Central Themes

• The environment for organizations can differ across countries in a variety of dimensions, including regulations, institutions, labor force characteristics, and culture.
• Dimensions such as power distance, individualism/collectivism, masculinity/femininity, uncertainty avoidance, short/long‐term orientation, indulgence/restraint, polychromic and monochromic define a culture.
• A multiplicity of subcultures and languages may coexist in the same nation.
• Colors and graphic design vary across nations and regions.
• Global public relations professionals must consider the nuances of a culture to develop strategies and tactics, including messages that capture the attention of and resonate with target host publics.

Introduction

Culture is a complex and multidimensional concept, which makes it hard for organizations to comprehend and control. With national, regional, local, and societal cultures so unique to each place, it becomes challenging for organizations to navigate and communicate with such diverse audiences. Let's look at Grupo Bimbo, a Mexican bakery‐product manufacturing giant (8000 plus products under some 100 umbrella brands) that has actively engaged home stakeholders in Mexico since 1960. The company has more than 125 000, employees who work in 156 plants (75 in the United States, 72 in Latin America, 7 in Spain and Portugal, and 2 in China). In 2009, it bought Weston Foods, making it the biggest baker in the United States. Therefore, US stakeholders are top of the list for this group of companies. Moreover, Grupo Bimbo and its various brands also have a significant presence in Central and South America, Asia, and Europe, which makes it important for them to understand the roles of the cultures and subcultures of their consumers. Many other global organizations like Grupo Bimbo have to compete in global markets and strategically manage stakeholders and the varied cultures across the globe. These organizations need to develop strategies to relate to a dynamic set of stakeholders; navigating cross‐national and cross‐cultural relationships is its own challenge.

The opening case of Zara looks at how the organization faced just such a challenge arising from cultural differences. The rest of the chapter focuses on culture as an important aspect of global public relations practice. It first explains national cultures and how they vary across the globe. It then explains the role of culture in global public relations and its impact on the management function. It also talks about organizational culture and how it is shaped by the national culture. Some key theories and concepts are discussed, in order to better understand the complexities of culture for global public relations practice.

National Culture and Its Implications for Public Relations Practice

Global and multicultural public relations professionals are advised to learn and understand the cultural values and norms of the host publics they aim to engage or are engaging, and to closely monitor rapid or gradual contextual and societal changes that may influence or are influencing the ways people relate to organizations, causes, influencers, and brands. An example from Chinese culture helps to understand the stable and dynamic nature of societal culture. The citizens of the People's Republic of China enthusiastically celebrate Chinese New Year, also known as the Spring Festival, which each year has a different start date, following the lunar month of the Chinese calendar, and lasts for about 23 days. Transnational organizations in this host country develop public relations and marketing communications activities and efforts that resonate with Chinese publics and consumers. The celebration signals the greatest travel season in the country, because it is the time to reunite with family. This is a predictable facet of Chinese culture that is easily observed by foreign organizations, agencies, and professionals.

A national culture rapidly evolves when dramatic contextual changes occur in its society. Between 1986 and 1990, the Chinese established an “open‐door policy” that opened the country to foreign direct investment and launched a market economy and the development of a private sector (BBC 2014). Since then, publics and consumers in China have experienced significant transformations in the way they relate to transnational organizations, emergent media, and brands; they have become cosmopolitan consumers (Economist 2014). Chinese cosmopolitans “know at any given moment what movies are playing in New York and what fashions are on the Paris runways” (Economist 2014, p. 18). As a consequence of economic liberalization, the Chinese middle class has grown dramatically and become global in its taste for luxury brands and outlook. However, critics say that this state of affairs is unlikely to last.

Among the characteristics of the evolving consumer culture in China are a drive to urbanize; an inclination toward expensive goods; a passion for fashion; the holding of foreign brands in high esteem; an interest in the history and cultural background of foreign products (though brand switching is common); an aspirational and conspicuous nature; a heavy reliance on peer reviews, especially recommendations by friends and family (likes and dislikes make and break brands); and a vivid desire for the new, with no taboos (“Doing it their way” 2014). China is also the world's largest e‐commerce market. Here we have an evolving facet of Chinese culture, which shows remarkable similarities with a global consumer class, with more in common across geographical borders than within the nation.

Global public relations are considering cosmopolitanism and its variations as a way of standardizing campaigns without losing sight of unique host differences. Hence, it is not all about brands and products; it is also about causes and issues. Cosmopolitan publics hold similar values on major global concerns, such as health, the environment, education, and freedom.

Another thing unique about each country is its traditions and holidays, which are dear to its core values and identity. The celebration of independence or founding dates, new year festivities, activities around the arrival of a season, and commemorations of the birth or death of a prominent figure dominate national calendars and signal the patriotic character of a nation. Unique traditions and holidays may be found within subcultures, because of the existence of a variety of religious, ethnic, political, and economic realities in a society; this is especially true in larger nations, such as India and Russia. The colors of a national flag may unite a country, but the flavors in foods cooked by an urban or rural group can resonate loudly with its own members. For example, Venezuelans celebrate the country's independence from Spain on July 5. This national celebration involves religious fairs showing devotion to Roman Catholic saints in states and cities across the country. The business, government, and religious sectors coordinate events with unique local undertones. Domestic and transnational businesses with national operations follow the calendar of state fairs to plan actions and activities and to get closer to local publics and consumers through special events and targeted public relations campaigns.

However, the world is also highly interconnected. People and ideas are increasingly crossing national borders. The idea of a cosmopolitan society implies that global ideas are easier to spread, including traditionally national festivities (e.g. Oktoberfest, Halloween, Christmas, Valentine's Day, Mother's Day, etc.), which are now being celebrated across the world, far from their country or region of origin.¹ Agencies and corporations use these cosmopolitan celebrations to communicate and engage in global and local conversations. But what happens inside an organization and how does an organization define its own culture?

Cultural Belief Systems and Their Influence on Organizational Culture

Does culture exist within an organization? What role does culture play in shaping behavior in organizations? These questions have long been important for scholars and professionals in defining what organizational culture is and how or whether it may be influenced.

Organizational culture refers to the beliefs, ideologies, principles, and values shared by the individuals at an organization. Every organization has its own culture, rooted in its practices. Schein (2010, p. 18) defines organizational culture as “a pattern of shared basic assumptions learned by a group as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, which has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way you perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems.” Organizational culture has an effect on how associates think, behave, and succeed. Culture within an organization shapes what employees consider appropriate behavior and how they interact with one another within the organization. Organizations recognize that it is critical to tap into the skills and insights of a diverse workforce in the new global economy and that a good organizational culture has an important role to play in attracting and retaining talent. Culture is a key factor not only in achieving organizational goals, but also in attracting and keeping desirable employees, creating a positive public reputation, and building respectful relationships with stakeholders.

Organizational culture also provides a sense of direction for employees and keeps them motivated and loyal to the organization. It impacts how individuals and teams deal with the work assigned to them, as well as – most importantly – how outside stakeholders perceive the organization. As public relations professionals, you must understand the impact organizational culture can have not only on an organization's employees but also on its reputation among its external stakeholders. An organization's culture defines its identity. The values and beliefs of an organization contribute to its brand personality. Forbes provides a list of the companies that are most enjoyable to work for (Forbes 2014). Twitter, Apple, and Google are some of the consistent top companies that employees recognize for their culture. In 2014, Edelman, one of the biggest global public relations agencies, was also near the top of the list.

Think about some of the biggest transnational corporations (TNCs) and imagine the kinds of organizational culture that might exist in them. What might it be like inside a consumer product company or a technology company, with its diverse employees? Think about a technology company like Apple or Amazon, and then about a consumer product company like Unilever. How do you think the organizational cultures differ among these organizations?

It is interesting to note that organizational culture is not just patterns of behavior, but also jointly held beliefs. Such beliefs represent what the organization is and why it is the way it is. Organizational culture is shaped by and overlaps with other cultures, especially the broader cultures of the societies in which the organization operates. National culture is a major component of the broader “contextual imperative” that constrains organizational culture (Johns 2006). National culture has a powerful influence and is the essence of organizational culture, and of consequent employee behavior. Other factors like leadership style, language, symbols, procedures and routines, hierarchical levels, functional teams, and how various business functions operate can also define an organizational culture (Cameron and Quinn 2006).

TNCs face a unique challenge in establishing and maintaining a unified culture when operating in multiple host cultures. How should leaders strike the right balance between promoting a single organizational culture, while still allowing for the influence of local cultures? The opening case of Zara and the impact of national culture and traditions on the organization is one of many examples of how organizational and national cultures can overlap and interact.

The local and global forces are unique in each region where a transnational organization operates. The organization has to blend in with the local social cultural influences and match them with the shared goals of the organization, while still functioning smoothly as a part of a single, global entity. Transnational organizations must decide how much to localize their organizational culture and related management practices to fit within the host country context and how much instead to strive to maintain consistency or standardization (Bartlett and Ghoshal 2002).

Just like language, words and images can also imply different things and have different cultural impacts. Global and multicultural professionals use words and images to convey key messages to a variety of host publics. This, in cultural studies, is a process of representation, which focuses on the way language, images, and signs represent objects, people, and situations. Hall (1997) explains that representation is a dynamic process in which meanings are created and recreated. Concerning the role of public relations professionals engaged in global practices, Curtin and Gaither (2007, p. 78) state, “Representation is intrinsic in any material they prepare, any document they write, and any activity they undertake; each of these tasks is encoded with cultural meanings and informs a particular discourse.” In other words, professionals use language, associations, and images that will resonate with the host publics and their realities and interests, without losing sight of the intentionality of the stories they tell about their organizations.

Color and graphic design vary across national and regional cultures. Minimalism and simplicity are common themes in Scandinavian graphic design, in which a palette of white and neutral colors in combination with a splash of bright colors dominates. In contrast, warm colors and a combination between primitive and modern imagery are present in African graphic design. The multiplicity of languages and ethnic groups with a complex colonial past impregnate African art expressions with, at times, conflicting views of nature, politics, and society; that is, a visual fusion that is unique, fun, and soulful. For visual communications to capture the attention of and resonate with target publics in host locations, global public relations professionals should consider the unique esthetics in the use of colors and graphic elements when they produce layouts and designs in a given national or regional environment.

Cultural Theories and Concepts

How do you define culture? What are some of the ways you can differentiate one culture from another? Scholars have been trying to answer these questions for years, and have come up with models and theories to contrast cultures along various dimensions. Many of the global public relations and communications management studies on the influence of culture are based on the pioneering cultural work of Geert Hofstede (1984). Hofstede, a Dutch social sociologist, collected data from a large multinational corporation (MNC), IBM, from 40 different countries. Through his empirical data analysis, he concluded, “organizations are cultural‐bounded” (p. 252).

Hofstede's six cultural dimensions have furthered the understanding of individuals, society, and communication. These six dimensions are power distance, individualism/collectivism, masculinity/femininity, uncertainty avoidance, short/long‐term orientation, and indulgence/restraint (Hofstede 2001). These dimensions have been found to relate significantly to public relations practices across the globe. They can be used to better understand cultures and learned norms based on attitudes, values, and beliefs, all of which exist in every nation. A note of caution is necessary here, before we define these cultural dimensions. Cultural dimensions and characteristics can vary within a country where the urban meets the rural, and where the dominant culture meets a variety of subcultures. Here, the need to know your target publics acquires an additional relevance. Further, language is an important force that shapes the way people think and act. Canada's English and French territories and Spain's Catalan, Castilian, and Basque provinces should be treated as subcultures with unique values and histories within a national context.

Cross‐cultural Management and Training

Public relations professionals are increasingly working for transnational organizations and clients and going global. Cross‐cultural competence is a skill that has become essential for managers at transnational organizations and agencies (Hampden‐Turner and Trompenaars 2000). Professionals with an opportunity or desire to experience global and multicultural practices are encouraged to delve into the cultural knowledge and skills they will need to be effective. Training in and acquiring cultural understanding helps professionals improve knowledge of self and manage the stress often caused by cultural differences. Expatriates are selected for foreign assignments based on their technical competence, ability to adapt, and leadership. The most important thing is that professionals first adapt to the host country's culture and operating systems; ideally, they should also learn the host country's language and explore its work and non‐work environments. Training, cross‐cultural briefings, and other pre‐departure preparations reduce the chances of expatriate failure (Khan et al. 2011). These preparation activities should include the expatriate's spouse or partner and other family members.

The process of acquiring cross‐cultural competence is long and demanding, spanning years. Public relations students can learn how to be culturally competent by taking courses with an international perspective, going on study‐abroad programs or taking internships abroad, attending lectures or speaking events with a global focus, and developing friendships with international students or joining international student‐run organizations. Professionals also need continuous preparation in this area, especially those accepting assignments in other countries. They will go through the stages of cultural sensitivity, as elucidated by Shapiro et al. (2008): romantic sojourner, foreign worker, skilled worker, and partner. The final stage is where the professional is so immersed within the culture that he or she is balanced and respectful, yet as enchanted as when he or she was a recent arrival.

Freitag and Stokes (2009) argue (and we would agree) that professionals do not need to leave their hometown to experience an international environment. There are many foreign interests trading and operating in your country for which you might end up working. Professionals may participate in virtual teams working on regional or global campaigns, such as Bacardi International's corporate social responsibility campaign, “Champions Drink Responsibly.” However, seeking and taking advantage of overseas assignments should be a priority if one is to become a total global professional. According to Freitag and Stokes (2009, p. 13), “Practitioners with appropriate cultural preparation will be more likely to seek and accept international assignment opportunities, to perceive their experiences to have been successful and satisfying, to gain additional cultural competence with each assignment, and to reinforce their international assignment seeking behavior.”

Fleisher (2003) also makes recommendations for how professionals can develop cross‐cultural competencies, such as encouraging regular interaction between domestic and foreign employees, allowing domestic employees opportunities to attend meetings and conferences in foreign locales, providing intercultural communication and sensitivity skills training, supporting the acquisition of foreign language skills, streaming news from foreign countries, supporting the taking of “Doing Business In…” courses at nearby universities, and taking part in managerial exchanges with managers from other countries. Once in a foreign assignment, professionals will be benefited by mentoring opportunities across national boundaries. “Having a host‐country mentor had a significant positive effect on the expatriate's organizational knowledge, organizational knowledge sharing, job performance, promotability, and perceptions of teamwork,” explains Carraher et al. (2008). Having a home‐country mentor also has positive effects on organizational knowledge, job performance, and promotability.

Cross‐cultural training (CCT), in all forms (i.e. general and specific – cognitive, affective, behavioral), facilitates all facets of an expatriate's adjustment (Okpara and Kabongo 2011). The objective of CCT is to educate members of one culture to interact and communicate effectively with members of another. It also helps expatriates experience a smooth and quick adjustment to their new responsibilities. The most effective types of training appear to be the experimental ones, especially those focused on the host‐country culture (specific). Not every agency or transnational organization offers CCT; therefore, students and professionals may need to seek out resources and training opportunities. For instance, the Indian city Chennai has a bustling Korean population; over 200 Korean companies and as many as 4000 Koreans operate and live there (BusinessLine 2014). Global Adjustments, a CCT company focusing on integrating foreigners with the Indian community, launched a Korean‐language website to help expatriates and their families engage with the city and connect with the local communities.

The case study on Disneyland Paris is a great example of how national cultures and subcultures impact the practice of public relations.

Conclusion

In the Internet era, perhaps the most salient question to ask is how one can achieve the objectives of global public relations? And how can the international use of social networks facilitate clear connections at the cultural level? It is important to not forget that public relations communications – through technology – is an opportunity, not a threat. Global public relations techniques will continue to expand and develop new methods, multicultural stakeholders will change over time, new stakeholder groups will emerge, and social networks will provide direct communication with audiences around a shared experience. Religion, as an important element of culture, will become more focused and better integrated into society and global public relations activities. As practical services reduce in cost, the demand for public relations services will increase – contributing to an increase in professional specializations, market authority, and valued advisory roles. Most importantly, global public relations will continue to benefit multiculturalism and religion within the global scope of operation.

Discussion Questions

1. 1 How could corporate identity impact the global public relations efforts of a multinational?
2. 2 How could strategic planning anticipate cultural challenges in intercultural communications?
3. 3 How did the French cultural belief system and Disney's corporate identity affect the success of Disneyland Paris?
4. 4 How did Disneyland Paris' public relations efforts outside of France reinforce its several park initiatives?
5. 5 What was Disney's strategy in addressing its lack of cultural sensitivity toward the French?

Class Activity

Ikea was found in 2008 to have consistently chosen Swedish and Norwegian place names to associate with its best furnishings and Danish place names for doormats, rugs, and carpets (O'Mahony 2008). Doormats and rugs such as Köge, Sindal, Roskilde, Bellinge, Strib, Helsingör, and Nivå are all “seventh‐class” citizens in the hierarchical world of Ikea furnishings. Students should consider what they would have done to manage this cultural crisis. They should use Geert Hofstede's cultural dimensions scores to plan their strategy.

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