9

Grammar

AVOIDING SUBSTANDARD LANGUAGE

Language, Tone, and Level of Formality

To ensure that a piece of writing is understood by the target audience, it is essential to use language that is commonly understood. The tone used should also reflect the appropriate level of formality for a particular context.

Standard English

“Standard English” includes the most commonly used and accepted words. It is considered “standard” because it follows the norms laid down by the rules of grammar, sentence construction, punctuation, spelling, paragraph construction, and so on. It is the language used in formal writing, such as books, magazines, newspapers, letters, memos, reports, and other forms of academic writing. For example, ain't, a contraction of “I am not”, “is not” or “has not”, is usually considered unacceptable in written (and also spoken) English. It can, however, appear as slang or in informal writing.

Tone

After determining the purpose and audience of a piece of writing, one has to then choose the appropriate tone in terms of formality. Tone refers to feelings created by words used to communicate a message. The tone of a piece of writing basically depends on the relationship between the writer and those who receive the message. As discussed earlier, communications in an organization can be classified as upward, downward, or horizontal. It requires skill and competence on the part of the writer to use the appropriate tone based on the status of the reader or receiver. It is obvious that something written for one's superiors will have a formal tone, whereas something written for one's peers will be more informal.

 

According to Muriel Harris, “The level of formality is the tone in writing and reflects the attitude of the writer toward the subject and audience”.¹

The tone can be:

• Informal
• Semi-formal
• Strictly formal

Informal Tone   A writer uses an informal tone for social or personal communication and for informal writing. Deviations from standard English change the tone of writing from formal to informal or very formal. The informal tone includes the use of slang, colloquialisms, and regional words. The writer may also include contractions and incomplete sentences. An example of informal tone is: “The guy was damn annoyed because he couldn't get a hang of the mumbo-jumbo.”

• Colloquialisms: Colloquialisms are casual words or phrases used in informal writing. Some examples of colloquialisms are “guy” for a person; “ain't” for am not, is not, or are not; “kids” for children; “hubby” for husband; “flunk” instead of fail; “wannnabe” for an avid fan who tries to emulate the person he or she admires; “whopping” for huge (for example, “a whopping success”).
• Slang: Slang consists of informal words, phrases, or meanings that are not regarded as standard and are often used by a specific profession, class, and so on. Slang words, like colloquial words, are non-conventional. They are used in some special sense, but they exclude jargon and dialect-specific words. If a slang word acquires greater respectability, it moves into the category of colloquialism and may even reach the acceptability of standard English. For instance, “whodunit” is a colloquial word that appears in the critical writing of Northrop Frye, an eminent contemporary critic. It is gradually acquiring acceptability and is used to refer to modern murder mysteries. Some slang words and phrases are shown in Exhibit 9.1.

  Slang	Meaning
  Pot	Marijuana
  Get one's act together	Prepare/properly organize
  Hip	Trendy/stylish
  Pie-eyed	Drunk
  Pig	Derogatory use for a police officer
  Pig out	Eat (food) greedily
  Brass	Money
  Brass tacks	Essential details
  Hype	Extravagant or intensive promotion of a product
  Ad	Advertisement (contraction)

   

  Exhibit 9.1 Examples of Slang

   

  Slang consists of informal words, phrases, or meanings that are not regarded as standard and are often used by a specific profession, class, and so on.

• Regional words: Regional words, as the term suggests, are used primarily in a particular geographic area. The richness of English lies in its openness to words from other areas and countries. Words such as “porch”, “verandah”, “portico”, “gherao”, “hartal”, “bazaar”, “bag”, “sack”, “tote”, or “phone” form part of spoken and written English, sometimes as standard usage.

Words such as hype and ad are gaining wider acceptability among professionals and writers.

Slang and regional words constitute the texture of language and give colour and tone to communication. In the world of business, the main concern is to communicate with sincerity, courtesy, and a sense of mutual respect. The aim is to write or speak in simple and clear English using the language of everyday speech. The aim of business writing is to earn the goodwill of the reader. The writing should sound friendly and cooperative. For this purpose, special care should be taken to create a friendly and pleasant tone in business writing (letters/memos) by avoiding harsh and rude words.

 

Semi-formal Tone The semi-formal tone lies somewhere between informal and academic. It is expressed mostly through standard English and is written according to the accepted rules of grammar, punctuation, sentence construction, and spelling, with a few contractions that add a sense of informality. The following sentence also has a semi-formal tone: “Much to their embarrassment and Mammachi's dismay, Chacko forced the pretty women to sit at the table with him and drink tea.”

 

Strictly Formal Tone The strictly formal tone is scholarly and uses words that are long and not frequently spoken in everyday conversation. The construction of the sentence and paragraph is also academic and literary in its tone.

Positive Language

Business letters and memos should accentuate positive thoughts and expressions while stemming negative ones. Some tips to do so are:

• Avoid using words that underline the negative aspects of the situation.
• Write with a cool frame of mind. Do not write out of anger of excitement.
• Do not allow anger or harshness to creep into the writing.
• Focus on the positive when possible.

The following are examples of how, by substituting positive-sounding words and phrases for negative ones, the general tone (effect/impact) of each sentence can be changed without changing the message.

Negative: We have received your complaint.

Positive: We have received your letter.

(We receive letters. No one can mail a complaint.)

Negative: Your faulty fan motor will be replaced.

Positive: We are sending you a new fan motor with a one-year guarantee.

Negative: The delay in dispatching your order because of our oversight will not be longer than a week.

Positive: Your complete order will reach you by July 24.

To eliminate the accusing and insulting tone of the original sentence, substitute neutral words for words that are insulting or make the reader feel dishonest or unintelligent.

Insulting: Don't allow your carelessness to cause accidents in the blast furnace.

Neutral: Be careful when you are working in the blast furnace.

Insulting: Because you failed to inform the members of the board about the agenda in time, the meeting had to be postponed.

Neutral: The meeting had to be postponed as the board members did not receive the agenda in time.

Remember that negative language regarding the situation is bound to distance the reader. To win the reader's cooperation, one must emphasize solutions instead of criticizing the situation.

You-attitude

In all writing, the author has a point of view. You-attitude is the reader's point of view. In good business writing, especially letters, the author should write from the reader's point of view, by viewing things as readers would. He or she should be able to see and present the situation as the reader would see it. Writers should try to convey an understanding of the reader's position and present the information by visualizing how it will affect the feelings of readers.

 

In the following examples, the focus is shifted from the author's point of view to the reader's point of view by emphasizing the benefits and interests of the reader in the given situation.

Author's emphasis: I congratulate you on successfully completing the task.

Reader's emphasis: Congratulations on successfully completing the task.

Author's emphasis: To reduce office work and save time, we are introducing a new system of registration for you.

Reader's emphasis: To facilitate the registration process, we are changing our system of registration.

Author's emphasis: We are sending out interview calls next Monday.

Receiver's emphasis: You should receive the interview letter by Thursday, August 12.

The change of emphasis in these examples is psychological. By giving importance to the reader's concerns (his or her point of view) and benefits, one can develop a friendly tone.

Some guidelines for reflecting the “you” point of view in business correspondence are:

1. Empathize with the reader. Place yourself in his or her position.
2. Highlight the benefits to the reader in the situation.
3. Adopt a pleasant tone as far as possible.
4. Avoid negative words and images. Do not use words that insult or accuse the reader.
5. Offer helpful suggestions if possible.
6. Use words that are familiar, clear, and natural. Avoid old-fashioned expressions or jargon.

Natural Language

Letters and memos should be written in the language of everyday speech. They should avoid using clichés and hackneyed expressions. Archaic expressions will make the message dull and uninteresting for the reader. Exhibit 9.2 lists some examples of phrases that should be rewritten.

Hackneyed Language	Natural Language
The undersigned	I/We
We beg to advise	We can say
Prior to receipt of	Before we/I received
As per your request	As you requested
Attached herewith	Attached is
Pursuant to	In accordance with
Hoping for the favour of your kind reply	We/I hope to
Yours to hand of 20th	Received your letter of July 20

 

Exhibit 9.2 Old-fashioned Expressions

Consider the naturalness of the following sentence. Do we normally talk like this?

As per your request, we beg to inform you that we have booked a single room for you at our lodge for 4 days from 18 July to 21 July, 2003.

This sentence lacks the spontaneity and liveliness of a natural response. It should be revised as:

As you desired, we have booked a room for you from 18 July to 21 July, 2003.

The message should be brief. The specification of the room, single or double, need not be given here. Simply confirming the dates is sufficient.

 

Active Voice

There are two parts of a sentence—the subject and the predicate. The subject is that about which something is said; the predicate is whatever is said about the subject. In a sentence, the subject is the main focus, the doer of an action. It is frequently positioned at the opening of a sentence.

Choose the active voice to help the reader understand the main message at the very beginning of the sentence. Passive voice is long-drawn because the “to be” form of verb is used with the preposition “by” and is then followed by the doer of the action. In passive voice, the main focus of the sentence, the subject (in the writer's mind), is mentioned at the end of the sentence—by then the reader may become impatient and lose focus. For example, read the following sentences closely:

Active: Packaging often describes the product's look and feel to the buyer.

Passive: The product's look and feel are often described to the buyer by its packaging.

Read both the forms of the sentence together. You will find that the passive sentence reads slowly and moves heavily. It tells you about “packaging” only at the end of the sentence. It first speaks about the product's look and feel. Technically, the two sentences are talking about two different things. The passive-voice sentence tells the reader about a product's look and feel and how they are described for the buyer through packaging. It indirectly talks about packaging. The active-voice sentence speaks more directly about packaging and its functions of describing a product's look and feel to the buyer. The sentence is short and it grips the reader's attention. Readers therefore, usually prefer active voice for its directness, faster pace, and clarity.

Here are a few problems readers often face because of the use of passive voice:

• Passive voice in issuing instructions: Instructions should be clear, direct, and complete because passive voice may confuse the reader. The instruction may omit the “by” preposition phrase and thereby leave the question “who should do it” unclear. The doer of the action is left implied and is not clearly stated.

  Unclear: The strike should be called off. [By whom? Not stated]

  Clear: The strike should be called off by the union.

• Dropping the “by” phrase: Often, the writer attempts to shorten the length of the passive-voice sentence by leaving out the “by” phrase after the verb. This makes it difficult for the reader to understand the full process of the action as the sentence does not Offer complete information.

  Incomplete: To make these allocations, marketing managers use sales response functions that show how sales and profits would be affected.

  Complete: To make these allocations, marketing managers use sales response functions that show how sales and profits would be affected by the amount of money spent in each application.

• Confusing use of dangling modifiers: The reader is often confused by the misplaced modifier in the passive construction. Therefore, avoid this form of passive construction and write in active form.

  Unclear: Besides saving on mailing expenses, a double-digit response will be achieved by a customer database system.

  Clear: Besides saving on mailing expenses, a customer database system will achieve a double-digit response.

Sexist Language

Sexist expressions and ideas should be avoided in business communication. Sexist language consists of words or phrases that show bias against the competence or importance of women. In today's gender-sensitive age, business writing should scrupulously leave out all words that question women's dignity, competence, or status.

 

Often the use of sexist language is unconscious—one may fail to realize that a certain phrase or word is an unfavourable reference to the abilities of women. However, such expressions are not acceptable to modern readers.

Consider the following guidelines to avoid sexist words and phrases:

1. Do not use “he” as a generic pronoun. In the past, it has been customary to refer to people in general, or a group of persons, as male. “He” is grammatically correct, but should be avoided in generic situations, especially job descriptions.

   Sexist: A manager writes to his peers in an informal or semi-formal tone.

   Revised: Managers write to their peers in an informal or semi-formal tone.

   In this example, the number of the subject has been changed from singular to plural, and “their” has been used as the pronoun, thus avoiding any hint of sexism.

2. In job descriptions, do not use words which suggest that all employees are of the same gender.

   Sexist: An experienced professor is needed. He should…

   Revised: An experienced professor is needed. He or she should…

   Or

   An experienced professor is needed. The person should be…

   Sexist: The policeman should listen to the common man's complaints.

   Revised: The police officer should listen to the common man's complaints.

   Sexist: The stewardess explained the safety measures before take-off.

   Revised: The flight attendant explained the safety measures before take-off.

3. Do not use words that lower the dignity and status of women. Also never use slang words to refer to women.

   Sexist: The girls in the central office will endorse these papers.

   Revised: The office assistants in the central office will endorse these papers.

   Sexist: Do bring the little woman (slang for one's wife) to the party.

   Revised: Do bring your spouse to the party.

4. Always refer to women and men in the same way.

   Sexist: Denise Samrat, Dr Ian Campbell, and Dr Philip Kotler were members of the CRM panel.

   Revised: Ms Denise Samrat, Dr Ian Campbell, and Dr Philip Kotler were members of the CRM panel.

   Sexist: Women of this sector were represented by two doctors and one lady lawyer.

   Revised: Women of this sector were represented by two doctors and one lawyer.

Finally, writing business letters clearly and accurately requires that the following points be kept in mind:

• A sentence is the smallest unit of a complete thought.
• Each sentence should have only one thought.
• Sentences and paragraphs should be constructed according to the principles of unity and coherence.

For instance, consider this sentence: “This activity makes no attempt to be a comprehensive test of accurate writing, but Offers a valuable chance for you to test your own skill and identify areas of weakness.” This sentence talks about only one topic—“a test of accurate writing”. Other ideas are related to the main subject.

In contrast, examine the following sentence: “I hasten to inform you that your complete order has been shipped on April 10, the invoice will reach you with the goods.” This sentence is not correctly constructed. It has two separate thoughts, which should be expressed in separate sentences. A better version would be: “I hasten to inform you that your complete order has been shipped on 10 April. The invoice will reach you with the goods.”

ENGLISH USAGE

In this section, we shall discuss some common pitfalls that need to be avoided in order to write correct and complete sentences.

Dangling Modifiers

Incorrect: Expecting a large crowd, extra chairs were provided by the management. (This is a dangling modifier because the modifier does not logically and sensibly refer to the subject of the main clause. It is not the “extra chairs” (subject) that are “expecting a large crowd”.)

Correct: Expecting a large crowd, the management provided extra chairs.

Correct: Since a large crowd was expected, extra chairs were provided by the management.

Vague References of This, That, and Which

Incorrect: He wants to begin immediately and to make his first sale before the end of the year. As a result of this, he will probably become a successful salesman.

Correct: He wants to begin immediately and to make his first sale before the end of the year. As a result of this attitude, he will probably become a successful salesman. (This must not refer to a cause, sentence, or idea; it must refer to one specific word.)

Lack of Parallel Construction

Incorrect: The man liked meeting and to talk to people. (And joins one gerund and one infinitive construction here.)

Correct: The man liked to meet and talk to people. (And joins parallel infinitive constructions here.)

Correct: The man liked meeting and talking to people. (And joins parallel gerund constructions that express ideas of equal importance.)

Note that parallel construction is equally important in the enumeration of points in lists, as shown by the following example:

Incorrect:

1. The company should increase the price of all products.
2. Increase the variety of products.
3. Provide more services.
4. They should review their advertising programme.

Correct:

The company should:

1. increase the price of all products.
2. increase the variety of products.
3. provide more services.
4. review their advertising programme.

Inconsistent Use of Verb Tenses

The verb tense should be consistent within the sentence (as in the example below) and from sentence to sentence within the paragraph.

Incorrect: He usually makes sensible decisions although he frequently changed his mind. (Tense shifts from present tense in the main clause to past tense in the subordinate clause.)

Correct: He usually makes sensible decisions although he frequently changes his mind.

Choosing the Mood

Generally speaking, the imperative mood should be avoided in report writing. The imperative expresses a command or a strong request; a report should suggest or recommend rather than command.

Incorrect: Do this work carefully; you should also do it slowly. (Verb shifts from imperative to indicative mood.)

Correct: You should do this carefully; you should also do it slowly.

Correct: Do this work carefully; also, do it slowly.

Separation of Related Sentence Elements

Incorrect: I, hoping very much to find Mrs Singh at home and to sell her one of our new products, knocked at the door. (Separation of subject, I, and verb, knocked, is not necessary.)

Correct: Hoping very much to find Mrs Singh at home and to sell her one of our new products, I knocked at the door.

Incorrect: I only telephoned those men. (Separation of adverb only and those men, which only modifies, is not necessary.)

Correct: I telephoned only those men.

Lack of Subject-Verb Agreement

Incorrect: The price of the new products were reasonable.

Correct: The price of the new products was reasonable. (A singular verb is used to agree with the singular subject, even though a plural word intervenes.)

Incorrect: The advantage of Product A and Product B are the profits.

Correct: The advantage of Product A and Product B is the profits.

Incorrect: There are a man and some women waiting to see me.

Correct: There is a man and some women waiting to see me. (When a sentence begins with ‘there’, the verb agrees with the subject that immediately follows it.)

Incorrect: Everyone on the top three floors work for one company.

Correct: Everyone on the top three floors works for one company (A singular verb is used to agree with a singular subject, especially when the subject is “everyone” or “each”.)

Incorrect: Only one of the girls who play the sitar came today.

Correct: Only one of the girls who plays the sitar came today. (A singular verb is used to agree with one, the singular word to which the subject who refers. This is important when the subject of the verb is who, which, or that.)

Incorrect: Neither the report nor its appendix were published.

Correct: Neither the report nor its appendix was published. (A singular verb is used to agree with singular subjects joined by or or nor.)

Note that if one subject is singular and one is plural, the verb agrees with the nearest subject. For example, it is correct to say, “Neither the report nor the books were published”. Also, note that the plural subject is kept after or or nor, near the verb.

Lack of Pronoun Agreement

Incorrect: Everyone brought lunch to work.

Correct: Everyone brought his lunch to work. (One must use a singular pronoun to agree with everyone, the singular word to which the pronoun refers.)

Incorrect: He does not usually make those kind of errors.

Correct: He does not usually make that kind of error. (Singular pronoun is used to agree with kind, the singular noun that the pronoun modifies. This is important when this, that, these, or those modify kind or sort.)

Correct: He does not usually make these kinds or errors. (Here, a plural pronoun modifies the plural noun.)

Incorrect: Neither the manager nor his favourite employee could do their work alone.

Correct: Neither the manager nor his favourite employee could do his work alone. (A singular pronoun is used to agree with the singular words, which are joined by nor and to which the pronoun refers.)

If or or nor joins one singular word and one plural word, the pronoun agrees with the one nearest to it. Neither the manager nor the workers were aware of their error.

Confusing Adjectives and Adverbs

The words hard, hardly, late, lately, most, and mostly need to be used carefully. As adjectives, hard, late, and most have two adverb forms, which should be clearly understood.

Hard, when used as an adverb means “strenuously” or “diligently”. It is normally placed after the verb and is an adverb of manner.

I worked hard yesterday. (not hardly)

She worked hard to pass the examination. (not hardly)

Sometimes, for emphasis, hard can be used at the beginning of a sentence. However, this usage is relatively rare.

Hard as she tried, she could not get through.

Hardly, an adverb, means “not much” or “scarcely”. It is an adverb of degree and is used before the verb. If the verb is used with an auxiliary, the adverb is placed between the auxiliary and the next part of the verb.

He sang so softly that the audience could hardly hear him.

He was so shrunken that I hardly recognized him.

This pen has hardly been used.

Hardly had he gone when his wife reached here.

The adverb late means two things:

1. “after the expected time” or “after the time by which something should have happened or been done”.

   Every Sunday morning they wake up late.

   Three times this week he has come to office late.

2. “towards the end of a specified period of time”

Doctors refuse to visit patients late at night.

I called her late in the afternoon.

She did not have a child until quite late in life.

Lately means “recently”.

Have you seen any good movies lately?

Have you met your brother lately?

Most, as an adverb, means “to the greatest extent”.

The thing that I admire most is simplicity. (not mostly)

He who boasts most is often one who does least. Mostly means “for the most part”.

Mostly means “for the most part”.

The lecture mostly covered recent trends in politics.

The paper consisted mostly of old questions.

 

 

Exercise E.1 Usage of Adverbs

Adverbs Ending in-ly

Consider the adverbs formed by adding ly to an adjective: gladly, slowly, foolishly, wisely, nicely.

 

These adverbs are usually adverbs of manner. But, if an adjective itself ends with ly, it cannot normally be changed into an adverb. Such words can act as both adjectives and/or adverbs.

1. Words that act both as adjectives and adverbs, without any modification, include cowardly, daily, early, fortnightly, hourly, surely, nightly, only, weekly, and yearly.

   She has arrived via an early flight. (adjective)

   She has come early. (adverb)

   There is an hourly change of classes. (adjective)

   The classes change hourly. (adverb)

   The Statesman is a daily newspaper. (adjective)

   The Statesman is published daily. (adverb)

2. Words ending in ly that are used only as adjectives include brotherly, fatherly, motherly, friendly, gentlemanly, godly, goodly, homely, likely, lovely, manly, seemly, unseemly, and womanly. These can be changed into adverbs by using a phrase, such as “in a brotherly manner” or “in a lovely fashion”, or “in a manly way”.

   He is a very friendly boss. (adjective)

   She received us in a very friendly manner. (adverb)

Note that the word kind (an adjective) has kindly as its adverb. But, kindly is also an adjective.

My father had a kindly nature. (adjective)

My father always talked to us in a very kindly manner. (adjective)

 

 

Exercise E.2 Words Used as Both Adjectives and Adverbs

Errors in the Use of Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectival complements

1. Study the following sentences:

   The sky became bright. (not brightly)

   This year good apples are rare. (not rarely)

   She got angry. (not angrily)

   The tea became bitter. (not bitterly)

   The job is difficult though it appears easy. (not easily)

   The price seems to be low. (not lowly)

In these sentences, the verbs to be, to seem, to become, and so on (appear, feel, look, grow, turn) need an adjective and not an adverb to act as a complement that qualifies the subject to complete the meaning of the sentence. No adverb is required to modify the verb. Note that when the verbs turn, grow, and appear are used in a different sense, they are followed by an adverb, not an adjective.

The ship appeared suddenly on the horizon.

These plants have grown quickly.

She turned and left unexpectedly.

In these sentences, appear means “come into sight”, grow means “increase in size”, and turn means “move in a particular direction”.

On the other hand, an adjective, not an adverb, is used after verbs, such as feel, sound, taste, and smell, to show a quality experienced by one of the physical senses.

This cloth feels smooth.

These pipes sound nice.

This orange tastes sour.

That rose smells sweet.

 

 

Exercise E.3 Usage of Adverbs and Adjectives

PUNCTUATION

Of all punctuation symbols, the four discussed below are the ones most commonly misused.

The Comma

A comma is used to:

1. Set off main clauses joined by and, but, or, nor, and for.

   The first alternative certainly offered the company many advantages, but the second was probably more economical.

   However, if the clauses are short, the comma separation is unnecessary.

   She bought him a nice shirt but lost it.

2. Separate long introductory elements from the rest of the sentence.

   When all the proposals had been fully investigated and discussed, we were able to make the final decision.

   However, when the introductory element is particularly short, a comma is not required.

   On Friday we were able to make the final decision.

3. Separate words in a series of three or more. The last comma in the series is optional and depends on the writer's preference.

   The controller of accounts, vice-president and president took part in the investigation.

   The last comma in the series may be required in some cases, for clarity.

   The controller of accounts, vice-president and general manager, and the president took part in the investigation. (The second comma in this sentence indicates that one person holds the dual position of vice-president and general manager.)

4. Set off parenthetical expressions from the rest of the sentence.

   A parenthetical expression is one that is inserted into a sentence; therefore, the latter must be grammatically complete without it. Unless it begins or ends a sentence, a parenthetical expression should be set off by two commas.

   Ram, unlike his brother, was a good salesman.

   Sometimes, if the expression does not cause an abrupt interruption, the comma separation is unnecessary (especially with the words also, too, indeed, at least, perhaps, and likewise).

   Ram's personality was indeed more pleasing than his brother's.

   When a parenthetical expression (particularly a lengthy one) causes an abrupt interruption, dashes or parentheses may be used instead of commas. Like the comma, dashes and parentheses must be used in pairs. However, they should be used much less frequently than commas.

   Ram was a good salesman—he sold more than anyone else in the company—and had a pleasing personality. (emphatic.)

   Ram was a good salesman (he sold more than anyone else in the company) and had a pleasing personality. (less emphatic.)

5. Set off non-restrictive elements

   Non-restrictive elements are parenthetical (see iv above) and are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. They must be set off by two commas.

   Ram, who sold more than anyone else in the company, was awarded the salesmen's trophy.

6. Set off a direct quotation from the rest of the sentence.

   The foreman replied, “I have done all I can” and left the room.

   A comma is not used to:

   1. Separate the subject and the verb or the verb and the object.

      Incorrect: The company with the best reputation in this area, was awarded the contract. (subject–verb separation)

      Correct: The company with the best reputation in this area was awarded the contract.

      Incorrect: The company knew last week, that it had been awarded the contract. (verb–object separation)

      Correct: The company knew last week that it had been awarded the contract.

      If words requiring punctuation (see points (d) and (e) above) intervene between the subject and the verb or between the verb and the object, the comma is then necessary.

      ABC Company, which has a good reputation in this area, was awarded the contract.

      (Non-restrictive phrase intervenes between the verb and object.)

      The company knew last week, probably by Wednesday, that it had been awarded the contract. (Non-restrictive phrase intervenes between the verb and the object.)

   2. Join two main clauses unless and, but, or, nor, or for comes between them.

      Incorrect: The salesman displayed his goods, then he talked about the newest product.

      Correct: The salesman displayed his goods. Then he talked about the newest product.

      Correct: The salesman displayed his goods, and then he talked about the newest product.

   3. Separate two words or phrases joined by and, but, or, nor, or for.

      Incorrect: I cannot remember whether the head office is in Calcutta, or in Bombay.

      Correct: I cannot remember whether the head office is in Calcutta or in Bombay.

   4. Separate an adjective from the noun it modifies.

      Incorrect: We should choose an economical, flexible, plan.

      Correct: We should choose an economical, flexible plan.

   5. Separate parentheses from the rest of the sentence.

      Incorrect: Several miscellaneous items are included in the total expense.

      Correct: Several miscellaneous items are included in the total expense.

      Incorrect: Although several miscellaneous items are included in the total expense, they are not important.

      Correct: Although several miscellaneous items are included in the total expense (see Exhibit 1), they are not important. (Second comma is necessary to set off the introductory element.)

The colon

A colon is used to:

1. Introduce a list (often preceded by “the following” or “as follows”).

   The following men were nominated for the top honour: Singh, Jain, Basu, and Jha.

2. Separate two main clauses where the second clause explains the first.

   The purpose of his speech was obvious: he wanted to present a concise outline of company policy.

The Semi-colon

A semi-colon is used to:

1. Separate two main clauses that are not joined by the conjunctions and, but, or, nor or for.

   At this time last year, Mr Singh was the company's general manager; he is now the president. (A full stop could be substituted for the semi-colon, but the latter is preferable when the clauses are short and closely related in thought).

2. Separate two main clauses joined by however, therefore, moreover, consequently, also, furthermore, nevertheless, then, thus, or likewise.

   We thought that Ram would be the new president; however, his brother was chosen instead.

3. Separate two independent clauses when the second clause is preceded by “for example”, “that is”, or “namely”.

   We do not like the attitude of the new manager; that is, we resent his air of superiority.

4. Separate items in a series when the items within the series contain commas.

   We called on Mr Singh, the president; Mr Jain, the vice-president and general manager; Mr Basu, the controller of accounts; and Mr Jha, the secretary.

   We chose these people because they held responsible positions, both within the company and in organizations outside; because they had valuable experience; because they had the ability to work well with others; and because they all had the time for outside work.

   A semi-colon should not be used to separate a main clause from a subordinate clause.

   Incorrect: Mr Singh was named honorary president; because of his long association with the firm.

   Correct: Mr Singh was named honorary president because of his long association with the firm.

Except in cases where it separates items in a series, the semi-colon always separates one main clause from another main clause.

The Apostrophe

The apostrophe is used to show possession in the following instances:

1. For possessive singular nouns, such as “manager's salary” and “man's character” (an s is added to the noun).
2. For possessive plurals of nouns, such as “managers’ salaries” (only the apostrophe is used if the plural form of the word ends in s) and “men's salaries (where an s is added after the apostrophe as the plural does not end in s).
3. For the possessive form of the pronouns one, someone, somebody, everyone, everybody, anyone, anybody, none, and nobody. An example is anyone's, in which an s is added to the pronoun.

   An apostrophe should not be used for the pronouns his, hers, ours, yours, theirs, or whose because they are already possessive.

   Incorrect: It's meaning was clear (“It's” means “it is”)

   Correct: Its meaning was clear

ENRICHING VOCABULARY

Accept, Except. Accept, a verb, means to agree to something, to believe, or to receive. Except means “not including” or “other than”.

Advice, Advise. Advice is a noun, and advise is a verb.

Affect, Effect. Most frequently, affect, which means to influence, is used as a verb, and effect, which means a result is used as a noun.

Ain't. This is a non-standard way of saying “am not”, “has not”, “have not”, and so on.

All Right, Alright. The phrase all right has two words, not one. Alright is an incorrect form.

All Together, Altogether. All together means in a group, and altogether means entirely or totally.

Alot, A lot. Alot is an incorrect form of a lot.

Among, Between. Among is used to refer to three or more nouns and between is used for two nouns.

Amount, Number. Amount is used for things or ideas that are general or abstract and cannot be counted. Number is used for things that can be counted.

Anyone, Any One. Anyone means any person at all. Any one refers to a specific person or things in a group.

As, As If, Like. As is used in a comparison when there is an equality intended; as if is used when a supposed situation is there; and like is used when similarity is intended. Assure, Ensure, Insure. Assure means to declare or promise; ensure means to make safe or certain; and insure means to protect with a contract of insurance.

Awful, Awfully. Awful is an adjective meaning “extremely unpleasant”. Awfully is an adverb used in informal writing to say “very”. It should be avoided in formal writing.

Beside, Besides. Beside is a preposition meaning “at the side of”, “compared with”, or “having nothing to do with”. Besides is a preposition meaning “in addition to” or “other than”.

Breath, Breathe. Breath is a noun, and breathe is a verb.

Choose, Chose. Choose is the present tense of the verb, and chose is the past tense.

Compared to, Compared with. Use compared to to point out similarities between dissimilar items. Use compared with to show similarities and differences between similar items.

Data. This is the plural form of datum. In informal usage, data is used as a singular noun.

Different from, Different than. Different from is always correct, but some writers also use different than when a clause following this phrase. (For example, “This book is different from the others.” and “That is a different outcome than they expected.”)

Farther, Further. While some writers use these words interchangeably, dictionary definitions differentiate between them. Farther is used when actual distance is involved, and further is used to mean “to a greater extent” or “more”.

Fewer, Less. Fewer is used for things that are countable (for example: fewer trains, fewer trees, fewer students). Less is used for ideas, abstractions, or things that are thought of collectively, not separately (for example: less gain, less furniture), and things that are measured by amount not number (for example: less tea, less money).

Good, Well. Good is an adjective and therefore, describes only nouns. Well is an adverb and describes adjectives, other adverbs, and verbs.

Got, Have. Got is the past tense of “get” and should not be used in place of have. Similarly, “got to” should not be used as a substitute for “must”. “Have got to” is an informal substitute for must.

Imply, Infer. Sometimes these two words are used interchangeably. However, imply means to suggest without stating directly. Infer means to reach an opinion from facts or reasoning.

Its, It's. Its is a personal pronoun in the possessive case. It's is a contraction for “it is”.

Kind, Sort. These two forms are singular and should be used with the words “this” or “that”. Their plurals, kinds and sorts should be used with the words “these” or “those”.

Lay, Lie. Lay is a verb that needs an object and should not be used in place of lie, a verb that takes no direct object.

OK, Okay. These can be used interchangeably in informal writing, but should not be used in formal or academic writing.

Such. This is an often overused word in place of “very” or “extremely”. It should be avoided.

Sure. The use of sure as an adverb is informal. In formal writing, the adverb “surely” is used.

That, Which. Use that for essential clauses and which for non-essential clauses.

Their, There, They're. Their is a possessive pronoun; there means “in”, “at”, or “at that place”; they're is the contraction for “they are”.

Theirself, Theirselves. These are incorrect forms that are sometimes used in place of “themselves”.

Use to. This is incorrect; “used to” should be used instead.

Who, Whom. Who is used for the subject case; whom is used for the object case.

Who's, Whose. Who's is a contraction for “who is”; whose is a possessive pronoun.

Your, You're. Your is a possessive pronoun; You're is a contraction for “you are”. (Your feet are cold. You're a great writer.)

Yours, Your's. Yours is the correct possessive form; your's is an incorrect version of “yours”.

IDIOMS AND PROVERBS

Oxford dictionary defines an idiom as a group of words whose implied meaning is different from the meaning of the individual words. We can see that an apple of one's eye is a group of words whose meaning has nothing to do with that of the individual words. Idioms are an indispensable part of English. An idiomatic language is always better equipped to communicate as it lends charm and expression to a routine language. Idioms and phrases are language specific and also vary from culture to culture. However, excessive use of idioms may not be advisable as it makes the language showy and may give an impression that the speaker wants to impress the listener.

FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES

adieu: farewell; good-bye

aide-de-camp: an army officer acting as assistant to a general

aide-mémoire: an aid to memory

à la: after the fashion of. We use it colloquially in such contexts as: “If you think you can dictate to me, à la Hitler, You're very much mistaken!”

à la carte: by the bill of fare, with a stated price for each dish, the customer pays for such dishes as he chooses. See table d’hàte below.

à la mode: in the fashion; fashionable

amour: love; amours, love affairs

amour-propre: self-esteem; conceit

ancien régime: the old order of things

à propos: to the purpose

arrière-pensée: not an After thought, but a mental reservation, a thought not put into words

attaché: a member of the staff of an ambassador. An attaché case is a small leather case

au fait: well acquainted with a matter

au revoir: until we meet again

à votre santé: to your health

beau monde: the people of fashion

belles-lettres: polite literature

bête noire: “black beast”; a bugbear; a pet aversion

bêtise: stupidity; a stupid thing; a silly act

billet-doux: a love-letter

blasé: bored; sick of pleasure

bonhomie: good nature

bon mot: a clever remark

bonne bouche: a tasty morsel; a titbit

bon ton: good taste; good style

bon vivant: one fond of luxury and good food

bon voyage: a good voyage or journey, e.g. “I went down to the docks to wish him bon voyage when he left for the Far East.”

bric-à-brac: odds and ends

café: coffee; a coffee-house or tea-shop; café au lait: coffee with milk; café noir: black coffee (i.e. without milk)

carte blanche: full power; a free hand, e.g. “I gave the builder carte blanche to do whatever repairs he thought necessary.”

chaperon: a married or elderly woman who accompanies a girl on social occasions

chargé d’affaires: an official who acts as deputy to an ambassador; an ambassador at a minor court

chauffeur: a fireman or stoker. In modern usage a driver of a car who is paid for his services

chef-d’æuvre: a masterpiece. Michelangelo's chef-d’æuvre is the painting on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, Rome

chic: literally, a knack (Il a du chic, “He is skilful, a dab hand”), but used today in the sense of “stylish”, e.g.“She wore a chic little hat”,

cliché: hackneyed phrase

comme il faut: as it should be

confrere: a fellow member; a colleague

contretemps: an unfortunate happening

coup de grâce: the finishing stroke; merciful killing, e.g. “The poor creature had broken its back, so I gave it the coup de grâce with a bullet from my rife.” The phrase is used figuratively in such contexts as: “In the third game Mr Jones administered the coup de grâce with the ace of trumps.”

coup d’état: a change of government by sudden and violent means, e.g. “By this swift coup d’état, the army gained control of the whole country.”

crème de la crème: “cream of the cream”; the very best

cuisine: Literarlly “kitchen”, but also used in the sense of the style in which food is cooked or prepared, e.g. “This little restaurant is famous for its cuisine.”

cul-de-sac: “bottom of the bag”; a blind alley, open at one end only

débris (usually without the accent in English). scattered fragments; piles of rubbish, e.g. “The mass of debris resulting from the collision greatly hampered rescue work.”

début: a first appearance, e.g. “Sir John Gielgud made his début at the Old Vic in 1921, when he played the part of the herald in Henry V.” The accent is sometimes omitted in English

déjeuner: breakfast; sometimes also luncheon

demi-monde: “half world”; a class of women on the outskirts of society and of doubtful respectability

dénouement: “unknotting” the final solution of a play, novel, etc., e.g. “In the exciting dénouement, the most unlikely character turns out to be the murderer.” The accent is sometimes omitted in English.

de rigueur: required by etiquette or custom, e.g. “White flannels are de rigueur in cricket and tennis.”

de trop: too much; not wanted; in the way, e.g. “Feeling that I was de trop I quietly withdrew and left the young couple alone in the room.”

Dieu et mon droit: “God and my right”, the motto of Richard I, meaning that he held his right from God alone. Since then, it has been inscribed on the royal standard of English kings and queens.

double entendre: a double meaning; words that can be taken two ways, one of them indelicate or vulgar; the kind of remark that caused the child at the pantomime to ask: “Mummy, what's Daddy laughing at?”

doyen: senior; oldest member, e.g. “With the death of Mr Wallace, the doyen of the association is now Mr Green, who is eighty-six.”

éclair: a finger-shaped puff of pastry filled with cream

élite (or elite): the best people; the crème de la crème

embarras de choix: embarrassment of choice; too many from which to choose

embarras de richesse: embarrassment of wealth; having so much money that one does not know what to do with it

en bloc: in a lump; in bulk; wholesale, e.g. “The ship's cargo was bought en bloc by a trading company as soon as she reached port.”

encore: again, once more; a demand for the repetition of a song, dance, etc., e.g. “After deafening shouts of‘Encore!’ from all parts of the theatre, the final chorus was repeated by the whole company.” Oddly enough, the French themselves do not cry “Encore!” but “Bis!”, which means “Twice!”

en famille: at home; with one's own family, e.g. “After a week of public engagements, he delighted in spending Sunday en famille.”

enfant terrible: a terrible child, one who asks awkward questions at the wrong moment, or repeats remarks he has overheard, e.g.: “What's a wolf in sheep's clothing, Mr Johnson?” “Why do you ask, Tommy?” “Because that's what Dad says you are.”

en masse: in a mass; all together, e.g. “On the approach of the enemy, the inhabitants fled from the city en masse.”

ennui: tedium; boredom

en passant: in passing; by the way

en rapport: in sympathy with

en route: on the way; bound for

entente cordiale: a friendly understanding or agreement

entourage: a retinue; a group of advisers, attendants, friends, etc., e.g. “The crown prince and his entourage went riding in the royal park.”

entrée: right of admittance; freedom of entry; also a dish served between the fish course and the main course at dinner

entre nous: between ourselves, e.g. “I don't think she will make him a good wife, but that's entre nous: Don't tell them I said so!”

esprit de corps: the spirit of loyalty and comradeship among the members of a group, regiment, etc.

etiquette: the rules of behaviour in polite society. Professional etiquette governs the conduct of those in certain walks of life—medical, legal, etc.

fait accompli: an accomplished fact; a thing done and no longer worth making a fuss about

faute de mieux: for want of better

faux pas: a false step; an indiscretion; an error of judgment

fiancé (feminine fiancée): one who is engaged to be married

force majeure: superior force; greater strength, e.g. ‘It's no use reasoning with those people. The only argument they understand is force majeure.’

gourmand. gourmet: The first eats greedily; the second with discrimination

habitué: a frequenter; a regular customer

Honi soit qui mal y pense: This is the Old French for “Shame be to him who thinks evil”. It is the motto of the Order of the Garter

hors de combat: Once translated by an English schoolboy as “war-horse”, this means literally ‘out of the flight’, disabled

hors-d’æuvre: a side dish served as a relish at the beginning of a meal

idée fixe, a fixed idea. one that no persuasion or argument can alter

impasse: a blind alley; a deadlock

laisser-faire: the principle of non-interference, especially by the Government in commercial matters

mal à propos (Anglicized malapropos). out of place; inopportune. See under malapropism

matinée: an afternoon performance, either theatrical or musical

mauvais quart d’heure: “a bad quarter of an hour”; a short but unpleasant experience or interview

mauvais sujet: a worthless fellow; a scoundrel; a black sheep

menu: a bill of fare in a restaurant

messieurs: gentlemen, the plural of monsieur: Used in English in the abbreviated form Messrs (no full stop) when addressing a letter to more than one person, e.g. “Messrs Taylor & Lawson”.

mise en scène: the scenery and general setting of a play. Figuratively, the surroundings of an event

naïve (usually without the diaeresis in English), artless, natural, ingenuous

née: born

négligé (sometimes spelt negligee in English). informal dress; a woman's loose gown

noblesse oblige, meaning that if one is of noble rank, one is obliged to behave accordingly

nom de guerre, literally a “war-name”, but used figuratively for an assumed name under which one follows a calling or profession, e.g. “When George Edward Wade began his long career as a music-hall comedian he adopted George Robey as his nom de guerre.”

nom de plume: a pen name. See under pseudonym

nonpareil: without equal; matchless

outré: exaggerated; extravagant

panache: literally a tuft or plume worn in a helmet; figuratively it means “display; swagger; bounce”

papier mâché: “chewed paper”; paper pulp moulded into shape and used for various purposes, such as egg boxes

par excellence: pre-eminently; above all

parole: a military word meaning a promise not to escape

parvenu: a newcomer; an upstart

pâté de foie gras: a paste or a patty made with the livers of geese fattened for that purpose

patois: dialect

pièce de résistance: the main dish of a meal. It is also used figuratively in such contexts as: “The pike de résistance of the evening was a magnificent firework display.”

pied-à-terre: a temporary lodging

poste restante: till called for

pourboire: “drink money”; a tip

précis: an abstract or summary

protégé: a person under the protection of another

purée: a thick soup made by pressing peas, beans, etc. through a sieve

qui s’ excuse s’ accuse: he who excuses himself accuses himself

qui vive: To be on the qui vive is to keep a sharp look-out

Répondez, s’il vous plaît (abbreviated R.S.V.P.). “Reply, if you please”, printed on invitations to dinners, parties, etc.

résumé: a summary

Revenons à nos moutons: “Let us return to our sheep.” Figuratively, “Let us return to our subject”, said when the conversation has drifted away from the main topic. The quotation is from Patelin, by the French dramatist, Pierre Blanchet (c. 1459-1519)

riposte: a smart retort

roué: a rake; a profligate

sabotage: deliberate damage to railways, factories, machinery, etc. by discontented employees. In World War II it was used extensively to impede the enemy in the occupied countries

sang-froid: “cold blood”; coolness; composure

sauve-qui-peut: “save who can”; “every man for himself”; a general panic; a headlong flight

savoir-faire: tact; knowing the right thing to do; presence of mind

soupçon: suspicion; a taste; a small quantity, e.g. “Pink gin requires only a soupçon of angostura bitters.”

souvenir: a keepsake

table d’hàte: “the host's table”; a set meal served at a set time and at a fixed price, unlike à la carte (see above), where the customer chooses his meal from the menu and pays for each dish

tête-à-tête: “head to head”; a private conversation or interview between two persons, e.g. “I waited outside the office while my wife had a tête-à-tête with the manageress.”

tour de force: a feat of strength; a striking exhibition of power or skill

tout ensemble: “all together”; in costume and the arts, the general effect of anything considered as a whole, without regard to details

trousseau: a bride's outfit of clothing, etc.

voilà tout: that is all

vol-au-vent: “flight on the wind”; a pastry case of light puff paste with a filling of chicken, prawn, lobster, mushroom, etc.

volte-face: a turning round; a change of front in an argument or in politics

Latin Words and Phrases

Hundreds of these are in common use in English. Below is a selected list. Those asterisked are treated more fully under their own headings in the body of the book.

ad hoc: for this

ad infinitum: to infinity; endless

ad libitum: at pleasure

ad nauseam: to a disgusting extent, e.g. “He repeated ad nauseam all the details of his many ailments.”

ad valorem: according to value

a fortiori: all the more; for a still stronger reason

Alma Mater: “the bounteous mother”, a name used by ex-students for their school or university

Anno Domini: the year of our Lord. Abbreviated A.D. (q.v.)

ante meridiem: before noon. Abbreviated a.m., e.g. 10.30 a.m. =half past ten in the morning

bona fides: good faith, sincerity, genuineness, e.g. “Assured of his bona fides, I handed him the keys of the house.”

caveat emptor: let the buyer beware

circa: about. Abbreviated c. (q.v.)

compos mentis: sound mind, e.g. “The lawyer pleaded that his client had not been in compos mentis at the time of the accident.”

contra: against. It is found in words such as contradict (speak against), contravene (come against), also in compound words such as contra-regulations (against regulations), and from it derives counter, e.g. counteract, to act against

cum: with. It is found in place names, e.g. Chorlton-cum-Hardy, and in such combinations as gar-dener-cum-chauffeur, a man who performs the double duties of gardener and chauffeur, and shop-cum-garage, where one can buy a pound of butter or a gallon of petrol

cum grano salis: with a grain of salt, used figuratively in the sense of not entirely believing a thing, e.g. ‘I take all he says cum grano salis.’

de facto: in fact; existing, whether legal or not; the opposite of de jure

Dei gratia: by God's grace

de jure: by right; according to law. For example, a de jure government is one that has legal standing, whilst a de facto government is one that is in control, whether legally or not

Deo volente: God willing. Abbreviated D.V. “I shall see you again next year, D.V”.

deus ex machina: a god from the machine

dramatis personae: a list of the characters in a play, often with the names of the actors taking the parts

Eheu fugaces… labuntur anni: This is a quotation from the Roman poet, Horace. It means “Alas, the fleeting years glide past.” It is our custom to use only the first two words, implying the rest, as if with a shrug of our shoulders

errare est humanum: to err is human

et cetera: and the rest

et sequitur: and the following. Abbreviated et seq.

exempli gratia: for example. Abbreviated e.g. and treated under that heading

exit (plural exeunt): a stage direction meaning “he goes off”. The word is also used as a noun, e.g. “They have their exits and their entrances.”

ex libris: from the library (of); printed at the head of a slip pasted inside the cover of a book and giving the owner's name

ex officio: because of one's office. The chairman of a main committee is an ex-officio member of all sub-committees that may be formed

felo de se: “felon of self”, one who takes his own life, e.g. “The jury returned a verdict of felo de se.”

Festina lente: “Hasten slowly”, a paradox attributed to the Roman emperor Augustus

fidus Achates: a faithful follower

finis: the end, sometimes printed below the text on the last page of a book

flagrante delicto. in the very act. Its literal meaning is “while the crime is blazing”. “A policeman arrived suddenly and caught the thief in flagrante delicto.”

hic jacet: “here lies”, often found on tombstones

ibidem: in the same place

idem est: that is. Abbreviated i.e. (q.v.)

in camera: In Latin camera means “a vault”. The term in camera is a legal one, e.g. “The evidence was heard in camera.” That is to say, it was heard in the private chamber of the judge, not in open court

infra dignitatem: beneath one's dignity. Abbreviated infra dig {q.v.), usually without a full stop

inter alia: among other things, e.g. “This book contains, inter alia, a list of Latin words and phrases.”

lapsus linguae: a slip of the tongue

lapsus memoriae: a slip of memory

laudator temporis acti: one who praises past times—“the good old days”

locum tenens: “holding the place”; a deputy, especially for a clergyman or a doctor. It is often abbreviated, e.g. “Dr Harrison is acting as locum for Dr Brown, who is on holiday.”

magnum opus: great work; the chief production of an artist or a writer. See opus

mater: mother

mea culpa: by my own fault

mens sana in corpore sano: a healthy mind in a healthy body

meum et tuum: mine and thine (yours). We use the term euphemistically in “He doesn't know the difference between meum and tuum”, which is another way of saying that we think he is a thief

mirabile dictu: wonderful to relate, e.g. “Mirabile dictu, the weather was fine.”

modus operandi: a way of working, particularly doing the same thing in the same way every time, e.g. “The house had been entered through a skylight, which the police recognized as the modus operandi of a thief known to be in the neighbourhood.”

multum in parvo: much in little

mutatis mutandis: with any necessary change of detail, e.g. “The new agreement shall be on the same terms, mutatis mutandis, as the existing agreement.”

nemine contradicente: Usually abbreviated nem. con., this means “no one speaking against”, e.g. “Mr Jones's proposal that the clubhouse should be redecorated was carried nem. con.”

ne plus ultra: “not more beyond”; the utmost limit, e.g. “In dress and appearance he was the ne plus ultra of good taste.”

non sequitur: “it does not follow”

nota bene: “note well”. Abbreviated N.B., this is used to draw particular attention to what follows, e.g. “The annual general meeting will be held on 25th October next. N.B. Subscriptions are now due.”

obiit: “he died”. Abbreviated ob., this is used as follows: “Gilbert Harding (ob. 16th Nov. 1960) was the most controversial broadcaster of his day.”

opus: work

pater: father; hence paternoster (our father), the Lord's Prayer in Latin

paterfamilias: head of a family. Generally used facetiously or to end a letter published in a newspaper, e.g. “Dear Sir, Referring to recent correspondence in your columns, my belief is that school terms should be longer and holidays shorter. Yours faithfully, Paterfamilias.”

Peccavi: “I have sinned”

per annum: by the year

per aspera ad astra: “to the stars by rough ways”

per capita: per head, i.e. for each person

per centum: per hundred. Abbreviated per cent or %

per diem: per day

per mensem: per month

per procuriationem: by proxy; by the agency of. Abbreviated per pro or p.p. See per pro under abreviation

post meridiem: after noon. Abbreviated p.m., e.g. 4.15 p.m. - quarter past four in the afternoon

post mortem: after death. A post mortem examination of a body is made to find out the cause of death

post scriptum: written afterwards. See postscript

prima facie: first impression, e.g. “The prima facie evidence suggested that he had met with a fatal accident, but further investigations proved that he had committed suicide.”

pro patria: for one's country. It is to be found in Horace's Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, “It is sweet and glorious to die for one's country”

pro rata: in proportion; proportionately

pro tempore: for the time being. Abbreviated pro tern, it is used in such contexts as: “We hope to move into our new house at the end of the month and are living in a caravan pro tern.”

Quod erat demonstrandum: that which was to be proved. In its abbreviated form Q.E.D. it is used at the end of Euclid's theorems. Q.E.F. (Quod erat faciendum, that which was to be done) is used at the end of his problems

quod vide: which see

rara avis: rare bird. It is used figuratively in such contexts as: “The visitor to this little secluded village is a rara avis indeed.”

sic: thus

sine die: “without a day”; put off until some unspecified date in the future, e.g. “It was considered too early to make a final decision, so the matter was deferred sine die.”

sine qua non: “without which not”; an indispensable condition or qualification; something essential, e.g. “In the art of public speaking, clear diction is a sine qua non.”

sotto voce: in an undertone

status quo: the existing state of affairs; the way things are now. To maintain the status quo is to ensure that things remain unchanged. To restore the status quo is to re-establish a former state of affairs

stet: let it stand

terra fama: “firm earth”; dry land, e.g. “After a rough crossing of the Straits of Dover, we were relieved to be back on terra fama.”

ubique: everywhere. From it derives the adjective ubiquitous, e.g. “All over the world the ubiquitous Englishman is to be found.”

ultima Thule: the utmost limit. Thule was the name given by the Romans to the most northerly country known to them, which may have been Iceland, Norway or the Shetland islands. We use it in such contexts as: “During my convalescence, when walking quickly tired me, my ultima Thule was the tobacconist's at the end of the road.”

ultra vires: beyond one's power or authority, e.g. “The magistrates decided that the local council had acted ultra vires by closing this footpath to the public.”

vade mecum: “go with me”. We use the term for anything we carry about with us because we may need it at any time, particularly a handbook for ready reference, e.g. a tourist's vade mecum, an angler's vade mecum, a typist's vade mecum.

Vae victis: “Woe to the conquered!”

vale (plural valete): farewell. The plural form is often used in school magazines to head a list of those leaving at the end of the term

verbum sapienti: The full phrase is verbum sat sapienti, meaning “a word to the wise is enough”, but we usually omit sat (enough) and abbreviate the rest to Verb. sap. in such contexts as: “Verb. sap.,” he said when she tried to explain. “I can guess the rest.”

versus: against. It is frequently abbreviated v. in sporting fixtures, e.g. England v. Scotland, Man-chester City v. Tottenham Hotspurs, and in legal cases, e.g. Andrews v. Director of Public Prosecutions

via: “way; road”. We use it in the sense of by way of, e.g. “He flew from London to Australia via Singapore.”

via media: sometimes media via, a middle way or road. We use it figuratively with the meaning of “a middle course”, which is safer than venturing too far to one side or the other, e.g. “My doctor recommended me to take a month's holiday. I could not afford to be away so long from my business, so chose the via media and spent a fortnight at the seaside.”

vice: in the place of. A vice-president takes over the duties of the president when the latter is unable to attend. Also vice-admiral, vice-chairman, vice-captain (in cricket, football, etc.) and others. A viceroy is one who rules territory as the deputy of the sovereign. Lord Curzon was Viceroy of India from 1898 to 1905

vice versa: conversely; the other way round, e.g. “After the collision the motorist blamed the driver of the lorry, and vice versa.” That is, they blamed each other

videlicet: “one may see”. It is abbreviated viz and is treated under that heading

Vita brevis, ars longa: “Life is short, art is long”. An alternative version is Ars longa, vita brevis

viva voce: “with the living voice”; oral or orally, e.g. “In the French examination, I passed the written test, but failed in the viva voce because my accent wasn't good enough.”

Some English Idioms

1. A bed of roses:   A comfortable position.
2. A bed of thorns:   An uncomfortable position.
3. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush:   Having something that is certain is much better than taking a risk for more.
4. A bird's eye view:   A brief general view.
5. A blessing in disguise:   Something good that isn't recognized at first.
6. A bolt from the blue:   Any calamity that overtakes somebody suddenly.
7. A chicken-hearted fellow:   A timid person.
8. Achilles heel:   A point of vulnerability.
9. A doubting Thomas:   A skeptic who needs physical or personal evidence to believe something.
10. A drop in the bucket:   A very small part of something.
11. A fair weather friend:   One who betrays in difficulty.
12. A fish out of water:   A person in uncomfortable surroundings.
13. A fool and his money are easily parted:   It is easy for a foolish person to lose his/her money.
14. A hen-pecked husband:   A person servile to his wife.
15. A leopard can't change his spots:   You cannot change what you are.
16. A penny saved is a penny earned:   Saving money little by little.
17. A picture paints a thousand words:   A visual presentation is far more descriptive than words.
18. A piece of cake:   A task that can be accomplished very easily.
19. A red letter day:   An important day.
20. A slap on the wrist:   A very mild punishment.
21. A snake in grass:   A deceitful person.
22. A taste of your own medicine:   When you are ill-treated the same way you ill-treat others.
23. At loggerheads:   Engaged in a head-on dispute.
24. Actions speak louder than words:   It's better to do something in reality than just talk about it.
25. Add fuel to the fire:   To do something to make a bad situation even worse than it is.
26. Against the clock:   To do something fast to finish it before a particular time.
27. All bark and no bite:   Someone is threatening or aggressive but not willing to engage in a flight.
28. All Greek to me:   Meaningless and incomprehensible like someone who cannot read, speak, or understand any of the Greek languages.
29. All in the same boat:   When everyone is facing the same challenges.
30. An axe to grind:   To have a dispute with someone.
31. An apple of someone's eye:   Someone who is cherished above all others.
32. As high as a kite:   Anything that is high up in the sky.
33. At the drop of a hat:   Willing to do something immediately.
34. Back-seat driver:   People who criticize from the sidelines, much like someone giving unwanted advice from the back seat of a vehicle to the driver.
35. Back to square one:   Having to start all over again.
36. Beat a dead horse:   To force an issue that has already ended.
37. Beating about the bush:   Avoiding the main topic. Not speaking directly about the issue.
38. Between a rock and a hard place:   Stuck between two very bad options.
39. Bite off more than you can chew:   To take on a task that is way too big.
40. Bite your tongue:   To avoid talking.
41. Black sheep:   A person who is considered a disgrace to a family.
42. Blood is thicker than water:   The family bond is closer than anything else.
43. Blow one's own horn:   To praise your own abilities and achievements.
44. Blue moon:   A rare event or occurrence.
45. Break the ice:   To remove the tension, hesitation at the first meeting or at the opening of a party, etc.
46. Burn the midnight oil:   To stay awake late at night to work or to study.
47. By hook or by crook:   By whatever means possible, fair or unfair.
48. Carry a torch:   To be infatuated with.
49. Chew someone out:   To scold someone verbally.
50. Chip on his shoulder:   Angry today about something that occurred in the past.
51. Chip off the old block:   People who closely resemble their parents in some way or the other.
52. Clean slate:   To make a new start by clearing records.
53. Cock and bull story:   An unbelievable tale.
54. Crocodile tears:   Pretending to be sad, in an attempt to manipulate the situation.
55. Cross your fingers:   To hope that something happens the way you want it to.
56. Cry over spilt milk:   When you complain about a loss from the past.
57. Cry wolf:   Intentionally raise a false alarm.
58. Curiosity killed the cat:   Being inquisitive can lead you into a dangerous situation.
59. Dark horse:   One who was previously unknown and is now prominent.
60. Devil's advocate:   Someone who takes a position for the sake of argument without believing in that particular side of the argument.
61. Don't count your chickens before they hatch:   Don't rely on something until you are sure of it.
62. Don't put all your eggs in one basket:   Do not put all your resources in one possibility.
63. Drastic times call for drastic measures:   When you are extremely desperate you need to take extremely desperate actions.
64. Draw the line:   To set a limit, as of accepted behaviour.
65. Drink like a fish:   To drink very heavily.
66. Drive someone up the wall:   To irritate and/or annoy very much.
67. Dropping like flies:   A large number of people either falling ill or dying.
68. Every cloud has a silver lining:   Be optimistic, even difficult times will lead to better days.
69. Everything but the kitchen sinks:   Almost everything and anything has been included.
70. Eye for eye:   Revenge.
71. Feather in one's hat:   An accomplishment a person can be proud of.
72. Field day:   An enjoyable day or circumstance.
73. Finding your feet:   To become more comfortable in whatever you are doing.
74. Fixed in your ways:   Not willing to change from your normal way of doing something.
75. Flash in the pan:   Something that looks promising in the beginning but fails to deliver anything in the end.
76. Flesh and blood:   Material of which people are made of, or it can refer to someone's family.
77. Fools’ gold:   A worthless rock that resembles real gold.
78. From pillar to post:   From one place or thing to another.
79. From rags to riches:   To go from being very poor to being very wealthy.
80. Fuddy-duddy:   An old-fashioned and foolish type of person.
81. Get over it:   To move beyond something that is bothering you.
82. Get up on the wrong side of the bed:   Someone who has a horrible day.
83. Give him the slip:   To get away from, to escape.
84. Go down like a lead balloon:   To be received badly by an audience.
85. Go out on a limb:   Put yourself in a tough position to support someone/something.
86. Go the extra mile:   Making extra efforts for the task at hand.
87. Good Samaritan:   Someone who helps others when they are in need with no thought of a reward.
88. Great minds think alike:   Intelligent people think like each other.
89. Green room:   The waiting room, especially for those who are about to go on stage, a TV, or radio.
90. Gut feeling:   A personal intuition that something may not be right.
91. Haste makes waste:   Quickly doing things results in a poor ending.
92. Hat trick:   Three scores made continuously without break in a sport, such as three wickets in cricket or three soccer goals.
93. Have a finger in every pie:   To be involved in a lot of different activities and have influence over them.
94. He lost his head:   Angry and overcome by emotions.
95. Head over heels:   Very excited and/or joyful, especially when in love.
96. Hell in a hand basket:   Deteriorating and headed for complete disaster.
97. Hit below the belt:   An unfair or cruel remark.
98. Hit the books:   To study, especially for a test or exam.
99. Hit the nail on the head:   Do something exactly right or say something exactly right.
100. Hold your horses:   Be patient.
101. Icing on the cake:   Something extra that is added to an already good situation.
102. Idle hands are the devil's tools:   You are more likely to get into trouble if you have nothing to do.
103. If it's not one thing, it's another:   When one thing goes wrong, then another, and another.
104. In the heat of the moment:   Overwhelmed by what is happening in the moment.
105. It takes two to tango:   A two-person conflict where both people are at fault.
106. It's a small world:   You frequently see the same people in different places.
107. It's anyone's call:   A competition where the outcome is difficult to judge or predict.
108. Jack of all trades master of none:   Someone good at many things but, excellent at nothing.
109. Keep an eye on somebody:   You should watch a person carefully.
110. Keep body and soul together:   To earn a sufficient amount of money to keep yourself alive.
111. Keep your chin up:   To remain joyful in a tough situation.
112. Kitty-corner:   Diagonally across, sometimes called Catty-Corner as well.
113. Knee jerk reaction:   A quick and automatic response.
114. Knock on wood:   Knuckle tapping on wood to avoid some bad luck.
115. Know the ropes:   To understand the details.
116. Last but not the least:   An introduction phrase to let the audience know that the last person mentioned is no less important than those introduced before him/her.
117. Lend me your ear:   To politely ask for someone's full attention.
118. Let bygones be bygones:   To forget about a disagreement or argument.
119. Let sleeping dogs lie:   To avoid restarting a conflict.
120. Let the cat out of the bag:   To share a secret that wasn't supposed to be shared.
121. Level-playing field:   A fair competition where no side has an advantage.
122. Like a chicken with its head cut off:   To act in a frenzied manner.
123. Liquor someone up:   To get someone drunk.
124. Loose cannon:   Someone who is unpredictable and can cause damage if not kept in check.
125. Maiden speech:   The first speech made by a person.
126. Make no bones about:   To state a fact so there are no doubts or objections.
127. Mumbo jumbo:   Nonsense or meaningless speech.
128. Nest egg:   Savings set aside for future use.
129. Never bite the hand that feeds you:   Don't hurt anyone who helps you.
130. New kid on the block:   Someone new to the group or area.
131. No dice:   Not to accept a proposition.
132. No room to swing a cat:   An unusually small or confined space.
133. Not playing with a full deck:   Someone who lacks intelligence.
134. Off on the wrong foot:   Getting a bad start on a relationship or task.
135. Off the hook:   No longer have to deal with a tough situation.
136. Off the record:   Something said in confidence that the one speaking doesn't want attributed to him/her.
137. On pins and needles:   Anxious or nervous, especially in anticipation of something.
138. On the fence:   Undecided. /it
139. On the same page:   When multiple people agree on the same thing.
140. Out of the blue:   Something that suddenly and unexpectedly occurs.
141. Out on a limb:   When people put themselves in a risky situation.
142. Out on the town:   To enjoy yourself by going out.
143. Over the top:   Highly excessive.
144. Pass the buck:   Avoid responsibility by giving it to someone else.
145. Pedal to the metal:   To go full speed, especially while driving a vehicle.
146. Peeping Tom:   Someone who observes people in the nude or sexually active people, mainly for his own gratification.
147. Pick up your ears:   To listen very carefully.
148. Pig out:   To eat a lot and eat it quickly.
149. Pipe down:   To shut up or be quiet.
150. Pour oil on troubled waters:   To calm a disturbance.
151. Practice makes perfect:   By constantly practicing, you will become better.
152. Pull the plug:   To stop something. To bring something to an end.
153. Pulling your leg:   Tricking someone as a joke.
154. Put a sock in it:   To tell noisy person or a group to be quiet.
155. Queer the pitch:   Destroy or ruin a plan.
156. Raining cats and dogs:   A very loud and noisy rain storm.
157. Read between the lines:   To pay attention to what is implied in writing or speech.
158. Ring fencing:   To protect a particular sum of money by putting restrictions on its use.
159. Rise and shine:   Time to get out of bed and get ready for work/school.
160. Rome was not built in one day:   If you want something to be completed properly, then it is going to take time.
161. Rule of thumb:   A rough estimate.
162. Run out of steam:   To be completely out of energy.
163. Saved by the bell:   Saved at the last possible moment.
164. Scapegoat:   Someone else who takes the blame.
165. Show your true colours:   To reveal your true intentions, personality or behaviour.
166. Sick as a dog:   To be very sick (with the flu or a cold).
167. Sitting shotgun:   Riding in the front passenger seat of a car.
168. Sixth sense:   Intuition; a special ability to know something without using any of the five senses.
169. Smell a rat:   To detect someone in the group who is betraying others.
170. Smell something fishy:   Detecting something isn't right and there might be a reason for it.
171. Southpaw:   Someone who is left handed.
172. Spitting image:   The exact likeness or kind.
173. Start from scratch:   To do it all over again from the beginning.
174. Strike while the iron is hot:   Act quickly when the opportunity is still available.
175. The ball is in your court:   It is your decision this time.
176. The best of both worlds:   There are two choices and you have them both.
177. The bigger they are the harder they fall:   While the bigger and stronger opponent might be a lot more difficult to beat.
178. The last straw:   When one small burden after another creates an unbearable situation, the last straw is the last small burden that one can take.
179. The whole nine yards:   Everything.
180. Third times a charm:   After no success the first two times, the third try is a lucky one.
181. Tie the knot:   To get married.
182. To be in one's good books:   To be favoured.
183. To build castles in the air:   Imaginary projects.
184. To call a spade a spade:   To be plain and outspoken.
185. To carry the day:   To be victorious.
186. To eat humble pie:   To have to apologize.
187. To pay lip service:   To pretend to be faithful.
188. To steal someone's thunder:   To take the credit for something someone else did.
189. To the backbone:   Thoroughly.
190. Tongue and cheek:   Humour, not to be taken seriously.
191. To nip in the bud:   To put a stop to a thing in the beginning.
192. Turn a blind eye:   Refuse to acknowledge something you know is real or legitimate.
193. Under the weather:   Feeling ill or sick.
194. Up a blind alley:   Going down a course of action that leads to a bad outcome.
195. Use your loaf:   Use your head. Think smart.
196. Variety is the spice of life:   The more experiences you try the more exciting life can be.
197. Wag the dog:   A diversion away from something of greater importance.
198. Water under the bridge:   Anything from the past that isn't significant or important anymore.
199. Wear your heart on your sleeve:   To openly and freely express your emotions.
200. When pigs fly:   Something that will never ever happen.
201. Wild and woolly:   Uncultured and without laws.
202. Wine and dine:   When somebody is treated to an expensive meal.
203. Without a doubt:   For certain.
204. X marks the spot:   A phrase that is said when someone finds something he/she has been looking for.
205. You are what you eat:   To stay healthy you must eat healthy food.
206. You can't judge a book by its cover:   Decisions shouldn't be made primarily on appearance.
207. Your guess is as good as mine:   I have no idea.
208. Young Turk:   An insurgent person trying to take control of a situation.
209. Zero tolerance:   The policy of applying laws very strictly so that people are punished even for mild offences.

Phrasal Verbs

Phrasal verbs are verbal compounds with a grammatical structure of verb + preposition and/or adverbs. They form a fixed group of words with an idiomatic meaning. They are expressions (also known as verbal idioms) whose real meaning cannot be detected from that of the constituent words. Like idioms, phrasal verbs are widely used in English and they make our expression rich and fresh. Phrasal verbs are better suited to informal speech. You would complain about your friend who has not kept his/her promise by saying, “He has backed out at the last moment.” On the other hand if you are a buyer, you would better express the similar idea formally to a supplier who has not supplied the ordered goods by writing, “we are sorry to say that you have not fulfilled your commitment.”

Some Common Phrasal Verbs

1. Abide by:   Respect or obey the law, a decision, a rule
2. Account for:   Explain, give a reason
3. Add up:   Make sense, seem reasonable
4. Agree with:   Have the same opinion as somebody else
5. Allow for:   Take advantage of something (an opportunity)
6. Answer back:   Reply rudely
7. Apply for:   Make a formal request for something (job, permit, loan, etc.)
8. Avail (oneself) of:   Take into consideration, include in a calculation
9. Back away:   Move backwards, in fear or dislike
10. Back down:   Withdraw, concede defeat
11. Blowup:   Explode; be destroyed by an explosion
12. Back up:   Give support or encouragement; make a copy of (file, program, etc.)
13. Black out:   Faint, lose consciousness
14. Block off:   Separate using a barrier
15. Boil down to:   Be summarized as
16. Break down:   Go out of order, cease to function; lose control of ones emotions
17. Break out:   Start suddenly
18. Break into:   Enter by force
19. Bump into:   Meet by accident or unexpectedly
20. Burn out:   Stop (something) working; become exhausted from overworking
21. Butt in (on something):   Interrupt impolitely
22. Call back:   Return a phone call
23. Call off:   Cancel
24. Call on/upon something:   Formally invite or request
25. Calm down:   Become more relaxed, less angry or upset
26. Carry on:   Continue
27. Carry out:   Do something as specified (a plan, an order, a threat); perform or conduct (test, experiment)
28. Check in:   Register at a hotel or airport
29. Check out:   Pay ones bill and leave (a hotel); investigate
30. Clam up:   Refuse to speak
31. Close down:   Stop operating (company, restaurant, cinema)
32. Come across:   Find by chance; appear
33. Come forward:   Present oneself
34. Conk out:   Stop working; stop or fall asleep from exhaustion
35. Come up against:   Be faced with or opposed by
36. Count on:   rely or depend on (for help)
37. Cross out:   Remove by drawing a line through
38. Cut down on:   Reduce in number or size
39. Cut out:   Remove using scissors; stop doing something
40. Deal with:   Handle, take care of (problem, situation)
41. Die down:   Calm down, become less strong
42. Dress up:   Wear elegant clothes; disguise oneself
43. Do without:   Manage without
44. Drag on:   Last longer than expected
45. Draw up:   Write (contract, agreement, document)
46. Drop in:   Visit, usually on the way somewhere
47. Drop out:   Leave school without finishing
48. Drop off:   Deliver someone or something; fall asleep
49. Ease off:   Reduce, become less severe or slow down (pain, trafc, work)
50. Even out:   Eliminate differences of opinion; become level or regular
51. Fall through:   Fail; doesn't happen
52. Figure out:   Understand, find the answer
53. Fill out:   Complete (a form/an application)
54. Find out:   Discover or obtain information
55. Focus on:   Understand; find a solution
56. Figure out:   Concentrate on something
57. Get at:   Imply
58. Get away:   Escape
59. Get back at:   To get revenge on somebody
60. Get in:   Enter
61. Get into (+noun):   Manage to cope or to survive
62. Get off:   Leave (bus, train, plane); remove
63. Get on:   Board (bus, train, plane)
64. Get on with (something):   Continue to do; make progress
65. Get out:   Leave
66. Get on (well) with (somebody):   Have a good relationship with
67. Get out of:   Avoid doing something
68. Get over:   Recover from (illness, disappointment)
69. Give up:   Stop doing something
70. Get rid of:   Eliminate
71. Get together:   Meet each other
72. Get up:   Rise, leave bed
73. Go through:   Experience
74. Grow up:   Spend ones childhood; develop; become an adult
75. Hand in:   Distribute
76. Hand out:   Submit (report, homework)
77. Hang out:   Spend time in a particular place, or with a group of friends
78. Hangup:   End a phone conversation
79. Hit at:   Aim a blow at
80. Hit back:   Retaliate; reply to an attack
81. Hit on/upon:   Find unexpectedly or by inspiration
82. Hold on:   Wait; grip tightly
83. Hurry up:   Be quick, act speedily
84. Iron out:   Resolve by discussion, eliminate diferences
85. Join in:   Participate
86. Join up:   Engage in, become a member of, meet and unite with
87. Jot down:   Take quick notes
88. Keep on:   Continue doing something
89. Keep up with:   Stay at the same level as someone or something
90. Kick off:   Begin, start
91. Leave out:   Omit, not mention
92. Let down:   Disappoint
93. Look after:   Take care of
94. Look ahead:   Tink of the future
95. Look down on:   Consider as inferior
96. Look on:   Be a spectator at an event
97. Look for:   Try to find something
98. Look forward to:   Await or anticipate with pleasure
99. Look up to:   Admire
100. Make fun of:   Laugh at/ make jokes about
101. Make up:   Invent (excuse, story)
102. Mix up:   Mistake one thing or person for another
103. Move in:   Arrive in a new home or office
104. Move out:   Leave your home/office for another one.
105. Nod off:   Fall asleep
106. Note down:   Write something
107. Opt out:   Leave a system or decide not to participate
108. Own up:   Admit or confess something
109. Pass away:   Die
110. Pass out:   Faint
111. Pay back:   Reimburse
112. Put off:   Postpone, arrange at a later date
113. Put on:   Turn on, switch on
114. Put out:   Extinguish
115. Put up:   Accommodate, give somebody a bed
116. Pickup:   Collect somebody
117. Point out:   Indicate/direct attention to something
118. Rely on:   Count on, depend on, trust
119. Rule out:   Eliminate
120. Run away:   Escape from a place or suddenly leave
121. Run into:   Meet by accident or unexpectedly (also:   bump into)
122. Run out of:   Have no more of something.
123. Set off:   Start a journey
124. Set up:   Start a business
125. Shop around:   Compare prices
126. Show off:   Brag or want to be admired
127. Show up:   Appear/arrive
128. Stick up for:   Defend
129. Take after:   Resemble, in appearance or character
130. Take care of:   Look After
131. Take off:   Leave the ground
132. Take on:   Hire or engage staf
133. Tell off:   Reprimand/criticize severely
134. Think over:   Consider
135. Try on:   Wear something to see if it suits or fits
136. Turn down:   Refuse
137. Use up:   Finish a product (so that there's none lef)
138. Vouch for:   Express confidence in, or guarantee something
139. Watch out:   Be careful
140. Wearout:   (1) Become unusable (2) Become very tired
141. Workout:   (1) Do physical exercise (2) Find a solution or calculate something
142. Wipe off:   Clean (board, table)

REVIEW YOUR LEARNING

1. Discuss the characteristics of standard English.
2. Define mood. Give examples.
3. What is meant by positive language. Give some examples of positive and negative expressions.
4. Discuss the effectiveness of active voice in making the main message clear and focused. Give some examples.
5. Explain the phrase ‘Dangling Modifier’. Show how it causes difficulty in understanding the correct meaning of a sentence.
6. What is meant by the rule of concord? Discuss.
7. Differentiate between a clause and sentences of diferent kinds.
8. Which is the most commonly used and misused punctuation mark? Why?

REFLECT ON YOUR LEARNING

In the following sentences, point out the error in simple terms, e.g., meaning not clear, spelling mistake, grammatical error of concord, change of tense, incorrect punctuation mark or any other kind of error. Also, rewrite them correctly.

1. It's important to keep improving your reading skills.
2. He is one of the professors who is teaching g communication.
3. For sale, 2011 Mercedes as new, lovingly maintained 9 by a senior army officer with two litre engine.
4. There is a ten minute interval between each act of the play.
5. She says she was too busy to go to the airport last night.
6. Neither the director nor the deputy director are present.
7. Divided into two sections, the department she teaches the students more effectively.
8. Between you and I, Rita is not as popular as she thinks she is.
9. The chief guests lecture was so long, its actual message was completely lost.
10. Having eaten our lunch, the train departed.