13.4. INDIVIDUAL CHANGE
Discussed under individual change are cognitive, affective, and behavioral changes. Some R&D organization-related examples are also provided for these types of changes.
13.4.1. Cognitive Change
Individuals often need new ways of thinking or new cognitive skills—for example, how to analyze particular technical problems. In research settings this is particularly common, since new techniques in laboratory work, or new developments in mathematics, or perhaps the scientist's discipline may require learning. Seminars, courses, and workshops are often used for such training. The lecture is one of the main methods of delivering cognitive information, but guided reading, working with a model that can demonstrate the new skills, discussions, doing problems, or presenting seminar papers are also quite effective. One must consider carefully the best mix of such activities, for the particular need.
Given the ubiquity of computers, a particularly useful way is to present information in programmed learning format. For example, a problem situation may be presented, and five possible courses of action may be suggested. The trainee must select one of these courses. After the course is selected the trainee receives feedback, indicating the strengths and weaknesses of the choice. If the most optimal choice was not selected, the trainee is asked to try another of the suggested options and again receives feedback, until the optimal option has been selected, and then the most extensive feedback is offered. This approach can be made to look like a game. For example, if the trainee has selected a bad course of action, the feedback can be provided in an interesting and challenging manner without discouraging the trainee.
A computer does not have to be used. The same programmed learning format can be presented in a book. Even learning how to lead has been put in this format, in the so-called Leader-Match Leadership Training Program (Fiedler et al., 1977). The program teaches managers how to analyze their leadership style and how to change the work environment to match their style. It has been evaluated and found to be useful (improved mine safety and productivity; see Fiedler et al., 1984). This technique was also used to (a) teach managers going overseas to work in other cultures, and (b) learn something about the local customs and behaviors so as to improve their performance abroad (Triandis, 1977, 1994).
The in-basket technique is also useful in cognitive training. A manager is given a case and a series of communications—for example, a letter from a research program sponsor complaining about responsiveness, a request for information regarding an ongoing project, procurement documents, programming documents, information about upcoming meetings and visitors requiring immediate action, personnel documents, and telephone messages. The manager must decide which of the documents must be handled first, and how to deal expeditiously with them. This requires analysis of each item, decisions to delegate some items, and the development of procedures for effective follow-through on all items.
Much of the written communication sent to a manager or principal investigator usually is deposited in the in-basket. Managers who do not respond effectively to this information cause inefficiencies and delays. Organizations also require effective information dissemination, which may require the manager to make phone calls or write letters. Such actions can constitute correct responses to the in-basket training. It is particularly useful to teach managers which of the in-basket items must be handled immediately, which require more information, which can be delegated, and which require setting up follow-through procedures to be checked in the future. A common problem in organizations is that no effective follow-through mechanism exists and some items, while being acted on at different levels of an organization, are simply forgotten (i.e., fall through the cracks). This often causes a burden on the organization and dissatisfaction with the manager's performance. Failure to follow through and respond to action items often increases the manager's own workload. New managers may not realize this, and thus the in-basket is an opportunity to teach them about the importance of follow-through.
The in-basket method has the advantage that it is very similar to the actual work of the manager. So, the training has validity and can be accepted easily by the manager. Experienced managers, who are known for the excellence of their management methods, may be used as instructors.
13.4.2. Affective Change
Changing the way people feel about their particular activities, co-workers, or projects involves attitude change. Chapter 5 presented much information about this subject. One procedure that can be used to change emotions, not discussed so far, is sensitivity training. Sensitivity groups encourage people to provide candid assessments of the way they perceive others. They usually meet for two or three days, or a weekend, and provide an intensive experience. They are popular among those who wish to escape from loneliness and wish to receive warmth and support from others, and are supposed to teach people to tolerate anxiety, understand themselves better, change interpersonal behavior, and resolve conflict. Evaluations of these groups have generally supported the expectation that people will change for the better. Institutions have well-established norms, and people have strong habits, so spending a weekend on this kind of training will not overcome habits that were developed over a long time. To change the norms, one needs to work on groups or even departments rather than individuals and provide training for everyone. Also, the consultants who do lead these workshops are not always well trained. When clients break down in the course of discovering something unpleasant about themselves, workshop leaders are often unable to help them. Thus the casualty rate can be high and the objective benefits are often questionable.
13.4.3. Behavioral Change
Clinicians have developed very effective procedures for changing clients. (Clinician here represents a psychologist, counselor, or psychiatrist, while a client represents a patient) However, these changes require quite a lot of one-on-one work and are quite expensive for organizations. For example, Kanfer (1988) has developed a "self-regulation" approach that begins with the clinician working on the client's motivation to want to change. Next, the client is helped to see that certain settings, stimuli, and people are the causes of the undesirable behaviors. The client has to learn to avoid such situations and thus master a particular technology that keeps the undesirable behaviors at a low probability.
Clients take responsibility for arranging contingencies—that is, placing themselves in situations where the undesirable cues are not present, so the behavior that needs to be suppressed is less likely to occur, and placing themselves in situations that contain the desirable cues, so that the desirable behavior increases in probability. Once the desirable behavior takes place, the clients learn to reward themselves. The clinician helps the client set goals and define the desired responses and the specific rewards to be administered after each goal has been reached. Thus clients learn to monitor their own performance and to compare it to established criteria, as well as to self-administer rewards. Also, the client has to learn to resist temptation—that is, to avoid behaviors that are immediately enjoyable but detrimental in the long run. This requires learning to recall the distant undesirable effect at the moment a behavior is chosen. The amount of time required for an important change using this kind of approach is approximately 40 hours of clinician time. Thus, the cost is in the thousands of dollars. However, if the effectiveness of an important manager is reduced by the undesirable behavior, the organization may well be able to justify such expense.