak, and another to hear.’ This is a very important saying, and it would save a great deal of argument and annoyance in life if people paid attention to it. ‘It takes two to speak truth’. You cannot speak the truth by saying what you think is the truth. You have to express it differently for different people. To some people ‘socialism’ means taking money from those who have money and giving it those who have none. To other people 'socialism’ means state control of industry and commerce. We cannot tell a man ’the truth about socialism’ until you know what he understands by the term. If you say, ‘I believe in socialism’, and he understands that you mean you believe in robbery, you must not speak the truth. If a man says to a friend, good morning, Mr. A’, and the friend replies ‘it's not a morning at all’, is that the truth, even if the morning is bad?”

(Source: J.C. Hill, Introduction to Writing English)

Topic Sentence at the End

Example:

“I have collected a considerable number of papers and letters of national and historical interest. Many of these, connected with various phases of our national struggle for freedom, were unfortunately destroyed or mislaid during the long years when we were in prison. Still some remain. There are other papers and documents as well as letters relating to the subsequent period after I took office, which have also considerable historic value. All such important papers and documents and letters should be offered to the national library or the national archives.”

—Jawahar Lal Nehru

Main Idea Implied, Not Stated in any Sentence

Example:

“Experiments are sometimes made by experts to find out how many errors people do make in their statements. Here is one experiment, which was tried. Some students at a university were shown on a screen a picture of a bullfight. They were then asked to write short account of what they had seen. When this was finished, they were told to put a number on every statement made-1 if they thought so; 2 if they were fairly sure about it; 3 if they were quite sure; and 4 if they were prepared to swear to the statement on the oath. Every student had at least ten per cent errors in the statements he was prepared to swear to an oath, and considerably more than ten per cent in all the other groups.”

In this paragraph, the main idea implied is whenever you are arguing with some one about a point, remember that there is quite a good chance that you are wrong, however confident you feel about it.

Logical Order of Ideas: Coherence

There are two distinguishing features of a paragraph: Unity: presence of one single main idea; and, the other, Coherence: logical order of ideas.

No matter where the main idea (the topic sentence) is placed, the ideas are logically sequenced to form a single unified whole. The ideas are related to each other in a reasonable way.

 

Example:

Read the following conversation. There is a proper flow of ideas. The whole dialogue can be easily understood by you. Find out the words which are working as connectives between different arguments:

“I tell you”, said the man with the bicycle, speaking to a sergeant of police, “when I started from my house this lamp had plenty of oil in it. When I left the canal after my swim, I lighted the lamp with my own hands. Don't you see a wind is blowing, it might have been blown off at any time between here and canal.”

Analysis:

The material of this paragraph follows the logical order. A statement is made and then supported by means of examples; reasons are given which take us to a conclusion. The whole statement is based on a cause- efect relationship and the events are presented on the simplest method of order of time or the chronological order of events. These two methods of arranging the material of the paragraph, (1) cause-efect relation and (2) order of time, have given the paragraph its coherence.

Notice the repeated use of“when” to convince the sergeant that the lamp might have been blown off at any time between here and canal.

This paragraph also uses one more method of making the argument logical and convincing. The use of spatial arrangement: started from ‘home’ - reaching the ‘canal’ - being caught here.

The three methods of logically arranging the materials of a paragraph are:

1. Order of time (sequence of events)
2. Spatial order (distance, nearer)
3. Cause - efect relation

These methods can be used separately or together as seen in the short paragraph discussed above.

Lack of Coherence and Unity

Read the following paragraph and point out the different ideas placed together in a single paragraph.

“The police are always on the look out for bad characters and lawbreakers. Their chief duty is to maintain law and order in the country. If a man breaks a law, he must be punished. There are many types of anti-national and anti-social elements in our society, but the worst are terrorists who kill innocent human beings belonging to a particular community. Communalists who incite communal riots in the country are the enemies of the nation. Terrorists and communalists who want to destroy the unity and integrity of the nation are traitors and should be awarded the most severe punishment.”

The paragraph's topic sentence establishes our focus on the chief duty of the police. But, in the later sentences, the paragraph drops this idea and begins to discuss the anti-national and anti-social character's activities. It ends by suggesting punishment for those criminals and the sentences do not logically follow from one to another. This lack of logical progression of ideas is known as lack of coherence. Each sentence in the paragraph should be well connected to the central idea and also linked with the previous sentence logically.

Activity

Read the following paragraph and point out the source of its coherence. How is the material arranged?

“I had the good fortune of growing up with a sense of kinship with nature in all its manifestations. Birds, plants, stones were companions and, sleeping under the star-strewn sky, I became familiar with the names and movements of the constellations. But my deep interest in this our “only earth” was not for itself but as a fit home for man.”

(Source: Indira Gandhi, Human Environment, 1972).

Activity

Read the following paragraph and say if you find in it unity and coherence. Give reasons for your analysis. Discuss its development from the topic sentence to the end-sentence.

“I took the tattered object in my hands and turned it over rather ruefully. It was a very ordinary black hat of the usual round shape, hard and much the worse for wear. The linning had been of red silk, but was a good deal discoloured. There was no maker's name, but as Holmes had remarked, the initials ‘H.B’ were scrawled upon one side. It was pierced in the brim for a hat securer, but the elastic was missing. For the rest, it was cracked, exceedingly dusty, and spotted in several places, although there seemed to have been some attempt to hide the discoloured patches by securing them with ink.”

(Source: Arthur Conan Doyle, The Adventure of the Blue Carbuncle)

How to Write a Paragraph and Beyond

To construct a good paragraph, follow the guidelines given hereunder:

• Have a purpose - a single idea. State it in a topic/thesis sentence.
• Relate throughout to this central idea; it must not introduce any new or unrelated idea (which logically belongs to another paragraph).
• Develop logically from beginning to end; sentences must follow logically one upon another.
• Move smoothly from beginning to end, there must be a smooth change between sentences.
• Avoid construction of long paragraph's that contain too many ideas.

(On a larger scale, each paragraph must contribute to the whole essay in the same way as each sentence contributes to the whole paragraph. Therefore, the central idea of the whole paragraph must relate to the central idea of the whole essay.)

• The development from paragraph to paragraph must be logical.
• The transition between paragraphs must be smooth.

Paragraph Development

Development by Listing: List Paragraph

The simplest way to develop the paragraph is by enumerating details to support the main idea. Its examples you have seen in paragraph on Food Grains and the one on the Sentence Functions in Paragraph Development. The first sentence mentions four general functions of sentences in a paragraph. The subsequent sentences enumerate all the four functions: introducers, developers, context modulators, paragraph terminators with the description of each function. In the model list paragraph, notice the use of transitional words first, second, third, fourth, which help the smooth flow of ideas.

Development by Examples: Example Paragraph

Example:

“Now, here is one of the most surprising things in life: no man really understands himself. What a lot of argument and anger we should save if people would only understand this. Suppose, for example, you saw a motor accident and were giving evidence about what happened. You would feel perfectly confident, perhaps, that the car which knocked the boy over was a blue car; another person would be equally confident that it was a gray car; and someone else that it was a black car.”

This paragraph has all the essential elements of introducer, the developers, and modulator. But, in addition to providing transition, the word “suppose” develops the idea that no man really understands himself with different illustrations of self-delusion through perfect confidence.

Again, consider the following paragraph:

“It is not always easy in company to speak frankly, if you don't want to be considered a bad mannered person. You have to watch constantly for signs. It is not easy, for example, to listen for long to any one person. Try, in company, to take only a fair share of the conversation. If there are two of you, take half of it. When you have said a little, keep quiet, and give your friend chance to say something. If he does not talk, he probably does not want you to talk either. Many a young man or woman talks away, thinking the company is delighted to hear him or her, and everyone is really exhausted and angry.”

It is a list paragraph and reads also as an example paragraph. It also differs somewhat from the two paragraphs you have read earlier. It has two sentences, which act as paragraph introducers. The first sentence introduces the topic, which is to be developed in the paragraph. The second sentence - the topic sentence- “You have to watch constantly for signs”, further defines the subject more specifically. The sentences that follow as developers, elucidate the topic with examples of good manners for a person who does not want to be considered a bad mannered person when speaking in a company.

Again, read the following paragraph and notice the technique of developing the topic of all writing is for use of readers through different examples of purposes:

“All technical writing is for readers who would use your information for some purpose. You might write to describe something - as to an architectural client who wants to know what a new addition to his home will look like. You might write to explain something—as to a fellow stereo technician who wants to know how to eliminate base flutter in your company's new line speaker. You might write to persuade your vice-president in charge of marketing, who wants to know if it is a good idea to launch an expensive advertising campaign for a new lubricant. You might write to define something - as to an insurance customer who wants to know what variable annuity means. In short, as a technical writer, you do not write for yourself. You write to inform others.–

It is an excellent example of a paragraph's unity and coherence. The key ideas in the first and the following sentences are given with underlines. Consider their relationships among different sentences. Also comment on the nature of the last two sentences.

Activity

Now try to write an example paragraph with the topic sentence given below:

“The ability to write short, clear and correct sentences and well organized paragraphs is necessary for an undergraduate's success in all courses.”

Activity

The following sentences of an example paragraph are not written in their logical order in relation to the topic sentence. Read them carefully and list them in order of their function as topic sentence or developers with modulators and terminators:

Thus, crime reporters become the heroes of the newsroom. A house collapse is regarded as the saviour of the front page and a power cut becomes a national calamity.

The preferred option is the big local story blown up on page one day after day.

Usually newspapers cope in one of three ways. The silly season, which is a major journalistic term for a period when there is no major news to report and fill their front pages.

The second option - not preferred by most journalists, but usually successful in increasing sales - is to go tabloidesque and focus on celebrity stories, such as a Bollywood heroine's marriage failure or a rising tennis stars back hand or a threat to former Cricket Captain's life.

The third option is to find a political story and paste it on the front page to show that despite our concern for celebrities we are still a serious newspaper.

Paragraph Development by Comparison: Comparison Paragraph

To form a paragraph by comparison, we list the examples belonging to one subject and compare them with the examples of another subject. The topic sentence introduces and states the point of comparison between two objects. Then, sentences that function as developers of comparison are written in respect of both the objects separately. Modulators may be used to change the point of view or move from one set of ideas to another. Terminator, finally, sums up the main point of comparison.

Example of a paragraph developed by comparison:

“Wordiness - the failure to achieve economy is a common writing problem. Essays can be wordy because of scanty planning, corrected through global revision, or a monotonous style, corrected through better use of coordination and subordination. To eliminate wordiness within a sentence entails local revision. The two most common methods are deleting words and phrases and substituting more economical expressions for wordy ones.”

(Source: Trimmer, McCrimmon, Writing With A Purpose, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1988.)

Paragraph Development by Contrast: Contrast Paragraph

The paragraph development by contrast lists the dissimilar aspects of the two subjects. For example, the following paragraph contrasts the differences between mediocre art and great art in terms of complexity and difficulty:

“The difference between a simple folk melody or a hymn and the work of art that a Bach and Beethoven will then make of this tune is simply that the artwork is vastly more complex. Both the folk tune and the Beethoven sonata ultimately confirm the same laws of tonality and harmonies of the diatonic. The difference is that Beethoven will test the limits of the diatonic or work against the expectations of the diatonic for dramatic effect, or even leave that confine for brief and startling moments. We admire Beethoven and his fellow adventures for this, and hold them to be ‘great’, in part, because our culture admires the performance of difficult feats.”

[Source: Curtis White, The Middle Mind: Why Americans Don't Think for Themselves (London: Allen Lane 2003), p85.]

Paragraph development by contrast uses the same pattern of using a topic sentence as introducer of the main idea that the artwork differs from the folk tune in being vastly more complex than the simple folk tune. The following sentences function as developers of the details of specific differences between the artwork and folk tune. The paragraph terminates by culturally accounting for our natural admiration for the work of Beethoven and his group.

Paragraph Development by Definition: Definition Paragraph

Define means to give the definition of something and, in doing so, to separate it from similar things. Accordingly, a definition paragraph describes, explains, or defines an unknown term by relating it to a known term. It uses the methods of comparison, contrast and synthesis, generally, at the same time.

Example of a paragraph developed by definition:

“It is only stupid people who take remarks too literally, as we say; that is, who do not look for the real meaning in the statements people make. Thus, when a friend says, ‘you will not be going past the post office, will you?’ he may mean, ‘I should be grateful if you would post a letter for me if it is not too much trouble for you. If you say, ‘No’ to the question because you are not going past the post office, it means to your friend that you are not willing to go out of your way even a little to oblige him.”

This paragraph does not define stupid persons in terms of its dictionary definition as unintelligent fellows. The stupid people are literal in their understanding of things. They lack intelligence. They miss the contextual connotation of the statements people make.

The definition paragraph is usually written at the beginning of a chapter or long paper to describe a subject, such as communication, economics, or business management. It is a paragraph that in a way summarizes the concept in terms of its major concepts.

A definition paragraph is frequently used to explain a general concept, such as stupidity, good manners, photosynthesis, and the like by describing a particular example of the concept. Thus, an abstract term becomes concrete.

Activity

Here is a definition paragraph on“A Good Relationship”. The writer has used comparison to explain the real meaning (connotation) of the concept of good relationship. First, give the literal meaning (denotation) of the term good relationship, and then describe what you really understand about it from its comparison with the dancing partners.

“A good relationship has a pattern like a dance and is built on some of the same rules. The partners do not need to hold on tightly, because they move confidently in the same pattern, intricate but cheerful, swift and free, like a dance of Bharatnatyam or Manipuri. To hold tightly would be to break the pattern and cut the movement, stop the continuously changing beauty of its unfolding. There is no place here for the possessive clutch, the clinging arm, and the heavy hand; simply the barest touch in passing. Now together, arm in arm, now back to back, now face to face or parted - it matters little. For they know they are partners moving to the same rhythm, creating a pattern together, and being visibly nourished by it.”

(Adapted from Gift from the Sea by Anne Morrow Lindberg)

Paragraph Development by Classification: Classification Paragraph

Classification is the technique used to arrange into groups on the basis of shared characteristics.

Example:

Paragraph Forms

“A paragraph has many forms. It can be one word long or several pages long. Most paragraphs are three to ten sentences. Newspaper stories generally have short paragraphs to help readers easily resume from where they were, after being interrupted. Magazine articles, usually, have longer paragraphs than newspapers, but shorter paragraphs than many novels. The author decides the paragraph's length because each paragraph has one subject expressed in one main idea. The length follows the principle of Unity of a Paragraph.”

To reinforce your understanding of the paragraph development by classification, answer the following questions based on the model paragraph by classification.

What is classifed in the paragraph? Point out the sentence in the paragraph that defines a classification paragraph.

How does the author classify paragraphs in different forms?

What is the common feature in all the forms of paragraph?

Paragraph Development by Space: Space Paragraph

All paragraphs that describe objects, scenes, costumes, and so on, logically, list details in spatial order because objects occupy space. One can describe an object, or a painting, or a landscape from inside to outside, front to back, top to bottom, or any other order in which the space is logically perceived.

Example:

The City of Mandalay

“And so it happened, that at the age of eleven, walking into the city of Mandalay, Rajkumar saw, for the first time, a straight road. By the sides, of the road there were bamboo - walled shacks and palm - thatched shanties, pats of dung and piles of refuse. But, the straight course of the roads journey was unsounded by the clutter that flanked it; it was like a causeway cutting across a choppy sea. Its line's led the eye right through the city, past the bright red walls of the fort to the distant pagodas of Mandalay hill, shining like a string of white bells upon the slope.”

(Source: Amitav Ghosh, The Glass Palace)

This paragraph illustrates two features of descriptive writing:

1. Use of concrete words of form and colour.
2. Organization of the description by logically arranging the space from near to distant reach.

The paragraphs last sentence could be taken as a good example of descriptive power of words. Languages power to evoke visual image as a picture or painting does.

Paragraph Development by Time: Time Paragraph

It is easy to develop a paragraph by describing things in order of their happening. The chronological order provides a clear chain of successive events.

Example:

Background of Manufacturing in India

“The presence of traditional Indian skills in medicine, metallurgy, construction, textiles, hydraulics or early shipbuilding was an integral part of our innovativeness in ancient and medieval times. Witness the splendid metal icons and monuments, like the Taj Mahal that were created employing intricate human skills and human/animal power. India was renowned for her prowess in skills as diverse as surgery and muslin weaving. We were advanced in the use of fire and metallurgy. Still, the invention of machines that generate their own locomotive power by burning external fuels eluded medieval India. The internal combustion engine, the cornerstone of the industrial revolution in Europe, reached India only in the colonial period. India was a latecomer in learning the new manufacturing techniques invented in Europe. It was only in the late nineteenth and the first half of the twentieth century that India established a few sugar factories, steel and textile mills and began to think in terms of ambitious projects, like shipbuilding and aircraft and automobile manufacture. Thanks to visionaries like Walchand Hirachand.”

(Source: A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, India 2020)

The model paragraph, without mentioning specific dates, traces the presence and development of Indian skills in various areas of manufacturing from ancient to the beginning of modern times by mentioning them in chronological order.

Paragraph Development by Describing Processes and Mechanisms: Processes and Mechanism Paragraph

Process description follows definite steps in a given order in producing, operating, or manufacturing a thing. It is like following the various steps in conducting a scientific experiment.

Example:

When You Receive a Picture Message

“To view the message immediately, press View. Press back to discard the message. To view the message later, press Exit and save the message in the folder. When you save a new picture message, you may need to replace the factory installed picture message in the picture's folder.”

(Source: Nokia 2100, User's Guide)

Notice that the process description is written, generally, in an impersonal form. In scientific description of an experiment, the sentences are written mostly in passive form. For Example, nobody says, “I take a beaker and fill it with 250 cc of Sulphuric acid and heat it for some time.” Instead, we write it in its passive form, “A beaker is taken and filled with 250 cc of sulphuric acid and heated for some time.”

In such a description, the focus is on the process, not the doer of the act. Hence, the passive form is chosen to describe the method of doing the thing.

Features of a Good Paragraph

Unity

In the last section, you have seen that a paragraph can be developed in a number of ways. But, a paragraph remains a unit of composition with a central idea developed through supporting details. A badly written paragraph would lack unity; that is to say, it would have more than one central idea. The test of a good paragraph is that its theme can be stated in a single sentence.

Read the following paragraph and see if its structure needs improving. Do it, if you think so:

“As soldiers, hikers and students can testify, it takes energy to haul around a heavy backpack. Now, researchers have developed a backpack that turns that energy into electricity. It does not crank out a lot of juice - just a bit more than 7 watts - but that's enough to run things, like an MP3 player, a personal data assistant, night goggles, a handheld global positioning system or a GSM cell phone. The development could eventually allow field scientists, hikers, explorers, soldiers, and disaster workers to produce their own electricity.”

The following paragraphs lack unity. Some sentences of the paragraph are unrelated to the central idea. Cut out such sentences that should not be used in this paragraph:

“As a student, Rahul had one obsession in life - cricket. He talked about cricket, he read about cricket, and he dressed up like cricketers. He had pictures of cricketers from all countries on the walls of his study room. He did not care for football. Football is very popular in West Bengal, and many other parts of the world. Rahul thought of cricket as a royal game.”

“After the vedic era, the works of the renowned physicians Charka and Susruta, namely the Charka Samhita and Susruta Samhita, deal with about 700 drugs of daily and specific uses. Between the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries India witnessed great upheavals in the development of medical botany and some of the most widely used herbal drugs came to light in this period. For this reason, the period is also called the Age of Herbal Medicine. Since time immemorial, Himalayan Flora has been a major source of medicinal plants.”

Coherence

A paragraph may have unity, a single idea as its subject, stated in a good topic sentence, developed by supporting details, and yet it may not be a well-constructed paragraph. It could be lacking in coherence, the device that makes the ideas hold together. The sentences should be properly interrelated. One sentence should lead the reader to the next, and there should be an unbroken logical progression of thought. The movement of ideas should be smooth. The mind should not jump from one idea to some other idea that is not related to the earlier idea. For achieving coherence, paragraph writers use the following methods to make all sentences hold together:

1. Repeating key words
2. Using synonyms - words having the same meaning as other word
3. Referring back to the ideas expressed in earlier sentences
4. Signaling coming of new ideas

The following paragraph uses all the above devices:

“Employers first judge your writing skills by the quality of your application letter and resume. If you join a large organization, your retention and promotion may depend on decisions by top executives you have never met. In this case, the quality of your letters, memos, progress reports, work orders, requisitions, recommendations, and instructions will be regarded as indicator of the overall quality of your work. This is hardly time to hide your competence beneath carelessly written reports. Good writing skills give you advantage in any field. And, as you advance, your ability to communicate increases in importance while your reliance on your technical background may correspondingly decrease. The higher your professional goals, the better communications skills you need. Your value to any organization depends on how well you can convey to others what you know.”

(Source: John M. Lannon, Technical Writing)

Just analyze the sources of coherence in this paragraph:

The key phrase “writing skills” is used two times, and it is implied third time in “communication skills”.

The word “top executive” is a near synonym for “employers”.

In the third sentence, the use of “In this case” takes your attention back to the earlier sentence your retention and promotion may depend on ….” Consider the use of “this” in the fourth sentence. It refers the reader back to the situation stated in third sentence: “the quality of your letters, (etc.) will be regarded as indicator of the over all quality of your work”.

The use of“And” to begin a fresh sentence signals the addition of a further point of equal importance as stated in earlier sentences.

The paragraph has both unity and coherence. All the sentences in this paragraph stick together through the device of repetition of key words, and reference to earlier ideas. This paragraph talks about a single central idea - the value of communication skills for young professionals.

Now, try to identify the sources of coherence in the following paragraph:

“Your ability to communicate useful information increases your chances for success. As jobs become more complex and specialized, the demand for effective communication grows. In fact, much of the communication in the working world is carried out in writing. Therefore, few of us can afford to write poorly.”

ESSAY WRITING

Beyond Paragraph: Unity and Coherence

So far we have studied how a sentence or a paragraph is constructed and the twin principles of unity and coherence. As we move to longer composition, known as essay, we have to follow unity and coherence at beyond-paragraph level. An essay, like a paragraph, is a well-organized composition in which several paragraphs are coherently linked to develop the main subject - the theme of the essay. A good essay has a central theme stated in a paragraph, usually placed at the beginning of the essay.

Essay Structure: Beginning, Middle and End

Just as in paragraph, a sentence functions as an introducer, a developer, a context modulator or a terminator, a paragraph, in relation to an essay, acts as introducer, developer, context modulator, and terminator.

An essay should be a well organized single whole. It should have a beginning, middle and it should logically reach end. According to Aristole, beginning is that before which there is nothing, and every thing follows it. The beginning paragraph(s) should introduce the reader to the main topic to be developed in its scope and focus - the point of view. Introduction may need more than one or two paragraphs. For, in many longer research papers, introduction states the subject/problem of the research, its essential background, its scope and methods of investigation. Each of these points of information is covered by separate paragraphs that together form the introduction part of an essay (dissertation).

The middle paragrphs develop the argument using the devices discussed for developing a paragraph.

There can be context modulator or viewpoint modulator paragraphs too, used to present another perspective on the main theme of the essay.

Finally, the terminator paragraph brings the whole argument to a logically arrived end. The end must be conclusive in the sense that the questions raised at the beginning should be answered fully.

Coherence in an Essay

Use of words showing transition and repetition words.

Transition words: Between the paragraphs, we need words which link them as bridges for moving form one thought to another.

Transition Words	Functions/Uses
First, second, third, finally, in addition, besides, also, furthermore, and, or, nor, moreover	Used to connect and add ideas.
Likewise, for example, similarly, for instance and examples.	They are used before illustrations and examples.
In other words, in short, so, thus, therefore, hence, and so, consequently	These words are used to indicate consequences or a summary.
Because, for, since	They are used to connect a statement with a reason
Nevertheless, still, yet, but, however, on the contrary	These words show a reversal, an exception or a change in direction of the argument.

Repetition words: Sense of coherence between the paragraphs is created also by repeating words to indicate continuity of thoughts. For instance, a word in the last sentence of one paragraph is repeated in the sentence of the next paragraph, so that, while reading, you can move easily from the subject of the first paragraph to the subject of the next.

Example:

“Bad language and four letter words should be banned at work, a business group says.”

“The Institute of Directors, which represents 50,000 executives, wants a ban on everything from stress-induced outbursts to crude jokes because they might offend more sensitive employees.”

The word ‘ban’ connects the ideas expressed in the above two paragraphs.

Thesis Statement in Essay

Usually, the opening paragraph of essay states the theme of the essay. It is expressed at the end of the first paragraph. Sometimes, like in the case of paragraph, the thesis statement is left implied.

Essay topic: Distractions Haze Memory

Thesis statement: Memory loss in older adults owes more to surrounding distractions than to an inability to focus on relevant information.

Guidelines in General

In writing sentences, paragraphs or essays follow the principles of unity, coherence, order, and completeness. Each paragraph should read as a unit of a single well-organized whole essay.

Like a sentence functions in a paragraph - introducer, developer, modulators of context, and terminator, the paragraph in an essay introduces, develops, modulates, and terminates the thought of the essay.

PRéCIS WRITING

A précis (pronounced pray-see/pi. pray-seez; comes from French word ‘Précis’ that literally means ‘precise’) is a brief summary of the essential ideas contained in a large piece of writing. The Oxford Dictionary defines it as “a short version of a speech or a piece of writing that gives the main points or ideas”. It is not just paraphrasing, which merely represents the original text in different and simple words nor is it listing the main points. The basic idea is reproduced in brief form, retaining the mood and tone of the author. It is summarizing that insists on the economy of words and an exact reproduction of the facts with logic, organization, and emphasis of the original material. A précis is useful while dealing with lengthy passages that demand careful attention to the logic and organization of an argument.

The Benefits of Précis Writing

Précis writing is a difficult skill. It develops one's analytical, and critical, reading abilities; together with writing skills of condensing and synthesizing. Students need summarizing to write a synopsis or an abstract, to remember the essential details of a long written material and to gain an insight into the underlying meaning of a text. It assists them to develop the cut of condensing a longer text into a brief summary that tells precisely the essence of the original. At workplace, it is a great help in writing the “executive summary” of a technical report in clear, correct, and concise English.

Qualities of Good Précis

A good précis has the characteristics of the 5Cs, that is, completeness, conciseness, coherence, correctness, and clarity. Completeness: A précis contains all the major points of the original text. Conciseness: It is brief and precise and its length is approximately one-third of the original passage, but one should be very careful not to lose or distort the original meaning. Coherence: (unity of thought)

The ideas and the sentences are well knit and well linked to one another. Presentation of ideas in a précis should not be done through disjointed or unlinked sentences. Correctness: It is grammatically correct with right spellings. Clarity: The ideas are expressed distinctly so that even a reader who does not have enough time to read the original text has no trouble getting the message.

Guidelines for Making the Summary/Précis

Here are some steps that may be followed to write a useful summary:

Step 1

• First read the whole passage carefully to get a general idea of the subject as a whole. Note down the main topic and the author's purpose of writing the passage. The main topic or the central idea, that maybe traced from the first few or the last few lines, can be in the form of a short phrase or a word.

Step 2

• Then re-read paragraph wise to know the supporting. Each paragraph has one key point. That develops the main points an ideas that develop the main point as a cause on result on example of the main idea.
• Keep only, the main idea and the relevant details and leave out all the non-essentials, such as: (a) repetitions, (b) examples and illustrations, (c) anecdotes, stories, etc., (d) adjectives, (e) abbreviations, contractions and slangs, (f) clichés, (g) proverbs, quotations and idiomatic phrases, (h) comparisons, (i) rhetorical and flowery expressions.
• After you have understood the main idea of the paragraph, you should re-write it concisely and clearly in your own words in a single sentence.
• Always give the name of the article/document, the author and the source (whether it is from a magazine, a book, an encyclopaedia, or a technical report, etc.).
• Exhibit unity and coherence by arranging the key sentences in a logical order.
• The same process is followed in summarizing the remaining paragraphs. Thus, the complete précis of the passage will be found by putting together all the sentences you have got for the paragraphs. Combine the key ideas into one or more smooth paragraphs, maintaining the unity of thought. Make sure that you retain the order of the original points in your précis, but sometimes, you may have to change the order for the sake of unity and logicality. However, as the author's view point and attitude are the most important aspects, see that they are conveyed in the right point of view.
• Avoid using the vocabulary used in the original except for certain key words, which you may find necessary.
• Do not refer to the original text or begin with the expressions as “In this article”, “The author says” or “The paragraph means.” Begin as though you were summarizing your own writing.
• A précis is written from the point of view of the author whose work is being summarized. So, you should not use phrases, such as “I think” or “in my opinion”.
• If the text is subjective in nature and the writer has used the first person “I” for himself or herself, it has to be changed into third person he/she, only if the gender is known, otherwise use the term“the author”.
• All the sentences given in the direct speech should be changed into indirect narration and past tense.
• Note that the summary should not contain anything that is not given in the text. You should not make any interpretation nor should give personal opinions or any introduction/conclusion about the original text.
• Capture the tone or feeling of the original, particularly if it is humorous, satirical, aggressive, or moralistic.

When the original narrative is related by one of the actors, it is usual in the précis to re-tell it from the point of view of an onlooker or a reporter. Snatches of dialogue or conversation maybe interspersed in the original, but the whole of the précis should be in the indirect form and written in the third person. E.g., “When Pericles beheld his own armour, he said, ‘Thanks, Fortune ! after all my crosses you give me somewhat to repair myself. This armour was bequeathed to me by my dead father, for whose dear sake I have so loved it, that whithersoever I went I still have kept it by me; and the rough sea that parted it from me, having now become calm, hath given it back again, for which I thank it, for since I have my father's gift again, I think my shipwreck no misfortune.’” (88 words.)

The gist of this extract could be expressed in a précis thus:-

Pericles was relieved to recover his armour, and thanked Providence and the sea for restoring his father's bequest from which he had never before been parted. (26 words.)

• The length of the précis should be around one-third of the original passage. Check the length. If it is more than the limit, edit it. You can also borrow a supporting idea kept in reserve, in case the length is shorter than the limit.
• Review the summary for completeness, clarity, conciseness, coherence, and correctness of grammar, spelling and punctuation.
• Check all important points for irrelevancy.
• Write down the fair draft of the précis of the original text.

Summer Camp for Children

Thirty or forty years ago, there were few summer camps for children. Because even those few were very expensive, only the wealthy could aford to send their sons and daughters to them. Within the past ten years, however, the number of camps has greatly increased. Those privately owned are still too costly for most parents, but the rates charged at many others, such as those operated by churches, by fraternal orders, and by the Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts, are not beyond the average family income. To underprivileged boys and girls, similar recreational facilities are offered free of charge by many civic organizations.

Parents, therefore, not only can but should send their children to a summer retreat, for there is no place of greater benefit to them. Camps provide peaceful living away from the danger, noise, and heat in the city. Good food, clean air, and proper rest make their bodies strong and healthy. Purposeful activities, carefully planned, teach them how to work, play, and live with others. These activities give them a better understanding of right and wrong than they could obtain in any other way. Through the training given in arts, crafs, and sports, children progress mentally and physically. Certainly, then, for the full development of their sons and daughters, Indian parents ought to give them the benefits of a summer in a modern camp.

Precis

All parents, whether rich or poor, can now send their children to one of the many private or free public camps established during the past decade. All children, therefore, should be given the advantages of the social, mental, moral, and physical development provided in safe and healthful modern summer camps.

Strategies for Reducing the Number of Words

Practise economy in the use of words by learning to avoid round about expressions (circumlocutions), pointless repetitions, passive constructions, and prepositional phrases. The following strategies maybe useful for reducing wordiness:

1. Circumlocutions: The most common round-about expressions are those formed by adjectives, adverbs, abstract nouns, prepositions, and conjunctions. For example:

   Adjective: use pleasant for of a pleasing soul, nature or kind character.

   Adverb: use briefly for in a brief manner or way. Considerably for to a considerable extent, or degree, seldom for on few occasions, or cases, often in place of in many cases, on many times.

   Abstract Nouns use Connection, reference, respect, regard for the following expressions with regard to, in reference to, and in respect to.

2. Avoid pointless repetition: For example (i) It continued to rain throughout the last night without stopping, till it was morning. Notice the unnecessary repetition of the same idea of continuous rain till morning. The sentence can be re-written in less words as: Last night, it rained continuously. (ii) Example: It was decided that entries for the musical event should be restricted to club members only and that competitors from outside should not be allowed to participate in it. Cut out the repetition that follows after club members only. It is wrongly believed that repetition makes the expression forceful. There is no loss of force of meaning by writing the sentence precisely as follows, “It was decided that entries for musical event should be restricted to the club members only.”
3. Avoid using passive constructions as they create wordiness. Compare“The child was hit by a car”, with “A car hit the child”.
4. Avoid using too many prepositional phrases, for example, “the dog of Mr. Rams” say “Mr. Ram's Dog”.
5. Use connectors such as—that, unless, and, which, whereas, but, so that, etc., to reduce the number of words and to link ideas. For example,“Te work would be over. It was our hope. Our hope was correct,” can be reduced to “Our hope that the work would finish, was correct”.
6. Use word substitution for achieving conciseness. “She on her own offered her help”, may be replaced by “She volunteered her help”.
7. Learn the art of reducing a clause to a phrase, for example, “The thief confessed that he was guilty”—”Te thief admitted his guilt”.
8. Cut down a list of same category words to a common term—“taps, pipes, bends, joints, and water seal”—can be condensed to “plumbing material”.

Using Words for Phrases

There are many expressions in the English language that are long-winded and could be expressed in a simpler or shorter way. This exercise will help you recognize such expressions, when summarizing.

Reduce the expressions shown without changing the meanings. Use the number of words shown in brackets:

1. in the near future (1)	_______________
2. it appears that (1)	_______________
3. put up with (1)	_______________
4. the same amount of (1)	_______________
5. in modern times (1)	_______________
6. as a result	_______________
7. because of this (1)	_______________
8. always bear in mind (1)	_______________
9. a lot of	_______________
10. at all times (1)	_______________
11. at the beginning of each day (2)	_______________
12. owned by private individuals (2)	_______________
13. equipment should be checked (2)	_______________
14. make a record of all appointments (3)	_______________
15. on the day of the interview (3)	_______________

Give One Word Substitution

Summarizing means saying the same thing, but in not so many words. In these sentences replace the section in italics by providing just one word.

1. When the meeting is over, you must produce the accurate transcript of the main discussions which took place and the decisions made.___________
2. She's not interested in work - only in tennis, swimming, hockey, golf- anything requiring physical activity.___________
3. The next meeting of the Board is coming up soon. I must prepare the list of items to be discussed at the meeting___________
4. The person who greets visitors to an organization must portray a good impression.___________
5. When goods have been purchased, it is usual to send out an itemized statement informing the buyer of the quantity, description and price of the goods which were bought___________
6. We must send out a document to all the customers on our mailing list___________
7. This is a list of all the duties which the employee may be required to perform. (2 words)___________
8. Some job advertisements require applicant's to send a separate schedule showing their education, qualifications, employment history, and other personal details when applying for jobs. (2 words)___________

Substitution and Generalization

Summarizing anything requires the ability to find and remove unimportant details. Choose words which will convey a general impression of a number of particulars.

Consider the following examples:

1. The chairman received the deputation of workers. He listened patiently to a long statement of grievances made by the leader and promised to give careful considerations to the points he empha sised. But they came back with a vague feeling of satisfaction and dissatisfaction and were by no means sure that the chairman meant what he said.

   Précis: The chairman's courteous and sympathetic hearing left the deputation convinced of his sincerity.

2. It does not follow that because a fact has been generally accepted as true, we are under no obligation to find only whether there is any real foundation for it.

   Précis: General belief in a fact does not absolve us from the duty of investigating its truth.

Count the Number of Words

Summary assignments normally state the number of words to be used. This will usually be expressed in one of two ways:

1. Use no more than 160 words

   In this case, do not exceed 160 words. 150-160 will normally be accepted, but anything less than 155 will be penalized.

2. Use approximately 160 words

   Here, 155-165 will not be penalized.

What to Count

When counting the number of words used, do not count the words in the heading or any numbers used in your display. Sub-headings, however, should be included in your word count.

Sample Précis

Ex. 1

All the secretaries in your organization use audio transcription, as the employers prefer not to use shorthand dictation. In informal talks with many secretaries personally, you know there is a considerable amount of frustration because of poor audio dictation technique by their employers. You recently came across the following article in a secretarial magazine, and feel it includes helpful advice for employers on effective audio dictation techniques. You decide to write a Précis, as a checklist for employers to follow when dictating, and to send it to the editor of the staff magazine asking him to consider it for inclusion in the next issue. Use approximately 100 words.

Using dictation machines saves considerable time, as the secretary does not need to be present, thus it leaves the secretary free to deal with her other responsibilities while the boss dictates his correspondence. But how many secretaries out there continually bang your head against the office wall in frustration because the boss has coughed loudly in your ear? Does your boss mumble, talk too loudly occasionally and then almost whisper? How many times have you rewound and listened to an unfamiliar word 20 times and just wished the boss had the sense to spell it out?

Well maybe your boss is an admirable Accountant or a marvellous MD, but good dictation technique requires considerable practice. I hope this advice will be helpful—perhaps you can casually put it on your boss's desk with his coffee in the morning, but don't admit where it came from of course!

Before starting dictation, it is essential to be organized. All the necessary papers should be at hand. Otherwise You'll get frustrated and start scrambling about in the midst of dictation and it will be especially infuriating for your secretary if you forget to switch off the mike during this process!

Interruptions will affect your train of thought during the dictation. So try to time your recording when you know you have some time free and do it in a room which is free from noise.

Once these preparations have been made, You're off. Before starting dictation on each piece of correspondence, do state the exact nature of the document, e.g. ‘short letter’, ‘long report’, etc. Also give an indication of the number of copies which will be required. This type of information is invaluable to your secretary as to the correspondence to be transcribed.

As for the dictation—the microphone is not a lollipop, so don't try to eat it! Hold it two or three inches away from your mouth. If you hold it too close, your speech will be blurred; too far away and you won't be heard at all. Don't mumble into the mike, but try to ensure your speech is clear. And please don't go like a bull at a gate—a secretary will not thank you if you dictate at 50 miles an hour!

When you have dictated the first sentence or so, listen to it again by playing back the recording, so that you can make any necessary adjustments—the sound may be too high or too low, so it's much better to correct it at this point than deafen your secretary later!

If the volume's OK, then go ahead. We all need to pause for thought now and again, so when you find it necessary to do so, or when the phone rings, remember to switch off the mike. Your secretary doesn't want to listen to a few minutes of nothing, or to a conversation with your wife about what's for dinner!

Wherever you can, try to include a mention of new paragraphs, and give clear instructions to your secretary regarding headings and any items which need to be numbered.

Your secretary will also need to clarify things with you every few minutes if you don't spell out personal names, place names, foreign names—anything which she may be unfamiliar with. Numbers too—prices, sums of money, percentages, etc.

When you've successfully reached the end of a document, mark the length of the document on the index slip—this will be a valuable reference tool for your secretary on the size of paper to use for the correspondence.

Finally, make sure you keep any letters, memos, reports, files, and other relevant documents connected with the dictation in a special pile, and pass all this to your secretary with the recording. In this way all the information she needs will be just where she can find it, and she won't need to bother you with queries.

If you follow the above advice, it should save your secretary much frustration—and a happier secretary makes your life easier too, doesn't it?

Happy dictating!

Ex. 2

You have been asked to give a talk on how to hold effective meetings, and the text of your speech is printed below. You have also been asked for a one-page Précis of your speech for inclusion in the seminar booklet which delegates will keep for future reference. Using an appropriate format, make your Précis in not more than 150 words.

Meetings form an essential part of business life and, as managers, our role is to ensure that they are organized and administered efficiently, and that all the paperwork is dealt with correctly. I would like to talk to you today on the various things we have to think about when preparing for meetings, and the documentation involved.

Once it has been agreed that the meeting will take place on a particular day, there are many practical tasks you should attend to. First of all make sure you block the dates and time in your diary. This will, of course, avoid the risk of a clash of appointments at a later date. Then check the venue for the meeting, and if there is a regular room make sure it is available. This maybe the company's own board room, or in the case of a departmental meeting perhaps you will use the managers office. You then need to prepare and circulate the notice of meeting and agenda.

Any additional documents for distribution, such as reports, statistics, etc., should be circulated with the notice and agenda, so that members may become thoroughly familiar with their contents prior to the meeting. Remember also to make additional sets of such documents—isn't it always the case that someone forgets to bring their copies on the day of the meeting, and we end up having to get extra copies for them at the last minute! If you take extra copies to start with, you will avoid this last-minute rush.

In consultation with your Chairman you should then produce a draft of the Chairman's agenda which he may amend as necessary. The Chairman's agenda is a little more detailed than the ordinary members’ agenda. It is for use only by the Chairman, containing extra notes for his own reference in helping him to conduct the business of the meeting efficiently.

So much for the preliminary documentation, what about other matters? If you have a regular caterer, a provisional order should be made for refreshments at this stage, which will be confirmed when the number of participants is known nearer the date.

Any equipment which may be required at the meeting should be arranged, including making sure any visual aids required will be available if necessary. (Does anyone require the overhead projector, spirit pens, video recorder, etc.?)

Place names should be prepared if these are needed to identify the participants at the meeting. Obviously these will not be necessary at a departmental meeting where everyone knows everyone else, but at more formal meetings they may be useful.

Once these provisional arrangements have been attended to, you can more or less relax until the day of the meeting itself. Then you will need to make sure everything is organized as efficiently as possible, using a bit of the foresight we are supposed to develop as manager's. First of all, arrange the meeting room, attending to such things as seating arrangements, water and glasses, writing paper and pencils. Any documents to be used during the meeting should be laid out on the table. Spare copies of the agenda and minutes of the last meeting should be at hand, as well as the official minute book and any other reports which I mentioned earlier. You should also check that any equipment and accessories required are in the right place and in working order. Please see that the presentations are loaded on the “O” drive and the laptop is properly connected. Remember those meetings where in the middle of the meeting, the presenter, wanting to support his point with facts, struggles to locate the file while others exchange glances!

Next reconfirm that refreshments will be served at the appropriate time, and give any last-minute instructions regarding the number of members attending the meeting.

The switchboard and receptionist should also be given a list of participants at the meeting, together with instructions for diverting their calls as necessary. Perhaps a colleague will be called upon to take all calls, or the switchboard operator herself may be required to take messages. Whatever the arrangements, make sure the relevant people know what is required of them.

If you are attending the meeting as secretary, gather your own paperwork together with suitable materials to take down the minutes. Ensure that you have your own and your boss's diaries available to check details of appointments when future dates have to be arranged during the meeting. Finally, place a ’meeting in progress’ notice on the door. This will ensure no one walks in and disturbs the progress of the meeting. I will not mention anything about Minutes here because my colleague will be discussing that with you in detail later in the programme.

Arranging meetings can be a bit of a headache—collating all the reports and material for the meeting, making sure all the documentation is issued at the appropriate time, and all the various other matters which we have to attend to. But, if you think them through logically, step-by-step, and use the summarized checklist which I have included in the seminar booklet, you can ensure that nothing is overlooked.

So whether you are organizing your first meeting or your fiftieth, I wish you success.

REVIEW YOUR LEARNING

1. What is the difference between unity and coherence?
2. What is the relationship between brevity and clarity?
3. Give some important characteristics of effective writing in business.
4. What is “you-attitude” in business writing?
5. Explain the function of tone in making communication truly effective.
6. Define the role of the reader in determining the form and style of business letters.
7. How do we make our writing natural?
8. To what extent does clarity of writing depend on the clarity of thinking?
9. Why should we avoid using jargon and clichés in business letters or memos?
10. Discuss the importance of form and layout of different parts of a business letter.

REFLECT ON YOUR LEARNING

1. Why do most of us find it difficult to convey our thoughts in written form? How can we overcome these difficulties?
2. Do pre-writing thinking and post-writing revising help the writer? Please discuss.
3. “It is simple to be difficult, but very difficult to be simple while writing.” Elucidate.
4. How does extensive reading help in writing effectively?
5. Reflect on the value of short and simple sentences in creating a lucid style.