GLOSSARY

360-degree virtual worlds. Computer-generated scenes or videos that cover a full field of vision accessed through goggles. The viewer can turn completely around and see the scene in all directions.

3-D printing. A variety of processes to print a three-dimensional object, which may range from very small to the size of a house, depending on the size of the 3-D printer being used. Various materials, including plastic, metal, concrete, and biomaterials, can be used to build objects.

A/B testing. A technique to compare two versions of a single variable, such as a choice between two designs of a web page, to determine which version is preferred by a majority of users.

Active beta testing. A software quality improvement program where unfinished programs are released for trial use to a community of people who agree to give feedback to the developers.

Adaptive tutoring system. A software program designed to teach or train that uses artificial intelligence algorithms to change what information or problems are presented to a learner based on their current and past performance.

Affective computing. A computer program that senses and interprets the emotional state of humans and responds with an appropriate simulated emotional reaction.

Affordances. The technologies, features, and conveniences that make a particular product, service, or device usable and more capable than alternatives of accomplishing a specific outcome.

Agile project management. An approach to software development based on collaboration among self-organizing and cross-functional teams and end users. Agile methods include early delivery, rapid feedback, and iterative improvement.

Algorithm. A specification or formula for solving a problem.

Amazon Web Services (AWS). A cloud computing platform offered by Amazon for use by third parties for storage, processing, and hosting of applications.

Ambient intelligence. Aspects of a computing platform that are aware of human presence and respond appropriately without any specific user input or even awareness that the computer program has acted.

Analytics. The detection and interpretation of patterns in data that have meaning for the context in which the data are collected. Organizational analytics refers to data collected in a group setting while learning analytics refers to patterns about individual learners.

Application programming interface (API). Commands, methods, properties, and variables in a computing platform that enable developers to create apps using a common set of features or to extend existing ones. Used to connect two or more programs so they can work together.

Artificial intelligence (AI). A discipline in computer science where traditional programming practices are augmented by creating programming enhancements through “smart” algorithms generated by statistics from large data sets.

Attribution modelling. The rule or process in which something can be attributed or credited to something else for making the final conversion or action possible. Used in marketing to analyze purchasing decisions.

Augmented reality (AR). The integration of digital artifacts—media, text, 3-D models, and more—with the physical world. Often interactive, these systems enhance or augment the user’s reality and provide new layers of information to increase performance.

Autonomic assessment. Monitoring a person’s autonomic nervous system to detect the amount of emotional engagement, stress, or interest in learning activities.

Backcasting. A planning method where a state of success—usually in the somewhat distant future—is used as a goal, and then the ideation process works backward from that spot to create intermediary goals and steps of progress to meet the desired end state.

Badge. A visual element in game design or in the gamification of learning that indicates a specified level of achievement.

Beacon. A small Bluetooth radio transmitter that can send or collect information wirelessly with mobile devices, including smartphones and tablets. Often used to track the movements of customers in a retail environment.

Benefit realization management (BRM). A project management approach where business change managers work to ensure that a change produces the expected benefits for the right people, on time and within budget.

Big data. Large data sets that are used to reveal patterns, trends, or relationships. Big data is used in statistical analysis, but also in things like machine learning and AI.

Binary code. Any two-symbol system used to represent data—including text, computer code, and communications—to any device that can read the code. The binary code in most frequent use is the system of zeros and ones used in most computers today.

Bioelectronics. Use of biological materials and biological architectures for information processing systems and electronic devices. It also refers to the interface between biological and electronic systems.

Biometrics. Computer processing of biological data for the purposes of recognition and identity confirmation.

Blockchain. An encrypted, immutable list of records (also known as a ledger) dependent on having multiple computers sharing the same record to create shared trust to verify the veracity and immutability of the information stored in the encrypted records.

Bots. Short for “robots” or sometimes “chatbots.” Computer programs that perform tasks or automate work through preprogrammed steps or even simple AI. See also chatbots.

Bring your own device (BYOD). A policy companies use to allow employees to use their own personal digital devices (such as smartphones or tablets) to connect to company systems, apps, or other digital communications tools.

CD-ROM (compact disc read-only memory). A pre-pressed optical compact disc that contains data read by a small laser. The read-only memory part of the name refers to the fact that the laser can only read, and cannot write to the disc.

Central processing unit (CPU). The “brains” of a computer system. This is the processor that executes programming code.

Chatbot. A computer program that can carry on a conversation through text or a synthetic voice. Often used for customer service, training, or information acquisition and transmission.

Cloud computing. A model of computer server usage where shared resources not typically owned by the user are leased or managed remotely with no requirement to own or maintain the hardware.

Cognitive services. Cloud-based computer vision, speech, language, translation, and knowledge capabilities offered by subscription from large companies like Microsoft, IBM, and Amazon.

Complex adaptive system. A system in which the individual parts do not give an understanding of the system operating as a whole, but which shows dynamic emergent behavior, often after unpredictable phase transitions.

Computer vision. Robotic vision in which one or more video cameras capture a scene that can be used for navigation or object recognition by robots or people with a visual impairment. It is also an interdisciplinary field studying how computers gain high-level understanding from digital images or videos.

Critical path method (CPM). A project management approach that uses a mathematical algorithm to determine the timeline in which a project should take place, the required resources, and the order of activities that need to be undertaken.

Dashboard. A control panel and display element in software that shows a summary of the state of a system and a summary of data on features of software that are being tracked.

Deep learning. A subset of machine learning where algorithms determine if a prediction is accurate or not. With deep learning it is not necessary to teach a computer if its responses are correct, because it figures this out on its own.

Dependency. A condition or state that requires something else to be in place prior to being able to use it. Also, a state of need where a person requires a thing in order to continue working or producing.

Design thinking. An iterative process based on developing a deep understanding of those for whom products or services are being designed by observing and developing empathy with the target user. It involves ongoing experimentation and trying out different concepts and ideas.

Digital bread crumbs. Indications of activity in an online environment or website through records left behind from user interactions, such as recorded clicks or keystrokes. This term also refers to web navigation, by showing a trail of where users have been in an online environment.

Digital divide. Inequality of access to information and communication technologies or bandwidth usually due to differing socioeconomic levels or other demographic variables.

Digitization. The process of making information available and accessible in a digital format.

Distributed denial of service (DDoS). A coordinated method of attacking a computer system where the network or server is overwhelmed by a wave of requests from many devices or computers.

Domotics. Home automation systems based on digital platforms, networking, and artificial intelligence algorithms to produce “smart homes.” These systems, part of the growing Internet of Things (IoT), will control lighting, temperature, humidity, entertainment systems, access to the home, alarm systems, and appliances.

Drill and practice programs. Programs that encourage the acquisition of knowledge or skill through repetitive practice.

Dual coding. A theory of cognition wherein an idea can be stored or remembered in multiple ways (such as the word representing the item and an image of the same item).

Dual process theory. A belief that there are two kinds of thinking, recently popularized by Nobel laureate Daniel Kahneman in his book Thinking, Fast and Slow, where he distinguishes between intuition and reasoning.

DVD (digital video disc). A digital optical disc developed in 1995 that can be read or written to by a small laser. Also known as a “digital versatile disc” because it can be used for more than just video.

Edge case. A problem or situation that occurs at the extreme of a phenomenon, away from the average or middle. Often the place where innovation begins.

Embodied digital devices. An approach to integrating digital devices with bodies and vice versa. Could include embedding sensors in our bodies to assist in knowing more about them, or integrating our senses and brain functions with IoT devices or other digital processes.

Emerging technologies. New, potentially disruptive technologies still being developed and capable of changing how a specific process or task is completed.

End user development. Methods, techniques, and tools that allow users of software, acting as non-professional software developers, to create, modify, or extend some aspect of the software. Enables users to customize the user interface and functionality of the software.

Ethnography. The study of people and cultures, usually through observation that captures the point of view of the subject being observed.

Extreme project management (XPM). A short, flexible approach to project management that allows you to alter your project plan, budget, and final outcome to fit changing needs.

Facial recognition software. Software that is capable of identifying or verifying a person from a digital image or video frame.

Fall over. Fall over is a plan for system control and recovery in the event of a disaster, such as a fire, earthquake, flood, or infrastructure failure. Automatic fall over is designed to maintain data integrity and application usability using a backup system that can quickly be brought online to minimize or eliminate downtime of a computer system.

Filter bubble. Intellectual isolation caused by algorithms that make assumptions about what a user wants to see and only gives that information to the user. Filter bubbles can cause users to get significantly less contact with contradictory points of view.

Fourth Industrial Revolution. A fusion of technologies that blurs the lines between the physical, digital, and biological spheres. Characterized by rapid breakthroughs of new technologies that in turn become connected to one another through computer networking.

Gamification. The application of game design elements and principles to non-game contexts. Often used for motivation in e-learning.

GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation). A regulation in European Union law on data protection and privacy. It applies to all individuals living in the European Union and the European Economic Area, as well as the export of personal data outside these areas.

GovWin IQ. A service offered by the company Delteck to help companies identify and win government contracts.

GPS (Geographical Positioning System). A U.S. government–owned global satellite-based navigation system operated by the U.S. Air Force. Provides geolocation and time information to a GPS receiver anywhere on earth.

Graphical user interface (GUI). A computer program that lets a person communicate with the computer through the use of symbols, visual metaphors, or pointing devices.

Graphics processing unit (GPU). A highly optimized computer chip originally intended to perform specialized calculations for graphics-intensive applications like games or engineering applications. GPUs are now commonly used for systems with AI components due to their parallel processing capabilities, which allow many calculations to be performed simultaneously.

Heuristics. A trial-and-error approach to problem solving that uses any method that gets you close to your goal, such as a mental shortcut or “rule of thumb” that helps in decision making.

Human–computer interaction (HCI). A field of computer science and design that focuses on the interfaces between people and computers.

Human–machine symbiosis. The integration of humans and machines so that they act together.

IMS Global Learner Information Package (LIP). A digital container of information and identity about a specific learner. A template for the collection of learner information offered by IMS Global.

Information and communications technology (ICT). A term used for technologies based on the convergence and integration of audiovisual devices, telephone networks, computer networks, and middleware.

Information explosion. The rapid exponential increase in the amount of recorded information or data in the world.

Information spillover. The exchange of ideas and information among individuals, organizations, or countries, especially those in close physical proximity or those linked to each other through computer networks.

Infrastructure as a service (IaaS). A form of cloud computing that provides virtualized computing resources over the Internet that act as physical infrastructure.

Innocentive. An open innovation and crowdsourcing platform that allows corporations, government, and nonprofit organizations to use crowdsourcing to solve problems.

Innovative disruption. A form of innovation where a new market, system, or segment is created by disrupting or making an old model obsolete.

Interface. A system of commands or methods, properties, and variables in a computing platform that enables developers to create apps that use a common set of features or extend the existing ones.

Internet. The global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol (IP) to link devices worldwide.

Internet of Everything (IoE). A network that connects people to the Internet of Things (IoT).

Internet of Things (IoT). A network of physical devices, vehicles, appliances, and other objects with embedded electronics and sensors that can be connected to the Internet. It is a network of uniquely addressable objects connected via the standard Internet protocol (IP).

Intertwingled. The condition of virtually everything being connected and mixed together in some way or another. People, places, communications, software, tools, processes, contexts, and more are now all dependent on one another. Intertwingularity is a term coined by Ted Nelson in his self-published books Computer Lib and Dream Machines (1974), to express the complexity of interrelations in human knowledge. Nelson is also the inventor of hypertext.

Lambda server instance. A flexible computing service from Amazon. Lambda executes code only on demand, operating in a SaaS business model.

Laserdisc. The first commercial optical disc storage medium. Each disk was 12 inches in diameter and made of two single-sided aluminum discs layered in plastic. It was used to store analog audio and video.

Lean methodologies. The aim of the Lean approach is to create an enterprise that minimizes cost overruns and waste.

Learning. The process of acquiring knowledge, skills, or behaviors by interaction between a person and their environment. Can be the result of habituation, play, traumatic events, imitation, or direct instruction.

Learning content management system (LCMS). A server application used to create, manage, host, and track digital learning content.

Learning management system (LMS). A server application used to track learner data such as course enrollment, assessment data, and e-learning completion information.

Learning record store (LRS). A server application that stores and reports on learning data produced by xAPI activity providers, such as xAPI-enabled apps, courses, and LMS interactions.

Liquid enterprise. A flexible and responsive organization that is able to change rapidly to meet new operating and market conditions.

Livecasting. The process of broadcasting real-time live video footage or a video feed to an audience.

Machine learning. A subset of artificial intelligence where statistics and probability are used to tune an algorithm that a computer program can use in its decision-making processes.

Mainframe computer. A large computer usually enclosed in a set of giant cabinets called “main frames” and housed in a climate-controlled room. Also known as “big iron” within the computer industry.

Mashup. A web page or application that integrates elements from two or more online sources. A content mashup brings together material from two or more websites and presents it in a single webpage or other user experience, such as an app.

Massive open online course (MOOC). An open-access online web-based course with no limits on the number of participants. Many MOOCs have community participation features.

Meta-design. Literally, designing design. Meta-design is the creation and establishment of frameworks for designing a host of things, from processes and tools to conceptual models used to create, sustain, and advance existing systems.

Microlearning. A way of teaching and delivering content to learners in small chunks through online devices based on an immediate need for learning.

Mimetic learning. Learning by imitation or memorization of what is mandated to learn.

Mirai botnet. Malware that was used to mount a massive distributed denial of service (DDoS) attack on many websites on October 12, 2016.

Mixed reality. The merging of elements of both real and virtual worlds to produce new environments. A form of augmented reality.

Mobile device management (MDM). A software service that enables provisioning and governance of a mobile device to place it under organizational control. Typically used to maintain and secure company-provided mobile devices.

Mobile learning. A person learning while on the move or being able to move while learning. It is asking for and receiving information just-in-time, from any place, at the moment a person needs or wants it.

Multivariate A/B testing. A/B testing analyzed using multivariate statistics.

Nanotechnology. Manufacture and use of technology at an extremely small scale.

Natural language processing (NLP). A branch of artificial intelligence that helps computers understand, interpret, and manipulate human language.

Neuro-electronics. A field of science that works on connecting brains and computers. Projects range from producing robotic limbs controlled directly by brain activity to altering memory and mood with implanted electrodes.

Nomophobia. Also known as no-mobile-phone-phobia, this is the fear or anxiety of not having one’s mobile phone or the fear of not being connected to information and to other people if one’s mobile phone is switched off.

Nudging. Setting up a choice architecture or arranging an environment to influence people’s behavior in a predictable and desirable way.

Open learning resources. Freely accessible, openly licensed text, media, and other online assets that are useful for learning.

Optical character recognition (OCR). A function of computer vision where printed text is converted to digital text to be processed or understood by other computer programs.

Peer network. A network of people with equal status without central management or control by experts.

Performance support. The delivery of appropriate information meant to help employees with on-the-job support at the precise moment it is needed.

Personalization of learning. Instruction in which the pace and specific instructional materials used are optimized for the needs of each learner.

Platform as a service (PaaS). A category of cloud computing services that allows customers to develop, run, and manage applications without maintaining their own infrastructure.

PLATO Learning System. The first computer-assisted instruction or e-learning system in the world. It was developed on a mainframe computer at the University of Illinois in 1960 and eventually supported several thousand terminals around the world.

Podcasts. Audio programs delivered online, and playable on mobile and desktop computers.

Program evaluation and review technique (PERT). A statistical tool used in project management, designed to analyze the tasks involved in completing a project.

Prototype. An incomplete and often rudimentary version of a software program that is being developed, which may simulate only a few features of the proposed final product. It is used to elicit feedback from clients and potential users as a program is being developed and to see if the software is being developed according to specifications agreed upon between the developers and the client.

Punctuated equilibrium. A concept from evolutionary biology where bursts of change and abrupt speciation are interjected between relatively stable periods of stasis.

Quantified self. The results of self-tracking using digital wearable devices.

Quantum computing. A form of computing that uses quantum mechanical characteristics such as superposition and entanglement in its calculations. Development of quantum computers is just starting out, but the potential to disrupt how computing works and the potential increase in computing speed and power is huge.

Rating inflation. An increase in the value of a rating over time so that anything less than the top value is seen as a rebuke or negative rating.

Recombinant innovation. The combination of existing ideas or affordances to produce new innovations.

Remixing. The act of altering a piece of media from its original state by adding, removing, or changing elements.

RFID (radio frequency identification device). A technology that uses embedded sensors or small chips to aid in identifying or tracking items.

Robotics. A branch of engineering concerned with creating automated machines and software agents.

SBIR and STTR trackers. Software that tracks two U.S. government business seed funding programs: the Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) program, and the Small Business Technology Transfer (STTR) program.

Scaffolding. Clues, wayfinding, or other stepped instructions that allow learners to work within their zone of proximal development (ZPD) to achieve things that they otherwise might not be able to learn by themselves.

Sensor. A device, module, or subsystem to detect events or changes in the environment and send the information to another computer system for processing.

Situated learning. A theory that there is a connection between learning and the social situation in which it occurs. In situated learning, new learners go through a cognitive apprenticeship via legitimate peripheral participation in a social group as they move toward becoming part of a community of practice.

Six Sigma. A quality-control program developed in 1986 by Motorola. Since that time, Six Sigma has evolved into a more general business management methodology of eliminating variation in a product.

Skeuomorphism. The use of design cues to increase the perceived realism of a digital item by making it appear or behave like its physical counterpart.

Skunkworks. A secret or hidden research and development team focused on innovation and new product or service design and development. Often found in a separate location from the main enterprise.

Smart dust. A network of small sensors, chips, robots, or other IoT devices used to create a localized cloud of information to be processed by other larger systems.

Socio-technical system (STS). The intersection of social structures and technology that creates the modern world we live in.

Software as a service (SaaS). A software licensing and subscription model where software is centrally hosted and delivered as a service. The software is then updated and maintained by the hosting company.

Sousveillance. Use of a mobile device to monitor and record the actions of authorities in power—the reverse action to surveillance.

Speech to text. A subset of artificial intelligence and computer algorithms concerned with processing speech and transforming it into written text.

Switching costs. Amount of time and money that may need to be spent changing from one service to another.

Tango. An augmented reality computing platform that was developed and authored by the Advanced Technology and Projects (ATAP) group, a division of Google.

Text to speech. A subset of artificial intelligence and computer algorithms concerned with processing written text and transforming it into speech.

Tensor processing unit (TPU). A specialized GPU product from Google, which was made to process and deliver machine learning models and artificial intelligence–based algorithms rapidly and at a low cost using a cloud computing approach.

Uncanny Valley. The uneasy feeling that occurs as humans interact with a system, robot, or other technology that exhibits human-like characteristics. The valley is actually the dip in affinity felt for the system due to the fact that it is unable to successfully replicate human qualities.

Use case analysis. A technique used to identify the requirements of a software system by identifying the actors and processes that will be considered in designing the system. The results are often placed in a use case diagram.

User-centered design. A creative approach to problem solving that starts with finding the needs of the people for whom you are designing. User experience (UX). The attributes and emotional response of a person’s interactions with a computer system. Essentially the “feel” in the “look and feel” of the system.

User interface (UI). The space where interactions between a person and a computer occur, in order to control the computer and provide feedback to the person operating the computer.

Vaporware. Software that doesn’t yet exist but may be hyped and sold as if it does. Often has a negative connotation, as if the software will never be released or will fall short of expectations.

Virtual reality (VR). A computer program that simulates a real or imaginary physical environment with audio, video, and, perhaps, haptic features, often in 3-D, using a set of goggles or wearable items such as VR gloves or suits.

Wearables. Smart electronic devices incorporated into clothing, jewelry, watches, activity trackers, rings, or other accessories, as well as body implants.

White-label. A version of an application or service that can be easily customized or configured to reflect an organization’s branding and specific communication needs.

xAPI. Also known as the Experience API or Tin Can API, xAPI is a new specification for recording events and achievements related to a person’s learning experiences, both online and offline. xAPI collects data about a person’s activities from many sources, including self-reporting.